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3.3 Pulse code modulation
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Coding & Streaming
1000 0101=-5
0001 0101=21
Pulse Code Modulation
Sampling
t1: -4.88 v
t2: +21.43 v
Analog waveform
Quantizing
-5 v
21 v
, 0001 0101, 1000 0101,
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sampler quantizer encoder
channel
Low-pass
filter
decoder
x(t)
x
n
x(t)
PCM transmitter (A/D conversion)
~
Three basic operations
Sampling
Quantizing
Encoding
x
n
~
s(t)
Pulse Code Modulation
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Quantizing
Approximating the analog
sample values by using finite
number of levels
Uniform quantizing
Quantizing error
quantizing noise
PCM
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Encoding
The quantized analog sample values are
replaced by n-bit binary code
Quantized Sample Voltage
Gray Code Word (PCM output)
+7 110
+5 111
+3 101
+1 100
-1 000
-3 001
-5 011
-7 010
E.g. three-bit Gray code for M=8 levels
n
M 2 =
Pulse Code Modulation
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Bandwidth of PCM signals
The bit rate of PCM signal is
s
nf R =
Bit rate: R= f
s
(samples/s)n(bits/sample)
= 8 k sample/s 8 bits/sample = 64 kbps
Example. Design of a PCM signal for telephone system
Assume:
An analog audio voice-frequency (VF) telephone
signal band: 300Hz ~ 3400 Hz
The minimum sampling frequency is 23.4 = 6.8
ksample/sec. actually, using sampling frequency of 8
ksamole/sec.
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For rectangular pulse, the first null bandwidth is
Example. the result for the case of the minimum sampling:
The bandwidth of (serial) binary PCM waveforms
depends on:
The bit rate
The waveform pulse shape used to
represent the data
s PCM
nf R B = =

16B 8 256
6B 3 8
4B 2 4
2B 1 2
Bandwidth of PCM signal
(the first null bandwidth)
Length of the PCM,
n(bit)
Number of quantizer levels,
M
Bandwidth of PCM signals
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Effects of noise
Two main effects produce noise or
distortion:
Bit errors in the recovered PCM signal .
(channel noise, improper channel
filtering, ISI etc. )
Quantizing noise that is caused by the
M-step quantized at PCM transmitter
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sampler quantizer encoder
channel
Low-pass
filter
decoder
x(t)
x
n
x(t)
PCM transmitter (A/D conversion)
~
0101110
0101010
x
n
~
Effects of noise
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Under certain assumptions, the ratio
of the recover analog peak signal
power to the total average noise
power is:
The ratio of the average signal power
to the average noise power is
e out pk
P M
M
N
S
) 1 ( 4 1
3
2
2
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
e out
P M
M
N
S
) 1 ( 4 1
2
2
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
Effects of noise
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If P
e
=0 (no ISI), the peak SNR
resulting form only quantizing errors
is
The average SNR due only to
quantizing error is
2
3M
N
S
out pk
=
|
.
|

\
|
2
M
N
S
out
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
n
N
S
dB
02 . 6
6-dB rule
=4.77 for the peak SNR,
=0 for the average SNR.
Effects of noise
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This equation points out the significant
performance characteristic for PCM:
An additional 6-dB improvement in SNR is
obtained for each bit added to the PCM word.
Assumptions:
No bit errors
the input signal level is large enough to range
over a significant number of quantizing levels
Effects of noise
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Performance
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Example SA3-2 (page 219)
In a communications-quality audio system,
an analog voice-frequency (VF) signal with
a bandwidth of 3200 Hz is converted into a
PCM signal by sampling at 7000 samples/s
and by using a uniform quantizer with 64
steps. The PCM binary data are transmitted
over a noisy channel to a receiver that has
a bit error rate (BER) of 10
-4
.
What is the null bandwidth of the PCM
signal if a polar line code is used?
What is the average SNR of the recovered
analog signal at the receiving end?
PCM signal bandwidth and SNR
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Nonuniform Quantizing
Characteristic voice analog signal
Nonuniform amplitude distribution
The granular quantizing noise will be a
serious problem if uniform quantizing is
used.
Solution: nonuiform quantizing
Nouniform Quantizing: a variable step
size is used
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Method:
passing the analog signal through a
compression (nonlinear) amplifier and then
into a PCM circuit that uses uniform
quantizer.
-Law and A-Low
Analog
Signal
A Compression
(nonlinear)
Amplifier
PCM
(uniform quantized)
Nonuniform
Quantizing signal
Nonuniform Quantizing
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-Law ( )
( )

+
+
=
1 ln
) ( 1 ln
) (
1
2
t w
t w
Compression
quantizer
characteristic
Uniform quantizer
characteristic
(a) M=8 Quantizer Characteristic
0
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
=0
=1
=5
=100
=225
1 ) ( 0
1
t w
Nonuniform Quantizing
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A-Law
( )
( )

+
+

+
=
1 ) (
1
,
ln 1
) ( ln 1
1
) ( 0 ,
1 ln
) (
) (
1
1
1
1
2
t w
A A
t w A
A
t w
t w A
t w

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
A=1
A=2
A=5
A=87.6
A=100
Nonuniform Quantizing
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In practice, the
smooth
nonlinear
characteristics
of -Law and
A-Low
are
approximated
by piecewise
linear chords
Compression
characteristics
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Output SNR
Following 6-dB law:
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
n
N
S
dB
02 . 6
( )
rms
x V / log 20 77 . 4 =
( ) | | + = 1 ln log 20 77 . 4
| | A ln 1 log 20 77 . 4 + =
where
Uniform quantizing
-Law companding
A-Law companding
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Comparison of output SNR