8.

Patterns and Properties of Non-Metals

-describe hydrogen as a fuel -describe a chemical test for water -describe, in outline, the purification of the water supply in terms of filtration and chlorination -name some of the uses of water in industry and in the home -describe the composition of clean air as being approximately 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen and the remainder as being a mixture of noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide -name the common pollutants in the air as being carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds -state the source of each of these pollutants: -carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances -sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur compounds (leading to acid rain) -oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds from car exhausts -state the adverse effect of common pollutants on buildings and on health -name the uses of oxygen in oxygen tents in hospitals, and with acetylene (a hydrocarbon), in welding -describe methods of rust prevention, specifically paint and other coatings to exclude oxygen -describe the need for nitrogen-, phosphorus- and potassium-containing fertilisers -describe the displacement of ammonia from its salts -describe the formation of carbon dioxide: as a product of complete combustion of carbon-containing substances as a product of respiration as a product of the reaction between an acid and a carbonate -describe and explain the presence of oxides of nitrogen in car exhausts and their catalytic removal -describe the separation of oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air by fractional distillation -describe sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series of metals and galvanising as a method of rust prevention -describe the essential conditions for the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process including the sources of the hydrogen and nitrogen, i.e. hydrocarbons or steam and air -name some sources of sulfur [Ch 8 pg 219] -name the use of sulfur in the manufacture of sulfuric acid -name the uses of sulfur dioxide as a bleach in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper; as a food preservative (by killing bacteria) [Ch 8 pg 220] -describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the Contact process, including essential conditions [Ch 10 pg 295][Ch 8 pg 222] -describe the properties of dilute sulfuric acid as a typical acid [Ch 8 pg 222, 223] -describe the manufacture of lime (calcium oxide) from calcium carbonate (limestone) in terms of the chemical reactions involved [Ch 7 Pg 202][Ch 10 pg 297] -name some uses of lime and slaked lime as in treating acidic soil and neutralizing acidic industrial waste products [Ch 10 pg 297] -name the uses of calcium carbonate in the manufacture of iron and of cement [Ch 10 pg 296]

HYDROGEN: Hydrogen is the simplest of all the elements. Its atom contain just one proton and one electron. Hydrogen gas is made up of diatomic molecules (H2) and has the lowest density of any substance. Hydrogen gas has attractions as a fuel. All it produces on burning is water. When hydrogen burns, it produces more energy per gram than any other fuel. But there are problems of storage and transport because of its low density. The industrial manufacture of hydrogen Industrially, hydrogen is manufactured by steam re-forming of natural gas. The methane in natural gas is reacted with steam in a reversible reaction: CH4(g) + H2O(g) 3H2(g) + CO2(g) The carbon monoxide is then allowed to reduce some of the un reacted steam to produce more hydrogen gas: CO(g) + H2O(g) H2(g) + CO2(g) This method is the main source of hydrogen for the production of ammonia by the Haber process Advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen as a fuel for motor Advantages Lower flammability Zero emission of CO2 Non toxic Disadvantages Large fuel tank required Engine redesign needed which is expensive

WATER Chemical and physical tests for water: The presence of water will do the following. Water will turn anhydrous copper (II) sulphate from white to blue. Water will turn anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride from blue to pink. The equations for the two reactions are:

CuSO4(s) White CoCl2(s) Blue

+ +

5H2O(l) 6H2O(l)

CuSO45H2O(s) blue CoCl26H2O(s) pink

. To find out if a liquid is pure water, its boiling point or its melting point should be measured. Pure water boils at exactly 100C and freezes at exactly 0C at one atmosphere pressure

Drinking water is made fit for domestic home consumption by o (i) allowing sedimentation to occur, where larger insoluble particles settle out, o (ii) passing it through sand filter beds to remove finer solid particles, o (iii) treating with chlorine to kill bacteria, o (iv) adding small amounts of sulphur dioxide to remove excess toxic chlorine o the molecular equation is SO2(aq) + Cl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) ==> 2HCl(aq) + H2SO4(aq)

Uses of water: Domestic washing, drinking, cooking. Industrial as a solvent.

AIR
The composition of clean air is 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen and

the remainder is a mixture of noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide.

Composition, proportion and boiling point of the gases in air: Gas Carbon dioxide Xenon Krypton Oxygen Argon Nitrogen Neon Helium Boiling point(C) -32 -108 -153 -183 -186 -196 -246 -249 Proportion in mixture (%) 0.03 20.99 0.93 78.03

The gases from the air are separated by the method of fractional distillation of liquid air. The gases present in the air have different boiling points. The process of fractional distillation involves essentially two stages. First the air must cooled until it turns liquid. Then the liquid air is allowed to warm up again. The various gases boil off at different temperature.

Amazing fact: Liquid air looks like water with a bluish tint. OXYGEN Uses: One major use of oxygen is as a breathing aid in various situations. Oxygen is carried by astronauts and deep sea divers. In hospital, oxygen is given to patience who have breathing difficulties. Oxygen is blown into molten iron to purify it before it is converted to steel. A mixture of oxygen and ethyne (acetylene) burns very exothermically. The mixture is used in oxyacetylene welding torches because it gives a very hot flame that melts metals. Pollutants in air: Composition of air is approximately 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen and the remainder as a mixture of noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide. The common pollutants in the air are: Carbon monoxide The most common air pollutant in the industrialized world.

Source: It is produced by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. Effects: Poisonous gas, attracted to oxygen over 200 times strongly than oxygen. In the blood, carbon monoxide prevents haemoglobin from carrying oxygen. This leads to dizziness and headaches. Prolonged exposure to carbon monoxide causes death. Sulphur dioxide Sources: by burning fossil fuels (as in power stations) which are contaminated with sulphur. S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) Effects: acid rain Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) For example nitrogen dioxide, NO2 Sources: When air is heated in furnaces and in vehicle petrol engine. Effects: These gases dissolve in rain water to produce acid rain. Effects of acid rain: Limestone buildings, statues are worn away. Lakes are acidified Nutrients are leached out of the soil and from leaves. Trees are deprived of these nutrients. Lead compounds Lead compounds are the most toxic heavy metal pollutants in the air. Source: Use of leaded petrol in the vehicle. Lead compounds are emitted through the car exhausts. Effects: High levels of lead in the blood causes nervous disorders. Also causes learning disabilities in children. Catalytic converters One way to reduce polluting effects of car exhaust fumes is to fit the car with a catalytic converters. Car exhaust fumes contain gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide[nitrogen (II) oxide (NO)] and unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) from the fuel which causes pollution in the air. The catatlytic converter converts these to less harmful products such as carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and water (H2O). Some of the reactions that occur are the following: Carbon monoxide + oxygen carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide + Nitrogen monoxide carbon monoxide nitrogen nitrogen + carbon dioxide + oxygen

Write balanced equation of the above equation Hydrocarbon + oxygen water

carbon dioxide

- The catalytic converter therefore removes polluting oxides and completes the oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbon fuel. - It speeds up these reactions considerably by providing a honeycombed surface on which the gases can react. - The converter contains a thin coating of rhodium and platinum catalysts on a solid honeycomb surface. These catalysts have many tiny pores which provide large surface area for the reactions. - Catalytic converters can only be used with unleaded petrol.

SULPHUR (SULFUR) Sulfur is a - yellow, - solid at room temperature, - insoluble in water, - soluble in organic solvents.

Sources There are three major sources of sulphur: Native sulfur is found in volcanic regions Natural gas and crude oil are contaminated with sulfur Metal ores (minerals) like zinc-blende (ZnS), galena (PbS) and copper pyrite (CuFeS) contain sulfur.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Sulfur burns in air with a blue flame, forming sulfur dioxide. S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

This is am acidic gas with a choking smell. It is poisonous to all organisms, particularly bacteria. Hence used as a food preservative. It is used to kill bacteria during wine making. It is a reducing agents and bleaches certain coloured substances. Hence used as bleaching agent in wood pulp in paper making. It dissolves in water to form sulfurous acid SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(l) This is one of those present in acid rain. Sulfur dioxide formed from the burning of fuels containing sulfur dissolves in rain to form sulphurous acid (acid rain)

Sulfuric acid Uses: Sulfuric acid is perhaps the most important industrially produced chemical. Sulfuric acid is important in the production of some of the most important fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate and calcium super phosphate Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries used in cars. It is used to make dyes and detergents

Production of sulfuric acid (Contact Process)

(1) Sulfur is burned in air to form sulfur dioxide (exothermic). o In the reaction the sulphur is oxidised (O gain) o S(s) + O2(g) ==> SO2(g) (2) In the reactor, the sulphur dioxide is mixed with air (to give the required SO2:O2 2:1 ratio) and the mixture passed over a catalyst of vanadium(V) oxide V205 (vanadium pentoxide) at a high temperature (about 450C) and at a pressure of between one and two atmospheres. It is a 2nd exothermic oxidation and is known as the Contact Process. In the reactor the sulphur dioxide is oxidised in the reversible exothermic reaction ... o (2) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) The reaction forms sulphur trioxide and the equilibrium is very much to the right hand side ... o So, despite the reaction being exothermic, a relatively high temperature is used to ensure a reasonable rate of reaction o The reaction is favoured by high pressure (3 => 2 gas molecules, LHS ==> RHS), but only a small increase in pressure is used to give high yields of sulphur trioxide, because the formation of SO3 on the right hand side is so energetically favourable (approx. 99% yield, i.e. only about 1% SO2 unreacted). o The use of the V2O5 catalyst ensures a fast reaction without having to use too a higher temperature which would favour the left hand side and reduce the yield BUT it does not change the % of sulphur trioxide formed, you simply get there faster. (3) The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form fuming sulphuric acid (oleum). o SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) ==> H2S2O7(l) (4) Water is then carefully added to the oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid (98%). o H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) ==> 2H2SO4(l) o If the sulphur trioxide is added directly to water an acid mist forms which is difficult to contain because the reaction to form sulphuric acid solution is very exothermic! o If you 'add' equations (3) + (4) you get (5) SO3(g) + H2O(l) ==> H2SO4(l)

Properties of concentrated sulfuric acid: Powerful dehydrating agent (removal of water from a substance) Very corrosive Properties of dilute sulfuric acid are typical of an acid turns blue litmus red reacts with metals to give hydrogen and salts called sulfates reacts with bases (metal oxides and metal hydroxides) to give salts (sulfates) and water reacts with metal carbonates to give salt (sulfates), water and carbon dioxide a strong acid, completely ionized in water a good electrolyte

CARBON COMPOUNDS:

Amazing fact: The amount of carbon in the human body ` is enough to fill about 9,000 'lead' pencils

Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless, slightly soluble in water, denser than air. Production of atmospheric carbon dioxide When it dissolves in water, some of the gas reacts to produce weak acid, carbonic acid of pH between 4 and 6: CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) Animals and plants give out CO2 during respiration: Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water Write a balanced chemical equation The burning (complete combustion) of carbon containing fuels such wood, Peat and fossil fuels gives out carbon dioxide. For example burning natural gas in the domestic gas fire: CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O (balance the equation) The roasting of limestone also releases carbon dioxide to the air:

CaCO3
Limestone

CaO
lime

CO2

Carbon dioxide can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting carbonate with an acid. For example the reaction between marble chips and hydrochloric acid CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Balance the reaction Carbon dioxide is useful as a fire extinguisher as it does not support combustion. The increasing use of fossil fuels in the developed world and the deforestation of large areas of tropical rainforest have led to an increase in the levels of CO2 in the air which may be causing imbalance in the carbon cycle. Increased atmospheric CO2 is thought to be one of the factors contributing to the increased greenhouse effect. This may be causing global warming The chemical test for CO2 is to bubble the gas through lime water (calcium hydroxide solution), a white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed: CO2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) Need balancing? Check! Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is colorless, odourless but very poisonous gas. It interferes with the transport of oxygen around the body by the haemoglobin in red blood cells. Instead of oxygen, it is carbon monoxide that bonds chemically to haemoglobin, and the binding is irreversible. Carbon monoxide is the product when organic material or fossil fuels burn in an insufficient supply of oxygen. For example burning natural gas in a domestic gas fire in an insufficient supply of air (oxygen): 2CH4 + 3O2 2CO + 4H2O CO is strong reducing agent and is used in blast furnace to extract iron from iron ore. Metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates Calcium carbonate exists as limestone, marble and chalk. Other carbonates magnesium carbonate, copper (II) carbonate etc.

They are source of carbon dioxide. CO2 can be released in two ways: by reaction with acids or by thermal decomposition. CuCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
heat

CuCO3(s)
green

------->
black

CuO(s)

CO2(g)

The decomposition of limestone to form lime (CaO) is an industrially important process. Limestone (CaCO3) is decomposed by heat in a lime kiln to produce lime:
heat

CaCO3(s)
Limestone

------->

CaO(s)
lime

CO2(g)

If the reaction is carried out in a closed container, it is actually a reversible reaction CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Not all the limestone decomposes. Equilibrium is set up with the limiting pressure of carbon dioxide in the container. However, the lime kiln is open and the CO2 escapes. More and more limestone gets decomposed in order to achieve the equilibrium and eventually all the limestone decomposes. Uses of lime: Lime is used in agriculture to neutralize acid soils. To improve drainage in solid containing a large amount of clay Used with sodium carbonate and sand in making glass. To neutralize acidic industrial waste products Slaked lime / hydrated lime [Ca(OH)2]: Equal amounts of lime and water are mixed to produce hydrated lime. CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 A solution of slaked lime is lime water Lime water or slaked lime reacts with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Uses of calcium carbonate: To neutralize acid soils To neutralize lakes acidified by acid rain In the blast furnace, to remove impurities found in the iron ore as slag.