Saudi Arabia

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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

al-Mamlakah al-Arabiyyah as-Sudiyyah

Flag

Emblem

Motto: " "

"L ilha ill l-lh, Muammadun raslu l-lh"
"There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God." (Shahada)[1]

Anthem: "as-Salm al-Malakiyy"

"Long live the King"

Capital

Riyadh

(and largest city)

Official language(s)

Demonym

2439N 4646E

Arabic[2]

Saudi Arabian, Saudi (informal)

Government

Unitary Islamic
absolute monarchy

King

Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz

Crown Prince

Salman bin Abdul Aziz

Legislature

None legislation byking's decree.[a]

Establishment

Kingdom founded

23 September 1932[3]

Area

2,250,000 km2 (12th)

Total

870,000 sq mi

Water (%)

0.7

Population

2010 estimate

28,376,355[4] (42th)

Density

12/km2 (216th)
31/sq mi

GDP (PPP)

2012 estimate

Total

$733.143 billion[5]

Per capita

$25,465.97[5]

GDP (nominal)

2012 estimate

Total

$651.652 billion[5]

Per capita

$22,635.35[5]

0.770[6] (high) (56th)

HDI (2011)

Currency

Saudi riyal (SR) (

SAR)

Time zone

Summer (DST)

AST (UTC+3)

(not observed) (UTC+3)

Drives on the

Right

ISO 3166 code

SA

Internet TLD

.sa,

Calling code

+966

a.^ Consultative Assembly exists only with an advisory role to the king.

Saudi Arabia ( /sadi rebi./ or

i

/sdi rebi./; Arabic: as-Sudiyyah or as-

Sadiyyah), officially known as theKingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: alMamlakah al-Arabiyyah as-Sudiyyah

Arabic pronunciation (helpinfo)), is the largest Arab state in

Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in
the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the north and
northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirateson the east, Oman on the southeast,
and Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia
has an area of approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated population of 27
million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal
immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.[7]
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn
Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902
when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as Al
Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which has been an absolute monarchysince its inception, refers to
its system of government as being Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis
inWahhabism and Salafism, which are minority schools of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes
called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid
al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
Saudi Arabia has the world's second largest oil reserves which are concentrated largely in the Eastern
Province.[8][9] and oil accounts for more than 95% of exports and 70% of government revenue. This
facilitates the creation of a welfare state[10] although the share of the non-oil economy is growing recently. It
has also the world's sixth largest natural gas reserves.
Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology

2 History

2.1 From the earliest times to the foundation of Saudi Arabia

2.2 From the foundation of the State to the present

3 Politics

3.1 Monarchy and royal family

3.2 Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema

3.3 Political process and opposition

3.4 Law and human rights

3.5 Foreign relations

3.6 Military

4 Geography

5 Administrative divisions

6 Economy

7 Demographics

7.1 Largest cities

7.2 Population and language

7.3 Social issues

7.4 Religion

7.5 Women in Saudi society

7.6 Education

8 Culture

8.1 Islamic heritage sites

8.2 Dress

8.3 Entertainment, the arts, sport and cuisine

9 See also

10 References

11 Further reading

12 External links

[edit]Etymology

Following the unification of the Kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd, the new state was named al-Mamlakah alArabyah as-Sudyah (a transliteration of in Arabic) by royal decree on 23
September 1932 by its founder, King Abdul Aziz Al Saud. This is normally translated as "the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia" in English,[11] although it literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom".[12]
The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Sudyah in the Arabic name of the country, which is a
type of adjective known as anisba, formed from the dynastic name of Al Saud () . Its inclusion
indicated that the country's ruler viewed it as the personal possession of the royal family.[13][14] Al Saud is
an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of",[15]to the personal name of
an ancestor. In the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynasty's 18th century founder, Muhammad
bin Saud (Muhammad, son of Saud).[16] For the etymology of Arabia, see Arabian Peninsula and Arab
(etymology).
[edit]History

Main article: History of Saudi Arabia

[edit]From

the earliest times to the foundation of Saudi Arabia

See also: Unification of Saudi Arabia

The Ottoman Empire in 1914, including nominal and vassal Ottoman territories the position in Arabia had largely been the same for the previous 400 years

Apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca and Medina, located in
the Hejaz in the west of the Arabian Peninsula, most of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated
by nomadic tribal societies in the inhospitable desert. [17] The Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, was born
in Mecca in about 571. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and
created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly expanded the
territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering huge swathes of territory (from the Iberian
Peninsula in west to modern day Pakistan in east) in a matter of decades. In so doing, Arabia soon became
a politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the more developed conquered
lands.[18] From the 10th century to the early 20th century Mecca and Medina were under the control of a
local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of
one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what
became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[19][20]
In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Hasa)
to their Empire and claimedsuzerainty over the interior. The degree of control over these lands varied over
the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority. [21][22] The
emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Nejd in central
Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious
leaderMuhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab,[23] founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of
Sunni Islam.[24] This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi
expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.[25] The first 'Saudi State' established
in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory
of Saudi Arabia,[26] but was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha.[27] A
much smaller second Saudi state, located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of
the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with
another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were
driven into exile.[19]

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have suzerainty (albeit
nominal) over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal
rulers[28][29] (including the House of Saud who had returned from exile in 1902 [19]) with the Sharif of
Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling theHejaz.[30] In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain
(which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab
revoltagainst the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.[31] Although the Arab Revolt of 1916 to
1918 failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and
control in Arabia.[32]

Arabia about 1923. Expandable map: Abdul Aziz's domain is in blue with dates of conquest. The Kingdom of Hejaz, conquered in 1925, is in light green. (The other Hashemitekingdoms
of Iraq and Transjordan are also in shades of green)

In 1902, Abdul-Aziz bin Saud, leader of the House of Saud, had seized Riyadh in Nejd from the Al Rashid
the first of a series of conquests ultimately leading to the creation of the modern state of Saudi Arabia in
1932.[19] The main weapon for achieving these conquests was the Ikhwan, the Wahhabist-Bedouin tribal
army led by Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish.[33] From the Saudi core in Nejd, and aided by
the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the Ikhwanhad completed the conquest of the
territory that was to become Saudi Arabia by the end of 1925. [34] On 10 January 1926Abdul-Aziz declared
himself King of the Hejaz and, then, on 27 January 1927 he took the title of King of Nejd (his previous title
having been 'Sultan').[19] After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leaders wanted to continue the
expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began
raiding those territories. Abdul-Aziz, however, refused to agree to this, recognizing the danger of a direct
conflict with the British. The Ikhwan therefore revolted but were defeated in the Battle of Sabilla in 1930,
where the Ikhwan leadership were massacred.[35]
In 1932, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[19]
[edit]From

the foundation of the State to the present

The new kingdom was one of the poorest countries in the world, reliant on limited agriculture and
pilgrimage revenues.[36]However, in 1938 vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Hasa region along
the coast of the Persian Gulf and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941. Oil provided Saudi

Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly
developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the center for newspapers and radio. But the large influx of
foreigners to work in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. At the same
time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large
governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing. [19]

Abdul Aziz bin Saud first king of Saudi Arabia

King Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. However, an intense rivalry between the
King and his half-brother, Prince Faisalemerged, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's
competence. As a consequence, Saud was deposed in favor of Faisal in 1964. The major event of King
Faisal's reign was the 1973 oil crisis, when Saudi Arabia, and the other Arab oil producers, tried to put
pressure on the US to withdraw support from Israel through an oil embargo.[19] Faisal was assassinated in
1975 by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid.[37]
Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid during whose reign economic and social
development progressed at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system
of the country;[19] in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed. [37] In 1979, two events occurred
which greatly concerned the Al Saud regime,[38] and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and
domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'ite
minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence
of their Iranian co-religionists. In fact, there were several anti-government uprisings in the region in 1979
and 1980. The second event, was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The
militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature
of the Saudi regime.[39] Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of
traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give
the Ulema a greater role in government.[40] Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in
strength.[41]

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia after unification in 1932

Khalid was succeeded by his brother King Fahd in 1982 who continued the close relationship with the
United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment. [19] From 1976 Saudi
Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world. [42] The Saudi regime spent $25 billion in support
of Saddam Hussein in the Iran-Iraq War.[43] The vast wealth generated by oil revenues and channeled
through the government had a profound impact on Saudi society. It led to urbanization, mass public
education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of large numbers of foreign workers
greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was dramatic change in the social and
economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family [19] leading to
discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government. [44]
Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 Saudi Arabia joined the anti-Iraq Coalition. King Fahd, fearing
an attack from Iraq, invited American and coalition soldiers to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. [19] This action
concerned some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase
in Islamic terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamic terrorist attacksin Western countries by Saudi
nationals the 9/11 attacks in New York being the most prominent example. [45] But also many Saudis who
did not necessarily support the Islamist terrorists were deeply unhappy with the government stance.[46]
Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the regime. Although now extremely wealthy, the country's
economy was near stagnant, which, combined with high taxes and a growth in unemployment, contributed
to disquiet in the country, and was reflected in a subsequent rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the
royal family. In response, a number of limited 'reforms' were initiated (such as the Basic Law). However, the
royal family's intent was to respond to dissent while making as few actual changes in the status quo as
possible. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind: A system based on elections is not
consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shr]. [19]
In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke and the Crown Prince, Prince Abdullah assumed the role of
acting King, albeit his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the
"Sudairi Seven").[47] Abdullah continued the policy of mild reform and greater openness,[48] but in addition,

adopted a foreign policy distancing the kingdom from the US. In 2003, Saudi Arabia refused to support the
US and its allies in the invasion of Iraq.[19] However, terrorist activity increased dramatically in 2003, with
theRiyadh compound bombings and other attacks, which prompted the government to take much more
stringent action against terrorism.[49]
In 2005, King Fahd died and his half-brother, Abdullah ascended to the throne. The king subsequently
introduced a new program of moderate reform which included a number of economic reforms aimed at
reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment,
and privatization. He has taken much more vigorous action to deal with the origins of Islamic terrorism, and
has ordered the use of force for the first time by the security services against some extremists. In February
2009,Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various
ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary
and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate indiviuals and the appointment of the countrys
first female deputy minister.[19]
In early 2011, King Abdullah indicated his opposition to the protests and revolutions affecting the Arab
world by giving asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and by telephoning
President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[50] Saudi Arabia has also
been affected by its own protests.[51] In response, King Abdullah announced a series of benefits for citizens
amounting to $10.7 billion. These included funding to offset high inflation and to aid young unemployed
people and Saudi citizens studying abroad, as well as the writing off of some loans. State employees will
see their incomes increase by 15 per cent, and additional cash has also been made available for housing
loans. No political reforms were announced as part of the package, though some prisoners indicted for
financial crimes were pardoned.[52]
[edit]Politics

Main article: Politics of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy,[53] although, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by
royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (that is, Islamic law) and the Quran. The Quran and
the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution, but no written
modern constitution has ever been written for Saudi Arabia, and Saudi Arabia remains the only Arab Nation
where no national elections have ever taken place, since its creation. [54] No political parties or national
elections are permitted[53] and according to The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, the Saudi government
is the seventh most authoritarian regime from among the 167 countries rated. [55]
On 25 September 2011, Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah has announced that women will have the right to
stand and vote in future local elections and join the advisory Shura council as full members. [56]
[edit]Monarchy

and royal family

The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions [57] and royal decrees to form the basis of the
country's legislation.[58] The king is also the prime minister, and presides over the Council of Ministers
(Majlis al-Wuzar), which comprises the first and second deputy prime.
The royal family dominates the political system. The familys vast numbers allow it to control most of the
kingdoms important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government. [59] The
number of princes is estimated to be at least 7,000, with most power and influence being wielded by the
200 or so male descendants of King Abdul Aziz.[60] The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal
family,[53] as are the thirteen regional governorships. [61] Long term political and government appointments,
such as those of King Abdullah, who had been Commander of the National Guard since 1963 (until 2010,
when he appointed his son to replace him)[62]), former Crown Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence and
Aviation from 1962 to his death in 2011, former crown prince Prince Nayef who was the Minister of Interior
from 1975 to his death in 2012, Prince Saud who has been Minister of Foreign Affairs since 1975[63] and
current Minister of Defence and Aviation Prince Salman, who was Governor of the Riyadh Province from
1962 to 2011,[64]have resulted in the creation of "power fiefdoms" for senior princes. [65]
The Saudi government and the royal family have often, over many years, been accused of corruption. [66] In
a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them,[14] the lines between state
assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. [60] The extent of corruption has been
described as systemic[67] and endemic,[68] and its existence was acknowledged[69] and defended[70] by Prince
Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family[71]) in an interview in 2001.[72] Although corruption
allegations have often been limited to broad undocumented accusations, [73] specific allegations were made
in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Bandar
US$2 billion in bribes relating to the Al-Yamamah arms deal.[74] Prince Bandar denied the allegations.
[75]

Investigations by both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in plea bargain agreements with the

company, by which it paid $447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery.[76] Transparency International in
its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10
where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").[77]
There has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family's rule, an agenda championed
by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative Council in
the early 1990s did not satisfy demands for political participation, and, in 2003, an annual National
Dialogue Forum was announced that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate
current national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. In 2005, the first municipal elections were
held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession.[78] In 2009, the king made
significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first
woman to a ministerial post.[79] However, the changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely
cosmetic,[80] and the royal family is reportedly divided on the speed and direction of reform. [81]
[edit]Al

ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema

Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct
role in government,[82] the only other example being Iran.[83] The ulema have also been a key influence in
major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to
foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990.[84]In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and
education systems[85] and a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals. [86]

Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh,Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, the country's most senior religious authority.[87]

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal,
important changes to Saudi society were under way and the power of the ulema was in decline.
[88]

However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.

[89]

The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their

financial support:[40] in particular, they were given greater control over the education system [89] and allowed
to enforce stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.[40] Since his accession to the
throne in 2005, King Abdullah has taken steps to rein back the powers of the ulema, for instance
transferring their control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education. [90]
The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[91] the country's leading religious family.[86] The
Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th century founder of
the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.[92] The family is second in
prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family) [93] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[94] and
power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago. [84] The pact, which persists to this day,[94] is based on the
Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating
Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority [95] thereby using its
religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[96] Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of
the ulema has diminished in recent decades,[97] they still hold the most important religious posts and are
closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage. [86]
[edit]Political

process and opposition

See also: Terrorism in Saudi Arabia, List of militant incidents in Saudi Arabia, and 2011 Saudi Arabian
protests
In the absence of national elections and political parties, [53] politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two
distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi

society.[98] The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions and
ideological differences.[98] The most powerful clan faction is known as the 'Sudairi Seven', comprising the
late King Fahd and his full brothers and their descendants. [99] Ideological divisions include issues over the
speed and direction of reform,[81] and whether the role of the ulema should be increased or reduced. There
were divisions within the family over who should succeed to the throne after the accession or earlier death
of Prince Sultan.[99][100] When prince Sultan died before ascending to the throne on October 21, 2011, King
Abdullah appointed Prince Nayef as crown prince.[101] Price Nayef also died before ascending to the throne
in 2012.[102]
Outside of the Al-Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the
population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs and members of
important commercial families on major decisions.[57] This process is not reported by the Saudi media.[103] In
theory, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting
known as the majlis.[104] In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system
of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong and, outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently
determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local
and national events.[57] As mentioned earlier, in recent years there have been limited steps to widen political
participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National
Dialogue Forum in 2003.[78]
The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics;
the underground Green Party of Saudi Arabia; the Shi'ite minority particularly in the Eastern Province;
and long-standing tribal and regional particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz).[105] Of these, the
Islamic activists have been the most prominent threat to the regime and have in recent years perpetrated a
number of violent or terrorist acts in the country.[49] However, open protest against the government, even if
peaceful, is not tolerated. On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in the city of Jeddah in a
rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city,
killing eleven people.[106] Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50
people.[107] As part of the wave of protests and revolutions affecting the Middle East and North Africa in
early 2011, a number of incidents and protests occurred in Saudi Arabia.
[edit]Law

and human rights

Main article: Legal system of Saudi Arabia

See also: Human rights in Saudi Arabia

Verses from the Quran. The Quran is the official constitution of the country and a primary source of law. Arabia is unique in enshrining a religious text as a political document [108]

The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qu'ran and
the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet).[58] Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial
precedent. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbalischool of jurisprudence (or fiqh) found in
pre-modern texts[109] and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qu'ran and hadith.[110]Nevertheless,
because the judge is empowered to disregard previous judgments (either his own or of other judges) and
will apply his personal interpretation of Sharia to any particular case, divergent judgements arise even in
apparently identical cases.[111] Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to
as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia. [58] Royal decrees supplement
Sharia in areas such as labor, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom
remain significant.[112]
The Sharia court system constitutes the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges and lawyers form
part of the ulema, the country's religious leadership. However, there are also extra-Sharia government
tribunals which handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees. [113] Final appeal from both Sharia courts
and government tribunals is to the King and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and
procedure.[114] The Saudi system of justice has been criticized for being slow, arcane, [115] lacking in some of
the safeguards of justice and unable to deal with the modern world. [116] In 2007, King Abdullah issued royal
decrees reforming the judiciary and creating a new court system, although the reforms have yet to be
implemented.[111] The capabilities and reactionary nature of the judges have, in particular, been
criticized[117] and, in 2009, the King made a number of significant changes to the judiciary's personnel at the
most senior level by bringing in a younger generation.[115] Saudi Arabia has long been criticized for its
human rights record, with Western-based organisations such asAmnesty International and Human Rights
Watch condemning both the criminal justice system and its severe punishments. However, most Saudis
reportedly support the system and say that it maintains a low crime rate. [118] There are no jury trials in Saudi
Arabia and courts observe few formalities.[119] Human Rights Watch, in a 2008 report, noted that a criminal
procedure code had been introduced for the first time in 2002, but it lacked some basic protections and, in
any case, had been routinely ignored by judges. Those arrested are often not informed of the crime of
which they are accused or given access to a lawyer and are subject to abusive treatment and torture if they

do not confess. At trial, there is a presumption of guilt and the accused is often unable to examine
witnesses and evidence or present a legal defense. Most trials are held in secret. [120]

Deera Square, central Riyadh. Known locally as "Chop-chop square", it is the location of public beheadings. [121]

A road sign for a bypass used to restrict non-Muslims from Mecca

The physical punishments imposed by Saudi courts, such as beheading, stoning, amputationand lashing,
and the number of executions have been strongly criticized.[122] The death penalty can be imposed for a
wide range of offences including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug
use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery and can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning
or firing squad, followed by crucifixion.[123][124] The 345 reported executions between 2007 and 2010 were all
carried out by public beheading. The last reported execution for sorcery took place in June 2012 [125] and
three recent convictions for witchcraft did not result in execution. Although repeated theft can be punishable
by amputation of the right hand, only one instance of judicial amputation was reported between 2007 and
2010. Gay rights are not recognised. Homosexual acts are punishable by flogging or death. [123][126] Lashings
are a common form of punishment[127] and are often imposed for offences against religion and public
morality such as drinking alcohol and neglect of prayer and fasting obligations. [123] Retaliatory punishments,
or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost
his own eye.[117] Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or
granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya, or blood money, by the perpetrator.[128] Other human
rights issues that have attracted strong criticism include the extremely disadvantaged position of women
(see Women in Saudi society below), religious discrimination, the lack of religious freedom and the
activities of the religious police (seeReligion below).[122] Between 1996 and 2000, Saudi Arabia acceded to
four UN human rights conventions and, in 2004, the government approved the establishment of
the National Society for Human Rights (NSHR), staffed by government employees, to monitor their
implementation. To date, the activities of the NSHR have been limited and doubts remain over its neutrality
and independence.[129] Saudi Arabia remains one of the very few countries in the world not to accept the

UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In response to the continuing criticism of its human rights
record, the Saudi government points to the special Islamic character of the country, and asserts that this
justifies a different social and political order.[130]
[edit]Foreign

relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945[11][131] and is a founder member of the Arab League, Persian Gulf
Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (now
the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation).[132] It plays a prominent role in the International Monetary
Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005 joined theWorld Trade Organization.[11] Saudi Arabia supports the
intended formation of the Arab Customs Union in 2015 and an Arab common market[133] by 2020, as
announced at the 2009 Arab League summit.[134] As a founding member of OPEC, its oil pricing policy has
been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to moderate sharp price movements so as to not
jeopardise the Western economies.[11]

King Abdullah with former US PresidentGeorge W. Bush.

Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia expended over $70 billion in "overseas development aid".
[135]

However, there is evidence that the vast majority was, in fact, spent on propagating and extending the

influence of Wahhabism at the expense of other forms of Islam.[136] There has been an intense debate over
whether Saudi aid and Wahhabism has fomented extremism in recipient countries. [137]The two main
allegations are that, by its nature, Wahhabism encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism.
[138]

Former CIA directorJames Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist

organizations are flourishing."[139] However, the Saudi government strenuously denies these claims or that it
exports religious or cultural extremism.[140]
In the Arab and Muslim worlds, Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western and pro-American, [141] and it
is certainly a long-term ally of the United States.[142] However, this[143] and Saudi Arabia's role in the
1991 Persian Gulf War, particularly the stationing of U.S. troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the
development of a hostile Islamist response internally .[144] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent,
distanced itself from the U.S. and, for example, refused to support or to participate in the U.S.-led invasion
of Iraq in 2003.[57]Relations with the United States became strained following 9/11.[145] American politicians
and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture.

[146]

Indeed, Osama bin Laden and fifteen out of the nineteen 9/11 hijackers were from Saudi Arabia.

[147]

According to the U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial

support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups. . . . Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute
the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide." [148]
Saudi Arabia's increasing alarm at the rise of Iran is reflected in the reported private comments of King
Abdullah[149] urging the US to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake". [150] Saudi Arabia has been
seen as a moderating influence in the Arab-Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan
between Israel and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah.[151] Following the wave of protests and
revolutions affecting the Arab world in early 2011 Saudi Arabia offered asylum to deposed President Zine El
Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and King Abdullah telephoned President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his
deposition) to offer his support.[50]
[edit]Military

Main article: Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia

Further information: Al-Yamamah arms deal
The Saudi military consists of the Royal Saudi Land Forces, the Royal Saudi Air Force, the Royal Saudi
Navy, the Royal Saudi Air Defense, the Saudi Arabian National Guard the 'SANG' (an independent
military force), and paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000 active-duty personnel. In 2005 the armed
forces had the following personnel: the army, 75,000; Royal Saudi Air Force, 18,000; air defense,
16,000; Royal Saudi Navy, 15,500 (including 3,000 marines); and the SANG had 75,000 active soldiers
and 25,000 tribal levies. And Saudi Special Forces.

[152]

In addition, there is a Al Mukhabarat Al

A'amah military intelligence service.

HMS Makkah, an Al Riyadh class frigate.

The SANG is not a reserve but a fully operational front-line force, and originated out of Abdul Azizs tribal
military-religious force, theIkhwan. Its modern existence, however, is attributable to it being
effectively Abdullahs private army since the 1960s and, unlike the rest of the armed forces, is independent
of the Ministry of Defense and Aviation. The SANG has been a counterbalance to the Sudairi faction in the
royal family: Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, is one of the so-called Sudairi Seven and
controls the remainder of the armed forces.[153]
Spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-90s and was about US$25.4
billion in 2005. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top 10 in the world in government spending for its military,

representing about 7 percent of gross domestic product in 2005. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes
Saudi Arabia among the worlds most densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied
primarily by the US, France and Britain.[152] The United States sold more than $80 billion in military
hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military.[154] On 20 October 2010, U.S. State
Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history an
estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represents a considerable
improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces.[155] The UK has also been a major
supplier of military equipment to Saudi Arabia since 1965.[156] Since 1985, the UK has supplied military
aircraft notably the Tornadoand Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft and other equipment as part of the
long-term Al-Yamamah arms deal estimated to have been worth 43 billion by 2006 and thought to be
worth a further 40 billion.[157]
In May 2012, British defence giant BAE signed a 1.9bn ($3bn) deal to supply Hawk trainer jets to Saudi
Arabia.[158]
[edit]Geography

Ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. The yellow line encloses the ecoregions Arabian Desert, East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands and two other smaller desert areas [159]

Main article: Geography of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia occupies about 80 percent of the Arabian peninsula,[160] lying between latitudes 16 and 33
N, and longitudes 34and 56 E. Because the country's southern borders with the United Arab
Emirates and Oman are not precisely defined or marked, the exact size of the country remains unknown.
[160]

The CIA World Factbook's estimate is 2,250,000 km2 (868,730 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the

world's 13th largest state.[161]

Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert and associated semi-desert and shrubland
(see satellite image to right). It is, in fact, a number of linked deserts and includes the 647,500
km2 (250,001 sq mi) Rub' al Khali (Empty Quarter) in the southern part of the country, the worlds largest
contiguous sand desert.[57][162] There are virtually no rivers or lakes in the country, but wadis are numerous.
The few fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases. [57] The main

topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends
into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as
the Tihamah parallel to which runs an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is
mountainous, and contains the 3,133 m (10,279 ft) Mount Sawda, which is the highest point in the country.
[57]

The Nejd landscape: desert and theTuwaiq Escarpment near Riyadh

Except for the south western province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with extremely high daytime temperatures and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around
45 C, but can be as high as 54 C. In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 0 C. In the spring and
autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 29 C. Annual rainfall is extremely low.
The Asir region differs in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between
October and March. An average of 300 mm of rainfall occurs during this period, that is about 60% of the
annual precipitation.[163]
Animal life includes wolves, hyenas, mongooses, baboons, hares, sand rats, and jerboas. Larger animals
such as gazelles, oryx, and leopards were relatively numerous until the 1950s, when hunting from motor
vehicles reduced these animals almost to extinction. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for
hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sand grouse and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of
which are venomous, and numerous types of lizards. There is a wide variety of marine life in the Persian
Gulf. Domesticated animals include camels, sheep, goats, donkeys, and chickens. Reflecting the country's
desert conditions, Saudi Arabias plant life mostly consists of small herbs and shrubs requiring little water.
There are a few small areas of grass and trees in southern Asir. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is
widespread.[57]
[edit]Administrative

divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Saudi Arabia and Governorates of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces[164] (manatiq idriyya, singular mintaqah idariyya). The provinces
are further divided into 118 governorates (Arabic: manatiq idriyya, , ). This number includes the
13 provincial capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (amanah) headed by mayors (amin).
The governorates are further sudivided into sub-governorates (marakiz, sing. markaz).

Province

Capital

Al Bahah (or Baha)

Al Bahah city

Northern Borders

Arar

Al Jawf (or Jouf)

Sakaka city

Al Madinah

Medina

Al Qasim

Buraidah

Ha'il

Ha'il city

Asir

Abha

Eastern Province

Dammam

Al Riyadh

Riyadh city

Tabuk

Tabuk city

Najran

Najran city

Makkah

Makkah

Jizan

Jizan city

Provinces of Saudi Arabia

[edit]Economy

Main article: Economy of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is the largest exporter of petroleum in the world

Saudi Arabia's command economy is petroleum-based; roughly 75% of budget revenues and 90% of export
earnings come from the oil industry. The oil industry comprises about 45% of Saudi Arabia's nominal gross
domestic product, compared with 40% from the private sector (see below). Saudi Arabia officially has about
260 billion barrels (4.11010 m3) of oil reserves, comprising about one-fifth of the world's proven total
petroleum reserves.[165]

The government is attempting to promote growth in the private sector by privatizing industries such as
power and telecommunications. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity
companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company.
Shortages of water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase selfsufficiency in agricultural products.
In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate
of population growth. Per capita income fell from a high of $11,700 at the height of the oil boom in 1981 to
$6,300 in 1998.[166] Increases in oil prices since 2000 have helped boost per capita GDP to $17,000 in 2007
dollars, or about $7,400 adjusted for inflation. [167] Taking into account the impact of the real oil price
changes on the Kingdom's real gross domestic income, the real command-basis GDP was computed to be
330.381 billion 1999 USD in 2010.[168]
Oil price increases of 20082009 have triggered a second oil boom, pushing Saudi Arabia's budget surplus
to $28 billion (110SR billion) in 2005. Tadawul (the Saudi stock market index) finished 2004 with a massive
76.23% to close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14% from a year earlier to stand at
$157.3 billion (589.93SR billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.
OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil production based on their
"proven reserves." The higher their reserves, the more OPEC allows them to produce. [citation needed] Saudi
Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an
increase of about 100 billion barrels (1.610 10 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[169] Matthew Simmonshas
suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines
(see peak oil).[170]
Saudi Arabia is one of only a few fast-growing countries in the world with a relatively high per capita income
of $24,200 (2010). Saudi Arabia will be launching six "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City)
[171]

which are planned to be completed by 2020. These six new industrialized cities are intended to diversify

the economy of Saudi Arabia, and are expected to increase the per capita income. The King of Saudi
Arabia has announced that the per capita income is forecast to rise from $15,000 in 2006 to $33,500 in
2020.[172]The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their
economy, and the cities are projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP.
However the urban areas of Riyadh and Jeddah are expected to contribute $287 billion dollars by the year
2020.[173]
[edit]Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Saudi Arabia

Further information: Bedouin and Tribes of Arabia
[edit]Largest

cities

Largest cities or towns of Saudi Arabia

http://www.geonames.org/SA/largest-cities-in-saudi-arabia.html

Rank

Riyadh

Jeddah

[edit]Population

City name

Province

Pop.

Riyadh

Riyadh

6,500,000

Jeddah

Makkah

3,900,000

Mecca

Makkah

1,800,000

Medina

Al Madinah

1,600,000

Dammam

Eastern

1,300,000

Tabuk, Saudi Arabia

Tabuk

800,000

Buraidah

Al-Qassim

700,000

Khamis Mushait

'Asir

600,000

Abha

'Asir

500,000

10

Al-Khobar

Eastern

400,000

and language
This section appears to contradict itself. Please see the talk page for more information. (February 2012)

Mecca

Medina

Saudi Arabia population density (person per km2)

The population of Saudi Arabia as of July 2010 is estimated to be 25,731,776 including 5,576,076 nonnationals[2] In 1950, Saudi Arabia had a population of 3 million.[174] The ethnic composition of Saudi
nationals is 90% Arab and 10% Afro-Asian.[175] Until the 1960s, a majority of the population was nomadic;
but presently more than 95% of the population is settled, due to rapid economic and urban growth. As
recently as the early 1960s, the Saudi Arabias slave population was estimated at 300,000. [176] Slavery was
officially abolished in 1962.[177][178] The official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic. The three main regional
variants spoken by Saudis are Hejazi Arabic (about 6 million speakers), Nejdi Arabic (about 8 million
speakers) and Persian Gulf (about 1.5 million speakers). The large expatriate communities also speak their
own languages, the most numerous being Malayalam (1 million), Tagalog (700,000), Urdu(380,000),
and Egyptian Arabic (300,000).[179]
About 31% of the population is made up of foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia. [180] Indian: 1.3
million, Pakistani: 900,000, Egyptian: 900,000, Yemeni: 800,000, Bangladeshi: 500,000, Filipino:
500,000, Jordanian/Palestinian: 260,000, Indonesian: 250,000, Sri Lankan: 350,000, Sudanese:
250,000, Syrian: 100,000 and Turkish: 100,000.[181] There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia,
most of whom live in compounds or gated communities.
Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991.[182] An estimated 240,000 Palestinians are living
in Saudi Arabia. They are not allowed to hold or even apply for Saudi citizenship, because of Arab
League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Palestinians are the sole foreign
group that cannot benefit from a 2004 law passed by Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers, which
entitles expatriates of all nationalities who have resided in the kingdom for ten years to apply for citizenship
with priority being given to holders of degrees in various scientific fields. [183] The Articles 12.4 and 14.1 of
the Executive Regulation of Saudi Citizenship System can be interpreted as requiring applicants to be
Muslim.[184]
In a 2011 news story, Arab News reported, "Nearly three million expatriate workers will have to leave the
Kingdom in the next few years as the Labor Ministry has put a 20 percent ceiling on the countrys guest
workers."[185]

[edit]Social

issues

Saudi society has a number of issues and tensions. A rare independent opinion poll published in 2010
indicated that Saudis main social concerns were unemployment (at 10% in 2010 [186]), corruption and
religious extremism.[187][188] Crime is not a significant problem.[152] However, Saudi Arabias objective of being
both a modern and Islamic country, coupled with economic difficulties, has created deep social tensions,
including the following. Connections to the West have caused some Saudis to desire the overthrow of the
Al Saud. Others want a reformed and more open government and to have more influence in the political
process. On the other hand, juvenile delinquency, drug-use and use of alcohol are getting worse. High
unemployment and a generation of young males filled with contempt toward the Royal Family is a
significant threat to Saudi social stability. Some Saudis feel they are entitled to well-paid government jobs,
and the failure of the government to satisfy this sense of entitlement has led to considerable dissatisfaction.
[189][190][191]

Additionally, the Shiite minority, located primarily in the Eastern Province, and who often complain

of institutionalized inequality and repression, have created civil disturbances in the past. Terrorist attacks in
Saudi Arabia have made it clear that Saudi Arabia does harbor indigenous terrorists. [190]
According to a 2009 U.S. State Department communication by Hillary Clinton, United States Secretary of
State, (disclosed as part of the Wikileaks U.S. 'cables leaks' controversy in 2010) "donors in Saudi Arabia
constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide". [192] Part of this funding
arises through the zakat (an act of charity dictated by Islam) paid by all Saudis to charities, and amounting
to at least 2.5 percent of their income. Although many charities are genuine, others, it is alleged, serve as
fronts for money laundering and terrorist financing operations. While many Saudis contribute to those
charities in good faith believing their money goes toward good causes, it has been alleged that others know
full well the terrorist purposes to which their money will be applied.[139]
According to a study conducted by Dr. Nura Al-Suwaiyan, director of the family safety program at
the National Guard Hospital, one in four children are abused in Saudi Arabia.[193]The National Society for
Human Rights reports that almost 45% of the country's children are facing some sort of abuse and
domestic violence.[194] It has also been claimed that trafficking of women is a particular problem in Saudi
Arabia as the country's large number of female foreign domestic workers, and loopholes in the system
cause many to fall victim to abuse and torture.[195]
Widespread inbreeding in Saudi Arabia, resulting from the traditional practice of encouraging marriage
between close relatives, has produced high levels of several genetic disordersincluding thalassemia, sickle
cell anemia, spinal muscular atrophy, deafness and muteness.[196][197]
Reporting of poverty remains a state taboo. In December 2011, days after the Arab Spring uprisings, the
Saudi interior ministry detained reporter Feros Boqna and two colleagues and held them for almost two
weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube. [198][199] Statistics on the issue are
not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue poverty figures.
[200]

Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous [201] because of the risk of being arrested.

Three journalists: Feras Boqna, Hussam al-Drewesh and Khaled al-Rasheed were detained after posting

10-minute film 'Mal3ob 3alena', or 'We are being cheated'[202] on Saudis living in poverty to YouTube.
[203]

Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis are considered to be poor (2009) and 70% of Saudis do

not own their houses.[204]

[edit]Religion

See also: Religion in Saudi Arabia and Freedom of religion in Saudi Arabia, Wahhabism, and Salafism

The "Mosque of the Prophet" in Medinacontaining the tomb of Muhammad.

There are about 25 million people who are Muslim, or 97% of the total population. [205] Data for Saudi Arabia
comes primarily from general population surveys, which are less reliable than censuses or large-scale
demographic and health surveys for estimating minority-majority ratios. [205] About 8590% of Saudis
are Sunni, while Shias represent around 1015% of the Muslim population.[206] The official and dominant
form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia is commonly known as Wahhabism (a name which some of its
proponents consider derogatory, preferring the term Salafism[207]), founded in the Arabian
Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the eighteenth century, is often described as 'puritanical',
'intolerant' or 'ultra-conservative'. However, proponents consider that its teachings seek to purify the
practise of Islam of any innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of the
Islamic ProphetMuhammad and his companions[208] Approximately 40% of Saudi nationals consider
themselves Wahhabis.[209]
In 2010, the U.S. State Department stated that in Saudi Arabia "freedom of religion is neither recognized
nor protected under the law and is severely restricted in practice" and that "government policies continued
to place severe restrictions on religious freedom". [210] No faith other than Islam is permitted to be practised,
although there are nearly a million Christians nearly all foreign workers in Saudi Arabia. [211] There are no
churches or other non-Muslim houses of worship permitted in the country.[210] Even private prayer services
are forbidden in practice and the Saudi religious police reportedly regularly search the homes of Christians.
[211]

Foreign workers have to observe Ramadan but are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or Easter.

[211]

Conversion by Muslims to another religion (apostasy) carries the death penalty, although there have

been no confirmed reports of executions for apostasy in recent years. [210] Proselytizing by non-Muslims is
illegal,[210] and the last Christian priest was expelled from Saudi Arabia in 1985. [211] There are some Hindus
and Buddhists in Saudi Arabia. Compensation in court cases discriminates against non-Muslims: once fault

is determined, a Muslim receives all of the amount of compensation determined, a Jew or Christian half,
and all others a sixteenth.[211]
According to Human Rights Watch, the Shia minority face systematic discrimination from the Saudi
government in education, the justice system and especially religious freedom. [212] Restrictions are imposed
on the public celebration of Shia festivals such as Ashura and on the Shia taking part in communal public
worship.[213]
[edit]Women

in Saudi society

A woman wearing a niqb

See also: Women's rights in Saudi Arabia

The U.S. State department considers that discrimination against women is a significant problem in Saudi
Arabia and that women have few political or social rights.[214] After her 2008 visit, the UN special reporter on
violence against women noted the lack of women's autonomy and the absence of a law criminalizing
violence against women.[214] The World Economic Forum 2010 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi
Arabia 129th out of 134 countries for gender parity.[215]
Every adult woman has to have a close male relative as her "guardian". [214] As a result, Human Rights
Watch has described the position of Saudi women as like that of a minor, with little authority over their own
lives.[216] The guardian is entitled to make a number of critical decisions on a woman's behalf. [216] These
include giving approval for the woman to travel, to hold some types of business licenses, to study at a
university or college and to work if the type of business is not "deemed appropriate for a woman." [214] Even
where a guardians approval is not legally required, some officials will still ask for it. [217]
Women also face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women,
and in family and inheritance law.[214]Polygamy is permitted for men,[218] and men have a unilateral right to
divorce their wives (talaq) without needing any legal justification.[219] A woman can only obtain a divorce with
the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her.[220] In practice, it is very difficult for

a Saudi woman to obtain a judicial divorce.[220] With regard to the law of inheritance, the Quran specifies
that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to the Qu'ranic heirs.[221] Generally, female heirs
receive half the portion of male heirs.[221] A Sunni Muslim can bequeath a maximum of a third of his property
to non-Qu'ranic heirs. The residue is divided between agnatic heirs.[221]
Cultural norms impose restrictions on women when in public, [214] and these are enforced by the religious
police, the mutawa.[222] They include requiring women to sit in separate specially designated family sections
in restaurants, to wear an abaya (a loose-fitting, full-length black cloak covering the entire body) and to
conceal their hair.[214] There is also effectively a ban on women driving.[223]
Men marry girls as young as ten in Saudi Arabia[224][225] Child marriage is believed to hinder the cause of
women's education. The drop-out rate of girls increases around puberty, as they exchange education for
marriage. Roughly 25% of college-aged young women do not attend college, and in 20052006, women
had a 60% dropout rate.[226] Female literacy is estimated to be around 70% compared to male literacy of
around 85%.[2]
Leading Saudi feminist and journalist, Wajeha al-Huwaider, has said "Saudi women are weak, no matter
how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them
from attack by anyone. The oppression of women and the effacement of their selfhood is a flaw affecting
most homes in Saudi Arabia."[227]
Although many Saudis would like more freedom in Saudi Arabia, there is evidence that many women do
not want radical change.[228] Even many advocates of reform reject foreign critics, for "failing to understand
the uniqueness of Saudi society." [229][230] A number of Saudi women have risen to the top of some
professions or otherwise achieved prominence, for example Dr. Ghada Al-Mutairi, heads a medical
research center in California[231] and Dr. Salwa Al-Hazzaa, head of the ophthalmology department at King
Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh and was the late King Fahads personal ophthalmologist.[232] On 25
September 2011, King Abdullah announced that Saudi women would gain the right to vote (and to be
candidates) in municipal elections, following the next round of these elections. However, a male guardian's
permission is required in order to vote.[233][234]
[edit]Education

Main article: Education in Saudi Arabia

Education is free at all levels. The school system is composed of elementary, intermediate, and secondary
schools. A large part of the curriculum at all levels is devoted to Islam, and, at the secondary level, students
are able to follow either a religious or a technical track. Girls are able to attend school, but fewer girls
attend than boys. This disproportion is reflected in the rate of literacy, which exceeds 85 percent among
males and is about 70 percent among females. [2] Classes are segregated by gender. Higher education has
expanded rapidly, with large numbers of Universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000.
Institutions of higher education include the country's first University, King Saud University founded in 1957,
the Islamic University at Medina founded in 1961, and the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah founded in

1967. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula in sciences and technology, military studies,
religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive
college instruction in segregated institutions. [57]
The study of Islam dominates the Saudi educational system. In particular, the memorization by rote of large
parts of the Qu'ran, its interpretation and understanding (Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to
everyday life is at the core of the curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for
all University students.[235] As a consequence, Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and technical
skills the private sector needs" according to the CIA. [2] Similarly, The Chronicle of Higher Education wrote in
2010 that "the country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation
and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it
is in rote learning and religious instruction."[236]
A further criticism of the religious focus of the Saudi education system is the nature of the Wahhabicontrolled curriculum. The Islamic aspect of the Saudi national curriculum was examined in a 2006 report
by Freedom House which concluded that "the Saudi public school religious curriculum continues to
propagate an ideology of hate toward the unbeliever, that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni
Muslims who do not follow Wahhabi doctrine, Hindus, atheists and others"[237][238] The Saudi religious
studies curriculum is taught outside the Kingdom in madrasah throughout the world. Critics have described
the education system as medieval and that its primary goal is to maintain the rule of absolute monarchy
by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that Islam is at war with other faiths and cultures. [239]
The approach taken in the Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism,
leading to reform efforts.[240] To tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of
the country's university education for a modern economy, the government is aiming to slowly modernise the
education system through the Tatweer reform program. [240] The Tatweer program is reported to have a
budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi
methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyze and problem-solve. It
also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally-based training.
[236][241]

[edit]Culture

Main article: Culture of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia has centuries-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab tribal civilization. This
culture has been bolstered by the austerely puritanical Wahhabi form of Islam, which arose in the
eighteenth century and now predominates in the country. The many limitations on behaviour and dress are
strictly enforced both legally and socially. Alcoholic beverages are prohibited, for example, and there is no
theatre or public exhibition of films. Nevertheless, as reported by the UK Mail, within the Saudi royal family
homosexuality is permitted so long as it is not the subject of public attention (Daily Mail: "A gay Saudi
prince has been jailed for beating and strangling his servant."). [242] However, the Daily Mail and Wikileaks

indicate that the Saudi Royal family applies a different moral code to itself ("WikiLeaks cables: Saudi
princes throw parties boasting drink, drugs and sex. Royals flout puritanical laws to throw parties for young
elite while religious police are forced to turn a blind eye.") [243] Public expression of opinion about domestic
political or social matters is discouraged. There are no organizations such as political parties or labour
unions to provide public forums.
Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to prayer from the
minarets of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims, the
weekend begins on Thursday.[57][244] In accordance with Wahhabi doctrine, only two religious holidays are
publicly recognized, d al-Fit r and d al-Adh . Celebration of other Islamic holidays, such as the Prophets
birthday and shr (an important holiday for Shites), are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on
a small scale. Public observance of non-Islamic religious holidays is prohibited, with the exception of 23
September, which commemorates the unification of the kingdom.[57]
[edit]Islamic

heritage sites

See also: Mecca, Medina, and Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites

Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram, Mecca

Saudi Arabia, and specifically the Hejaz, as the cradle of Islam, has many of the most significant historic
Muslim sites including the two holiest sites of Mecca and Medina.[245] One of the King's titles is Custodian of
the Two Holy Mosques, the two mosques being Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, which contains Islam's most
sacred place, the Kaaba, and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina which contains Muhammad's tomb.[246][247]
However, Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance
for fear that it may give rise to'shirk' (that is, idolatry). As a consequence, under Saudi rule, the Hejaz cities
have suffered from considerable destruction of their physical heritage and, for example, it has been
estimated that about 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been
demolished.[248] These include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and other
mosques founded byAbu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first Caliph), Umar (the
second Caliph), Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth Caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of
Muhammad's companions).[249] Other historic buildings that have been destroyed include the house
ofKhadijah, the wife of the Prophet, the house of Abu Bakr, now the site of the local Hilton hotel; the house

of Ali-Oraid, the grandson of the Prophet, and the Mosque of abu-Qubais, now the location of the King's
palace in Mecca.[250]
Critics have described this as "Saudi vandalism" and claim that over the last 50 years 300 historic sites
linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost.[251] It has been reported that there now are
fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad. [250]
[edit]Dress

Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in
dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi
Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear an ankle length garmet woven from wool or cotton
(known as a thawb), with a keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by a cord coil) or
a ghutra (a plain white square made of finer cotton, also held in place by a cord coil) worn on the head. For
rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are decorated
with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. Women are required to wear anabaya or
modest clothing when in public.
Ghutrah (Arabic: )is a traditional headdress typically worn by Arab men. It is made of a square

of cloth ("scarf"), usually cotton, folded and wrapped in various styles around the head. It is commonly
worn in areas with an arid climate, to provide protection from direct sun exposure, and also protection
of the mouth and eyes from blown dust and sand.
Agal (Arabic: )is an Arab headdress constructed of cord which is fastened around

the Ghutrah to hold it in place. The agal is usually black in colour.

Thawb (Arabic: )is the standard Arabic word for garment. It is ankle length, usually with long

sleeves similar to a robe.

Bisht (Arabic: )is a traditional Arabic mens cloak usually only worn for prestige on special

occasions such as weddings.

Abaya (Arabic: )is a women's garment. It is a black cloak which loosely covers the entire body

except the head. Some women choose to cover their faces with a niqb and some do not.
[edit]Entertainment,

the arts, sport and cuisine

Main articles: Cinema of Saudi Arabia, Music of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabian cuisine, and Sport in Saudi
Arabia
During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the Kingdom and were not considered un-Islamic, although
they were seen as contrary to Arab tribal norms. [252] During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and
as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque

in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theaters. However, with King Abdullah's reforms from
2005, some cinemas have re-opened.[253]
From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent
with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the
visual arts, which tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With
the advent of oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing
styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is
generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabbah, an instrument
not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the t a
bl (drum) and
the t
r (tambourine). Of the native dances, the most popular is a martial line dance known as the ardah,
which includes lines of men, frequently armed with swords or rifles, dancing to the beat of drums and
tambourines. Bedouin poetry, known as nabat , is still very popular.[57]
Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several Saudi novelists and poets
have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world albeit generating official hostility in their
home country. These include Ghazi Algosaibi, Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al-Hamad and Rajaa al-Sanea.[254]
[255][256]

Football (soccer) is the national sport in Saudi Arabia.[citation needed] Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing and
basketball are also popular, played by both men and women, with theSaudi Arabian national basketball
team winning bronze at the 1999 Asian Championship.[257][258][259] More traditional sports such as camel
racing became more popular in the 1970s. A stadium in Riyadh holds races in the winter. The annual King's
Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sports most important contests and attracts animals and riders
from throughout the region. Falconry, another traditional pursuit, is still practiced.[57]
Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding Arab countries in the Persian Gulf, and has been
heavily influenced by Turkish, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not
consumed and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. A dish consisting of a stuffed lamb,
known as khz, is the traditional national dish. Kebabs are popular, as is shwarm (shawarma), a
marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. As in other Arab countries of the Persian
Gulf, machbs (kabsa), a rice dish with fish or shrimp, is popular. Flat, unleavened bread is a staple of
virtually every meal, as are dates and fresh fruit. Coffee, served in the Turkish style, is the traditional
beverage.[57]