Rosensweig 1 Sean Rosensweig Ms.

Holloran AP Biology 16 August 2012 Summer Assignment Chapter 50: An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere Overview: Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and the environment. 50.1 Ecology is linked to evolutionary biology. Charles Darwin proposed that environmental factors interacting with variation within populations could cause evolutionary change. The environment of an organism is affected by many factors. Some of these factors are abiotic (nonliving) components chemical and physical factors like temperature, light, water, and nutrients. Other factors are considered biotic (living) components, which includes all the living organisms, or biota, that are part of the environment. These other organisms could compete with an individual for food, be parasites to the individual, prey upon the individual, or change the individuals physical and chemical environment. Two major points studied in ecology include distribution and abundance. Distribution is the geographical range of a species. Abundance is the concentration of a species within an area. Ecologist study both abiotic and biotic factors that could contribute to the distribution, but sometimes, abiotic and biotic factors are closely linked. Certain abiotic factors, such as temperature, could cause certain parasites and pathogens to thrive, or even affect the food availability or number of predators. Therefore, abiotic factors can influence populations indirectly through biotic factors. There are many different areas of study in the field of ecology. Organismal ecology studies

Rosensweig 2 how an organisms structure, physiology, and sometimes behavior meet the challenges posed by the environment. A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular geographic area. A community consists of all the organisms of all the species that inhabit a particular area. A community is the amalgamation of the populations of many different species in an area. An ecosystem consists of all the abiotic factors in addition to the entire community of species in a certain area. The biosphere is the global ecosystem, or the sum of all the planets ecosystems. Population ecology concentrates on factors that affect how many individuals of a species live in an area. Community ecology concerns all the interacting species in a community. This subfield studies how interactions such as competition and disease, as well as abiotic factors like disturbance affect community structure and organization. Ecosystem ecology focuses on energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components. Landscape ecology deals with many ecosystems. Every landscape or seascape consists of an assortment of different types of patches. Ecologists refer to this environmental characteristic as patchiness. Landscape ecologists research the factors controlling the exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms among the different ecosystem patches making up a landscape. Studying the biosphere is the broadest area of ecology. It includes the entire portion of earth inhabited by life from the atmosphere several kilometers above, to at least 3 kilometers below ground. Ecology and environmentalism advocating for the protection or preservation of the natural environment are two different things, despite common misconceptions. The science of ecology helps us to understand problems with the environment, thus providing scientific background for environmentalists. Due to the interconnectedness of the biosphere, it is wise to follow the precautionary principle, which basically states that it is better to work for prevention than for a cure. 50.2

Rosensweig 3 Biogeography is the study of past and present distribution of individual species. Scientists have divided up the world into biogeographic realms to identify broad patterns of distribution. We now associate these realms with patterns of continental drift. Biogeography provides a starting point for understanding what limits the geographic distribution of a species. Dispersal the movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or their area of origin contributes to the understanding of organisms. The dispersal of organisms is critical to understanding geographic isolation in evolution and the broad patterns of current geographic distributions of species. Dispersal is demonstrated when organisms expand their range by moving into areas where they did not exist previously. It is hard to observe natural range expansions, so ecologists often turn to experimental methods to understand the role of dispersal in limiting the distribution of a species. Intentionally or accidentally relocating a species to areas where it was previously absent is one way to determine if dispersal is a key factor limiting distribution. A transplant is considered successful once some of the organisms survive and reproduce in the new area. If the transplant is successful, it proves that the potential range of the species is larger than the actual range, meaning the species is able to live in areas where it currently does not. When a species is introduced to new geographic locations, it often disrupts the communities and ecosystems to which they have been introduced. As a result, ecologists rarely perform transplant experiments today, instead observing the outcome when a species has been transplanted for other purposes, or accidental transplants. One reason an organism might not occupy all of their potential range is behavior. When organisms seem to avoid certain habitats, their distribution may be limited by habitat selection behavior. ,Another explanation may be that the organism is not adapted to a relatively new habitat, since adaptation takes time.

Rosensweig 4 If behavior does not limit the distribution of a species, then ecologists must wonder whether biotic factors limit the distribution. Often an individual cannot survive its life cycle when transplanted into a new environment. This may be due to negative interactions with other organisms of the environment, such as parasitism, disease, predation, or completion. Survival may also be limited because of the absence of a certain species on which the organism depends. Also, certain organisms eat other organisms, so if the predator is abundant in an area, the prey can be diminished by being eaten by the predator. Limitation also occurs when exotic predators or diseases are introduced into a new area and wipe out native species. Abiotic factors can also limit distribution. Factors such as differences in temperature, water, and sunlight influence the global distribution of organisms. These factors vary in both space (spatial heterogeneity) and time (temporal heterogeneity). Daily and annual fluctuations of abiotic factors can blur or accentuate regional distinctions. Environmental temperature is an important factor in distribution due to its effect on biological processes. At the wrong temperature, cells can rupture, proteins can denature, and organisms cannot maintain the proper metabolism. An organisms internal temperature is determined by heat exchange with its environment, so external temperature affects the internal temperature. Most organisms cannot live if their internal temperature is more than a few degrees above or below ambient temperature. The availability of water also influences species distribution. Most marine organisms are confined to either freshwater or saltwater habitats. Land animal distribution reflects their ability to obtain and conserve water. For example, desert animals can conserve water for a great length of time, so they can survive in areas with little water. Sunlight provides energy that drives almost all of the ecosystems on earth. Plants use this sunlight directly to perform photosynthesis. Limited sunlight, such as in the bottom of a rainforest,

Rosensweig 5 makes competition for light in the understory intense. In aquatic environments, sunlight gets absorbed more and more as it gets deeper. Therefore, most photosynthetic organisms in aquatic environments dwell near the surface to collect as much sunlight as possible. These organisms absorb the sunlight, causing even less light to get down to lower levels. Wind causes the effects of environmental temperature to be amplified by increasing heat loss due to evaporation and convection. Wind also contributes to water loss by increasing the evaporation rate in cooling animals. It also affects the structure of plants, as the growth of limbs is inhibited on the windward side of trees, causing a flagged appearance. The distribution of plants, and therefore, the animals that feed upon them, is limited by the physical structure, pH, and mineral composition of rocks and soil. This contributes to the patchiness of land ecosystems. In marine environments, the composition of the substrate, or bottom surface, can affect water chemistry and the organisms present. The structure of the substrate also determines which organisms, if any, can attach to or burrow in it. The four major components of climate the prevailing weather conditions in a particular area are temperature, water, sunlight, and wind. These components, especially temperature and water, influence the distribution of organisms. Climate patterns are described on two scales: macroclimate (patterns on the global, regional, and local level) and microclimate (very fine patterns, such as those encountered by a very specific community of organisms in a localized area. Earths global climate patterns are greatly dependent on the input of solar energy and the planets movement in space. The sun establishes the temperature variation, cycles of air movement, and evaporation of water, which are responsible for the dramatic variations in climate across the world. Proximity to bodies of water and topographical features like mountain ranges, along with smaller features of the landscape contribute to regional and local climatic variations. These

Rosensweig 6 regional and local variations contribute to the patchiness of the biosphere. Ocean currents influence the climate along the coast due to the heating or cooling of overlying air masses, which then pass over the land. Coastal regions are usually moister than inland regions. Generally, oceans and lakes moderate the climate of the land nearby. Mountains contribute to the climate by limiting the amount of sunlight that reaches an area, as well as influencing local temperature and rainfall. Certain sides of the mountain receive more sunlight, and are therefore warmer and drier than the other side. This influences species distribution of plants and animals. Additionally, the temperature declines as you go up the mountain, so distribution also varies. The changing angle of the sun affects the local environments as the year progresses. Day length, solar radiation, and temperature are a few factors that are affected by the changing seasons. In addition, the belts of wet and dry air on either side of the equator fluctuate slightly as the angle of the sun changes, causing wet and dry seasons. Seasonal changes in wind patterns also produce variations in ocean currents, which can disrupt the bottom of the ocean, bringing nutrients to organisms at the surface. Lakes are also affected by seasonality. Lakes are generally layered vertically according to temperature, and mix their water levels semiannually according to temperature. These are called turnovers, and they bring oxygenated water from a lakes surface to the bottom and nutrients from the bottom to the surface. These changes in the abiotic properties of the lakes are necessary for survival and growth of the organisms in the ecosystem. Features in the environment such as shade, evaporation from soil, and changing wind patterns influence microclimates. Cleared areas usually experience greater temperature extremes than forest interiors due to greater solar radiation and wind currents established by the rapid heating and cooling of open land. In a forest, low ground is usually wetter than high ground and is generally occupied by different species of trees. Organisms such as salamanders and insects are

Rosensweig 7 shielded from the extremes in temperature and moisture by living underneath rocks and logs. Every environment on earth is made up of small scale differences in abiotic factors, influencing the local distribution of organisms. Since temperature and moisture are major factors in limiting the geographic ranges of plants and animals, the currently underway global climate change will greatly affect the biosphere. 50.3 Abiotic and biotic factors influence the structure and dynamics of aquatic biomes Varying combinations of abiotic and biotic factors determine the nature of Earths biomes, or large, naturally occurring communities of flora and fauna. Aquatic biomes occupy the most area on Earth, therefore having a huge effect on the biosphere. Ecologists distinguish between different sections of aquatic biomes by labeling the upper part the photic zone, where sunlight is sufficient for photosynthesis, and the aphotic zone, where little light penetrates. The very bottom, or the substrate, is called the benthic zone. The benthic zone is occupied by organisms called benthos, which feed upon dead organic matter called detritus. A section of rapid temperature change as a body of water gets deeper is called the thermocline, which separates the warm upper layer from the cold deeper waters. Abiotic factors such as temperature and depth determine the distribution of organisms. 50.4 Climate largely determines the distribution and structure of terrestrial biomes The changes in latitudinal patterns of climate cause latitudinal patterns of biome distribution. A climograph shows us the impact of climate on the distribution of organisms by plotting the average temperature and precipitation in a region. Temperature and precipitation are not the only factors contributing to the distribution of biomes, and ecologists must consider other factors.

Rosensweig 8 Terrestrial biomes are separated by vertical stratification, and different organisms can affect different layers. The area in which different biomes come together is called an ecotone. As a result of the dynamic atmosphere of an ever-changing environment, biomes are usually very patchy, with several different communities on one area. Many biomes rely on periodic disturbance, such as wildfires, to survive.

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Chapter 51: Behavioral Ecology Overview: Behavioral ecology studies how animal behavior is controlled and how it develops by observing animal behavior and exploring the genetic explanation for it. 51.1 Behavioral ecologists distinguish between proximate and ultimate causes of behavior Questions about behavior can generally be divided into two categories: questions that focus on the immediate stimulus and mechanism for the behavior, and those that explore how the behavior contributes to survival and reproduction. Behavior is a genetic trait, mostly the visible result of the animals muscular activity. Other types of behaviors come from chemical secretions. Some behaviors develop from a learning process, such as a bird learning a song from its elders before its own muscular activity develops. Behavior can be simply defined as everything an animal does and how it does it. Proximate questions about behavior focus on the stimuli in the environment that trigger a behavior, as well as genetic, physiological, and anatomical mechanisms that cause a behavioral act. Proximate questions are generally how questions. Ultimate questions address the evolutionary significance of a behavior. These questions try to discover why natural selection favored one particular behavior over a different one. Ultimate questions are generally why questions. Ethology is the scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in their natural environment. There are four fundamental questions of ethology: What is the mechanistic basis of the behavior? How does development of the animal influence the behavior? What is the evolutionary history of the behavior? How does the behavior contribute to survival and reproduction? The first two questions are proximate, while the last two are ultimate.

Rosensweig 10 Fixed action patterns (FAP) are sequences of unlearned behavioral acts that are unchangeable and usually are carried to completion. A FAP is triggered by an external stimulus called a sign stimulus. Imprinting is a type of behavior that includes both learning and instinctive components, and is generally irreversible. Imprinting takes place during a sensitive period, which is a limited time in which an animal can learn certain behaviors. An example of imprinting is young geese following and learning behaviors from their mother while they are young. By imprinting on an adult of their species, they have a much better chance of surviving. 51.2 Many behaviors have a strong genetic component Behavioral traits are the result of complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors. Both genes and the environment influence the development of behavioral phenotypes. Innate behaviors are under strong genetic influence, and very little environmental influence. Directed movements are animal movements that are strongly influenced by genes. A kinesis is a simple change in activity in response to a stimulus, such as sow bugs increased movement under dry conditions and decreased movement under moist conditions. A taxis is an automatic movement toward or away from a stimulus, such as a trout always swimming toward the current. Migration is considered genetically programmed. This was shown in an experiment in which migratory birds in captivity restlessly whooped during migration season, implying the urge to migrate is in their genes. In ecology, a signal is a behavior that causes a change in another animals behavior. This transmission and reception of signals is called communication. Animals communicate using visual, auditory, chemical, tactile, and electric signals. The type of signal an animal uses is related to the

Rosensweig 11 animals environment. For example, nocturnal mammals would not generally use visual signals, as they would not be seen. Instead they might use olfactory or auditory signals. Animals that communicate through odors emit chemical substances called pheromones. Generally, the production of and response to pheromones are genetically controlled. Pheromones are often part of reproductive behavior, but can also be part of nonreproductive behavior, such as releasing a chemical to alert other animals of the species that one is injured. Many auditory signals, such as the songs of insects, are genetically controlled, while most songs of birds are learned. Genes may influence behaviors relating to mating and parental behavior. For example, a prairie vole is monogamous, and remains nonaggressive towards its mate, while showing aggressive tendencies towards other voles. This was shown to be due to an amino acid transmitter released during mating. 51.3 Environment, interacting with an animals genetic makeup, influences the development of behaviors Research shows that environmental conditions can modify a genetic behavior. Environmental factors can include quality of the diet (nutritional), nature of social interactions (social), and opportunities for learning (learning). Environmental conditions can influence behavior through learning. Habituation, a form of learning, is the loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information, such as someone not responding to a series of false alarms (the cry-wolf effect). Habituation tunes out stimuli not needed for evolutionary success. Spatial learning is the modification of behavior based on experience with the spatial structure of the environment. Basically, it means that an animal learns behavior based on its

Rosensweig 12 surroundings, using landmarks to indicate familiar locations. The animal must use reliable landmarks, or its chances for evolutionary success may be diminished. A cognitive map is an internal representation of the relationships between objects in an animals surroundings. Animals use associative learning to associate one stimulus in the environment with another. Using classical conditioning, scientists study the behavior of an animal by conditioning the animal to associate a stimulus (e.g. an odor) with a reward or punishment (e.g. a shock). Animals may use associative learning to avoid certain predators or poisons, creating greater success in evolutionary fitness. Animals use operant conditioning as trial-and-error learning. With operant learning, an animal associates one of its own behaviors with reward or punishment, and adjusts its behavior as fit. Cognition is basically awareness and consciousness. The study of animal cognition is called cognitive ethology. Cognitive ethology investigates how an animals brain represents objects in the environment. 51.4 Behavioral traits can evolve by natural selection When the environment influences an animals behavior, those animals in that environment can adapt to the environment through natural selection, causing variation within species in different areas. Variations can include prey selection and aggression. 51.5 Natural Selection favors behaviors that increase survival and reproduction success Two direct ways behavior can affect evolutionary fitness are foraging and mate choice behavior. Natural selection refines behaviors that enhance the efficiency of feeding. The optimal foraging theory views foraging as a compromise between the benefits of nutrition and the costs of obtaining

Rosensweig 13 food (energy lost risk of being attacked by a predator, etc.). This theory implies that natural selection favors behavior that minimizes the cost of foraging and maximizes benefits. The risk of predation also influences how an animal forages. Animals are shown to feed in areas that have a smaller risk of attack from a predator. Many species are promiscuous, with no strong pair bonds or lasting relationships involved with mating. Other species may be monogamous or polygamous, where the mates remain together for a longer period of time. Most polygamous relationships are considered a polygyny (one male with many female mates), but some species exhibit polyandry (one female with many male mates). The needs of the young are an important factor in the evolution of mating systems. If both parents are needed for the success of the offspring, the parents are usually monogamous. If the offspring can survive on its own, there is little need for the parents to stay together. Certainty of paternity also affects the mating behavior and parental care. Since mating and birth are often separated by a length of time with internal fertilization, the certainty of paternity decreases, usually resulting in a lack of paternal care for the young. Mate preferences by females can play an essential role in the evolution of male behavior. If female members of the species are more sexually attracted to males with certain characteristics, those characteristics have a greater chance of being passed on through generations. Male competition for mates can involve agonistic behavior, which is an often ritualized contest that determines which male gets the mate. Ecologists use the game theory to evaluate alternative strategies in situations where the outcome depends on the strategies of other individuals. The theory shows how certain characteristics temporarily defeat other characteristics, without causing great variations.

51.6

Rosensweig 14 The concept of inclusive fitness can account for most altruistic social behavior Sometimes rather than behaving in ways that benefit themselves, while harming others animals behave in ways that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of other individuals. This is called altruism, or selflessness. An example of altruism is a squirrel that releases a high pitched alarm call when a predator is present. This call alerts other squirrels of the danger, while increasing the risk of being killed by giving away its location. Altruism enhances the fitness of the individuals genes through the concept of inclusive fitness the total effect an individual has on its genes thriving by altruistically aiding its offspring or close relatives, thereby passing close genes on. Hamiltons Rule is an inequality that determines whether natural selection would favor an altruistic act or not. Kin selection is the natural selection that favors altruistic behavior by enhancing reproductive success of a relative. Reciprocal altruism is the exchange of aid between two individuals who arent related, in the hope of future aid being given back to them. Social learning is learning through observing others. It is not a genetic component. Social learning forms culture a system of information transfer that influences the behavior of individuals in a population. Mate choice copying shows the effect culture has on behaviors such as mate choice. For example, female guppies genetically are more attracted to male guppies with a high degree of orange coloration, as those males have had greater success finding a mate. However, if females see other females mating with males with little coloration, they will become attracted to males with little coloration. Sociobiology says that certain behavioral characteristics exist because they are expressions of genes that have been perpetuated by natural selection. This implies that human genetic makeup contributes to human behavior. Scientists make it known that while genes contribute to human

Rosensweig 15 behavior, environmental factors also play a huge role in human nature.

Chapter 52: Population Ecology Overview: Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to the environment. This includes environmental influences on population density and distribution, age structure, and variations in population size. Populations cannot continue to grow indefinitely, causing fluctuations in their numbers. 52.1 Dynamic biological processes influence population density, dispersion, and demography A population is a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area. Members are influenced by similar environmental factors and have a high likelihood of interacting with one another. Density is the number of individual animals per unit area of volume. Dispersion is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the population boundaries. Ecologists calculate density usually as an approximation. They can either calculate the density of a small sample and

Rosensweig 16 multiply it to fit the entire area, or use the mark-recapture method tagging animals and recapturing them, making an estimate on the numbers in the population. Density is not static, but rather an ever changing process, due to factors such as immigration, birth, death, and emigration. Environmental differences and social interactions contribute to variations in local densities. Patterns of dispersion include clumped (individuals aggregated in patches), uniform (individuals are evenly spaced, usually due to direct social interactions such as territoriality the defense of a bounded physical space against encroachment by others), and random (unpredictable spacing). Demography is the study of the vital statistics of populations and how they change over time. Demographers study birth and death rates and how they vary using a life table an age specific summary of the survival pattern of a population. Life tables generally follow a cohort, or a group of individuals about the same age. A survivorship curve is the graphic representation of a life table. It is a plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort still alive at each age. To study reproductive rates, demographers use a reproductive table, an age specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population. 52.2 Life history traits are products of natural selection Life history includes when reproduction begins, how often reproduction occurs, and how many offspring are produced in each reproductive episode. These traits are influenced by natural selection. Big-bang reproductions, or semelparity, occur when organisms have only a single reproductive opportunity. The opposite of semelparity is iteroparity, also called repeated reproduction, which means the organism can repeat the process of reproduction several times. Semelparity is favored when survival rate of the offspring is low. Iteroparity is favored in dependable environments. Since there are not enough resources to maximize all reproductive variable, certain "tradeoffs" must occur, such as the parent reducing their survivability in order to

Rosensweig 17 increase the survivability of their offspring. 52.3 The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment The per capita birth rate is the number of offspring produced per unit time by an average member of the population. The per capita death rate is the expected number of deaths per unit time in a population. Per capita rate of increase is the difference in per capita birth rates and per capita death rates. Zero population growth is when the per capita birth and death rates are equal. Population increase under ideal conditions is called exponential population growth. 52.4 The logistic growth model includes the concept of carrying capacity Carrying capacity is the maximum population size that a particular environment can support. The logistic population growth model takes into account the carrying capacity in order to form a more realistic graph of the growth rate in population size. K-selection is selection of life history traits that are sensitive to population density (densitydependent selection). Selection for life history traits that maximize reproductive success in low density environments is called r-selection. 52.5 Populations are regulated by a complex interaction of biotic and abiotic influences A birth rate or death rate is considered density independent if it does not change with population density. A birth rate that falls with increasing population density or a death rate that rises with increasing population density is considered density dependent. Density dependence entails competition for resources, territoriality, health, predation, and toxic wastes. Population dynamics is the study of the complex interactions between biotic and abiotic factors that cause variation in population size.

Rosensweig 18 Metapopulation occurs when a group of populations is linked through immigration and emigration. Some animals exhibit population cycles regular boom-and-bust cycles of fluctuating densities with remarkable regularity. 52.6 Human population growth has slowed after centuries of exponential increase Demographic transition is the movement from high birth rates and high death rates to low birth rates and low death rates as a region stabilizes. A countrys age structure is the relative number of individuals of each age. Infant mortality is the number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is the predicted average length of life at birth. These reflect the quality of life in a given area. The ecological footprint concept summarizes the amount of resources needed, while the ecological capacity shows the actual resource base of a country. Therefore, once a countrys ecological footprint equals ecological capacity, they are at carrying capacity.

Rosensweig 19 Chapter 53: Community Ecology Overview: A community is an assemblage of populations of various species living close enough for potential interaction. 53.1 A communitys interactions include competition, predation, herbivory, symbiosis, and disease Interspecific interactions refer to an organisms interactions with other species in the community. These interactions can be either positive or negative towards an organisms survival and reproduction. Interspecific competition is when species compete for one resource that is in short supply. This competition could lead to a process called competition exclusion the local elimination of one or both of the competing species. A species ecological niche is the sum total of its use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment. Its fundamental niche is the potential niche, while the realized niche is the niche actually occupied by a species. The variation of niches that enable similar species to coexist is called resource partitioning. Similar species who live in the same area (sympatric) tend to differ from similar species who are geologically separate (allopatric). The tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations than allopatric populations is called character displacement. Predation is the interaction between species in which one species kills and eats the other. In order to defend themselves against predators, many animals have acquired defensive adaptations. Cryptic coloration is camouflage. Aposematic coloration refers to the bright warning colors that poisonous animals exhibit. Batesian mimicry occurs when a harmless animal mimics a harmful animal to trick predators. Mllerian mimicry occurs when two harmful species look alike, increasing the speed of the predators adaptation for avoidance. Herbivory refers to the interaction in which an herbivore eats part of plants or algae. Parasitism is the symbiotic interaction in which one organism (the parasite) gets

Rosensweig 20 its nourishment from another organism (the host). Parasites that live inside the host are called endoparasites. Parasites that feed on the external of the host are called ectoparasites. In parasitoidism, insects lay eggs on or in their living host. Pathogens disease causing agents are similar to parasites. Mutual symbiosis or mutualism is an interspecific interaction that benefits both species. Commensalism is an interspecific interaction in which one species benefits and the other has no effects whatsoever. 53.2 Dominant and keystone species exert strong controls on community structure The species diversity of a community the variety of different kind of organisms that make up the community contains two components: species richness and relative abundance. Species richness is the total number of different species in the community. Relative abundance is the proportion each species represents of the total individuals in the community. The trophic structure of a community is the feeding relationships between organisms. The transfer of food energy up the trophic levels is referred to as food chain. Modern ecologists have created a food web, which is many food chains linked together. The energetic hypothesis explains why food chains within food webs are relatively short. It suggests that the length of the chains is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain. A second hypothesis the dynamic stability hypothesis claims that longer food chains are less stable. Dominant species are those species in a community that have the most abundance or the highest biomass, the total mass of all individuals in a population. Invasive speciesspecies, generally introduced by humans, that take hold outside their native range are usually dominant. Keystone species are the species that exert a strong force over a community, although they are not necessarily abundant. Another type of animal that exerts a strong influence on its environment is a facilitator, which alters the structure or dynamics of an environment to benefit other species.

Rosensweig 21 A bottom-up model is a way to show the relationship between two adjacent trophic levels, suggesting a unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. The top-down model postulates that the influence moves from higher to lower trophic levels. The strategy of biomanipulation refers to the tampering of environments by scientists in order to improve the quality of life. 53.3 Disturbance influences species diversity and composition The nonequilibrium model describes communities as constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances. A disturbance is an event a storm, fire, flood, human activity, etc. that changes a community, removes organisms, and alters resource availability. The intermediate disturbance hypothesis suggests that moderate levels of disturbance can create conditions that foster greater species diversity than low or high levels of disturbance. Ecological succession is a process in which new species replace old species after a disturbance. Primary succession begins with a virtually lifeless area right after a disturbance. Secondary succession occurs whent a new community forms over an area cleared by a disturbance, but with the soil left intact. 53.4 Biogeographic factors affect community biodiversity Evapotranspiration the evaporation of water from soil plus the transpiration of water from plants considers the solar energy input and water availability of a climate. The species area curve says that the larger the geographic area, the greater number of species present. 53.5 Contrasting views of community structure are the subject of continuing debate The integrated hypothesis of community structure suggests that communities are an assemblage of closely linked species that are locked into association with each other, causing the

Rosensweig 22 community to function as one integrated unit. In contrast, the individualistic hypothesis says that species often found in the same area are simply commonly found together because they all require the same abiotic requirements. The rivet model of communities using an analogy to airplane wing rivets suggests that most of the species in a community are associated tightly with particular other species in a web of life. The redundancy model represents the opposing view most of the species in a community are not tightly associated with one another, and the web of life is very loose.

Rosensweig 23 Chapter 54: Ecosystems Overview: An ecosystem consists of all the organisms living in a community, plus the abiotic factors with which they interact. An ecosystems dynamics involve energy flow and chemical cycling. 54.1 Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling Primary producers autotrophs ultimately support all other trophic levels in an ecosystem. Herbivores are considered primary consumers those who eat the primary producers. Carnivores that eat herbivores (primary consumers) are called secondary consumers. Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers. Detritivores, or decomposers, are consumers that get their energy from nonliving organic material such as the remains of dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves, or wood called detritus. Detritivores are essential in breaking down organic materials and recycling chemical compounds. 54.2 Physical and chemical factors limit primary production in ecosystems The amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs is an ecosystems primary production. The total amount of primary production in an ecosystem is referred to as the ecosystems gross primary production. Plants have to use some of this light energy for their own cellular processes. The net primary production is the gross primary production minus the energy plants use for their processes. The NPP represents the storage of chemical energy that will be available to consumers in the ecosystem. The amount of light absorbed by primary producers in an aquatic ecosystem has a great influence on the primary production. Nutrients also have a great influence. A limiting nutrient is the element that must be added in order for production to increase in a particular area. The process

Rosensweig 24 of sewage and fertilizer runoffs into lakes causing an excessive richness of nourishment in the lakes is called eutrophication. To measure the contrasts in terrestrial climates, ecologists can use actual evapotranspiration the annual amount of water transpired from plants and evaporated from a landscape. The greater the precipitation in an area, the greater the actual evapotranspiration. 54.3 Energy transfer between trophic levels is usually less than 20% efficient Secondary production is defined as the amount of chemical energy in a consumers food that is converted to their own new biomass during a given time period. Production efficiency is the fraction of energy stored in food that is not used for respiration or feces out of the total energy taken in. On a larger scale, trophic efficiency is the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next. This is usually a small percentage, typically ranging from 5% to 20%. Turnover time is the time required to replace the standing crop of a population or group of populations, calculated as the ratio of standing crop biomass to production. According to the green world hypothesis, terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little plant biomass because they are influenced negatively by factors such as predators, parasites, and disease. 54.4 Biological and geochemical processes move nutrients between organic and inorganic parts of the ecosystem Nutrient circuits that involve both biotic and abiotic components are called biogeochemical cycles. The two general categories of biogeochemical cycles are global and local. Global biogeochemical cycles include atoms that may have travelled from far away, such as carbon and oxygen atoms to form CO2 . Less mobile elements such as phosphorous or calcium generally cycle

Rosensweig 25 at a much more localized scale. 54.5 The human population is disrupting chemical cycles throughout the biosphere Human activity disrupts nutrition cycles by removing nutrients from one place and adding them to another. Agricultural runoffs cause an imbalance to nutrition levels in rivers and lakes. Critical load is the amount of added nutrient (usually nitrogen or phosphorus) that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem integrity. The critical load is often exceeded when factory wastes or sewage runs off into the water, causing an unnatural bloom of algae and cyanobacteria. Acid precipitation occurs when the burning of fossil fuels releases oxides of sulfur and nitrogen that react with water in the atmosphere. These acids then fall as acid precipitation as snow, sleet, fog, or rain that has a pH less than 5.6. The process in which toxins are more concentrated in successive trophic levels is called biological magnification. This means that higher level carnivores tend to be the most severely affected by toxic compounds in the environment. The earth is kept warm by the greenhouse effect the atmospheric CO2 reflecting some of the solar energy reflected from Earths surface back to Earth again, creating solar heat. The rising atmospheric CO2 levels are believed to be the cause of global warming, as less solar energy is let out of the atmosphere. Chlorofluorocarbonschemicals used for refrigeration, aerosol propellants, and certain manufacturing processes reduces the ozone (O3) in the ozone layer to oxygen, which thins the ozone layer that protects Earth from harmful UV rays.

Chapter 55: Conservation Biology and Restoration Ecology

Rosensweig 26 Overview: Conservation biology uses ecology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics, and evolutionary biology to conserve biological diversity at all levels. Restoration ecology applies ecological principles to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible to their natural, predegraded state. 55.1 Human activities threaten Earths biodiversity The rate of extinction is increasing, causing a biodiversity crisis. The three levels of biodiversity are genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Genetic diversity is comprised of the genetic variation both within and between populations. Due to the crisis with species diversity, the U.S. Endangered Species Act named an endangered species one that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. That Act also defines a threatened species as one that has the potential to become an endangered species in the foreseeable future. The variety of Earths ecosystems is also in danger, due to human interaction or local extinction of a keystone species. Ecosystem services include all the processes through which natural ecosystems and the species they contain help sustain human life. These include purification of air and water, detoxification and decomposition of waste, cycling of nutrients, among many others. Human activity has impacted ecosystems to the point where they may not be able to continue these ecosystem services for much longer. The four major threats to biodiversity are habitat destruction, introduced species, overexploitation, and disruption of interaction networks. The human alteration of habitat is the greatest threat to biodiversity. Through agriculture, urban development, forestry, mining, and pollution, habitats have been destroyed by humans. Habitat destruction leads to species loss and a higher probability for extinction. Introduced species, or invasive species, are those that humans

Rosensweig 27 move from the species native locations to new geographic regions. These species lack natural predators, parasites, and pathogens in their new region, so their population is not limited. They often prey on natural species or outcompete them for resources. Overexploitation refers to the human harvesting of wild plants or animals at too fast of rates for the populations of those species to rebound. This often refers to commercial fishing, hunting, collecting, and trading animals. Since ecosystems depend on the networks of interspecific interactions, the disruptions of interaction networks, such as food webs, threatens the entire ecosystem. 55.2 Population conservation focuses on population size, genetic diversity, and critical habitat The smallness of a small population can drive it to extinction as factors take their toll on population size. Interbreeding and genetic drift pull the population down an extinction vortex toward smaller and smaller population size until the species is extinct. The loss of genetic variation necessary for evolution is the key factor driving the extinction vortex. The smallest population size at which a species is able to sustain its numbers and survive is called the minimum viable population. A population viability analysis is used to reasonably predict a populations chance for survival. In order to account for the genetic variation and breeding, researchers determine the effective population size at which breeding would be stable. Conservation programs generally take into account the amount of reproductively active individuals, rather than total population size. The declining population approach to dealing with extinction focuses on populations with a downward population trend, even if they are above the minimum viable population. 55.3 Landscape and regional conservation aim to sustain entire biotas Conservation ecologists use landscape ecology to understand past, present, and future patterns of landscape use and to make biodiversity conservation part of land-use planning. They

Rosensweig 28 need to understand the dynamics of a landscape in order to understand a species. In habitats that have been severely impacted by human activity, there are sometimes movement corridors narrow strips or series of small clumps of quality habitat connecting otherwise isolated patches. These corridors promote dispersal and reduce inbreeding within populations. Conservation biologists play a role in determining which portions of land should be set aside for protection. A biodiversity hot spot is a small area with a large number of endangered and threatened species. These hotspots are good spots to set aside for conservation, but they are not always so easy to identify. A zoned reserve is an extensive region of land that includes one or more areas undisturbed by humans surrounded by regions that have been changed by human activity. Even in the surrounding human-populated regions there are restrictions on activities that may impact the core protected area. 55.4 Restoration ecology attempts to restore degraded ecosystems to a more natural state Habitats that were degraded and abandoned by humans have a chance to return to the natural state, although it takes time. Bioremediation is the use of living organisms usually prokaryotes, fungi, or plants to detoxify polluted ecosystems. In contrast, biological augmentation uses organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem, rather than removing harmful substances. 55.5 Sustainable development seeks to improve the human condition while conserving biodiversity While determining how to conserve biological networks, many nations and private foundations have turned to the sustainable development concept, the long-term prosperity of human societies and the ecosystems that support them. To sustain an ecosystem, we must connect life science with social sciences, economics and humanities. Many scientists have embraced the

Rosensweig 29 concept of biophilia, the sense of connection to nature and other forms of life. They use this concept to promote conservation and environmental awareness.