HIERARCHY atoms complex biological molecules subcellular organells cells 1. protozoa unicellular 2.

. metazoa o multicellular o nor capable of independent existence o specialized part of a whole organism tissues (similar cells) organs organ systems complex organism population (group of organisms belonging to the same species) community (populations living in the same area) ecosystems (community + abiotic environmental factors) biomes (large scale communities) biosphere (sum of all the earth's ecosystems) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS FIVE MAJOR GRADES OF ORGANIZATION Level of Organization Taxon of Representative Animals Representative Animals 1. protoplasmic grade of organization protozoa Amoeba proteus, o found in unicellular organisms Paramecium caudatum 2. cellular protozoa colonial protozoans o aggregation of cells that are functionally (volvox) differentiated porifera sponges 3. cellular-tissue cnidaria hydra, jellyfish o aggregation of similar cells into definite patterns (coelentarata) or layers (tissue) 4. tissue-organ platyhelminthes flatworms (planaria) 5. organ-system o where different organs operate chordata frog, shortfin scad

b. Extracellular space Blood plasma - fluid portion outside blood cells Interstitial fluid tissue fluid (occupies the space surrounding cells) 2. Extracellular Structural Elements o Supportive material of the organism o Mechanical stability and protection o Composed of a. Loose connective tissue b. Cartilage c. Bone d. Cuticle Body fluid of a single-celled organism is cellular cytoplasm o Liquid-gel substance in which the various membrane systems and organelles are suspended o Multi-cellular animals Intracellular phase collective fluid inside all the bodys cells Extracellular phase fluid outside and surrounding the cells o Buffer from harsh physical and chemical changes occurring outside the body embryonic tissues that give rise to all of the tissues, organs, and organ systems in the body 1. Ectoderm forms the outer layer of skin and nervous system 2. Mesoderm forms the muscles, connective tissues, skeleton, kidneys, and circulatory and reproductive organs 3. Endoderm forms the lining of the gut, respiratory tract, and urinary bladder. It also forms the glands associated with the gut and respiratory tract Dominant homeostatic defense (see figure) 1. Blood coagulation 2. Blood clots form as tangled networks of fibers from fibrinogen 3. Fibirinogen is transformed into a fibrin meshwork that entangles blood cells to form a gel-like clot a. Catalyzed by the enzyme THROMBIN - Normally present in blood in an inactive form (PROTHROMBIN) - Must be activated for coagulation to occur o Thromboplastin - Initiate conversion of prothrombin to active thrombin (for blood clotting)

o unifying organ: NOTOCHORD (located in the

vertebral column) STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN HIGHER FORMS Structural Unit Types/Kinds/Examples Field of Study Organ System Respiratory Anatomy Reproductive Endocrine Muscular Integumentary Nervous Immune Skeletal Circulatory Excretory Organ Examples: oral cavity, brain, pharynx, eye, Anatomy liver, kidney, lung Tissue a. Somatic Histology i. 1. epithelial 2. connective 3. muscular 4. nervous b. Reproductive 1. sperm 2. egg/oocyte Cell same as in tissue Cytology (cell biology

BUERANO (DONE!) HICKMAN (DONE!) RED: CAMPBELL Extracellular Components of Metazoan Bodies 1. Body Fluids (2 fluid compartments) a. Intracellular space

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE OVERALL CHARCTERISTICS STRUCTURE OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES SPECIAL NAMES OF SOME EPITHELIAL TISSUE STRUCTURES ON FREE SURFACES (EPITHELIUM) a. shape of cell sheet of cells that covers an external 1. compact Name Characteristics 1. microvilli b. number of layers or internal surface 2. little intercellular substance 2. cilia 1. mesotheliu o squamous cell lining serous cavities 2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE c. specialization of free surface (ciliated or outside: formation of protective 3. polarized 3. flagella m such as: OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS TYPES OP CONNECTIVE TISSUE (based on the abundance and packing of fibers) flaggelated) covering 4. with basement "membrane" (basal lamina) 4. stereocilia 1. peritoneal cavites 1. mechanical support A. Loose Connective Tissue Example: Stratum Spongiosum - of plasma serves as the pathway of exchange between the cells of the body and the outside world - fibers inside: lining of all organs the body 2. pleural cavities 2. bind structures to preserve integrity of organizationducts and chief extracellular electrolytes (dermis of skin) - fixed and wandering cells cavity, as well as all types of epithelia are supported by an underlying membranes 3. lining of visceral organs 3. exchange of metabolites between passageways through which various blood and tissues 1. sodium chloride suspended in a viscous fluid condensed region of ground substance of connective tissue secreted by both epithelial and 2. endotheliu I. lining of blood vessels 4. storage of energy reserve in adipose tissuesand secretions move bicarbonate ions 2. ground substance materials connective tissue cells m II. lining of lymph vessels 5. protection against infection - major intercellular electrolytes B. Dense Connective Tissue 1. Tendon (muscle to bone) - composed of densely packed 6. repair 1. potassium 2. Ligament (bone to bone) fibers 7. 2. magnesium FUNCTION general characteristics (structure) ORGAN TISSUE/CELL SPECIALIZATIONS IN THE STRUCTURE tissue composed 3. Stratum Compactum (dermis of fibrous a. paucity of cells 3. proteins skin) Shape of Cell Number of Layers Cell Junctions b. more intercellular substance (fibers and TISSUE ground of COLLAGEN MODIFIED EPITHELIALmetazoans) (one cell 4. phosphate ions Simple (all thick) Stratified (vertebrates only) (two or more - point of connection between 2 cells (allow epithelial cells to adhere to each other and exchange information & metabolites) substance) protein material of great Function Organ Shape of cell cells thick) - three different types: TIGHT, ADHERENT, GAP Erhthrocyte formation tensile strength transitory/transitional urinary bladder squamous/ cuboidal/ columnar Occluding Junctions Location Function Characteristics 1. prote skin and supporting functions linings of blood 1. sq 1. 1. skin, 1. binding 1. Hemoglobin is synthesized and the precursor cell divides several times TYPES OF CELLS below the free surface 1. permeability barrier membrane of adjoining cells fuse at 2 Types Based on How Products are Released 2. ction uamous 2. lings of capillaries 2. linings of oral a small 2. composition: Nucleus shrinks during development tocavities remnant and eventually disappears (exocytosis) Fixed Fibroblast/fibrocyte of 2 adjacent cells 2. structural barrier 4 points zonula occludens (tight 3. endocrine lungs linings of 3. esophagus mixed a. exocrine few cells a. Mitochondria lost o example: barrier to diffusion of junctions) Mesenchymal a. unicellularb.goblet cell extracellular fibers : great many hormones pancreas b. Ribosomes lost integral membrane proteins flattened cells that form liningMost enzyme systems lost more layers of cells consists of 2 or b. multicellular :ground substance (matrix where fibers are embedded) a continuous delicatec. c. gastric gland of Adipose between apical and basolateral permits passive diffusion of gases3. and tissue fluidsdisc consisting of a baglike membrane packed with hemoglobin (blood-transporting pigment) is left adapted to withstand mild mechanical stomach Biconcave into and domains ofmacrophage out of cavities abrasion diffusion than Fixed plasmalemma - provides a larger surface for gas and distortion a flat or spherical shaped cell (frogs ellipsoidal and nucleated) 3. site of fusion of adjoining cells basal layer of cells undergoes Wandering (from blood) Monocyte continuous mitotic divisions (pushed Anchoring Junctions Location Function Characteristics Erythrocyte death toward surface and sloughed off cells Lymphocyte attach the and bone 1. Cell fragments and is quickly engulfed by large scavengerand = macrophages (found incells liver,their marrow, replaced again) cytoskeletons to their spleen) Plasma cell 2. ab intestine 2. columnar 1. intestine (ciliated and pseudostratified) Iron from hemoglobin is salvaged to be used again i. cavern neighbors or the 2. sorption ous urethra extacellular matrix pseudostratified/ciliated epithelium The rest of the heme is converted to bilirubin (bile pigment) 3. ii. pharyn appears to be layered but each cell touches the same zona adherens below tight junctions 1. cohesion 1. cell to cell adherens junctions SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE x basement membranes 2. actin filament attachment sites 2. band-like specialization of VASCULAR BLOOD PLASMA (55 % of blood) FORMED ELEMENTS (45% of blood) iii. nasal 2. female reproductive tract membrane ERYTHROCYTES (RBC) PLATELETS without fibers surface 3. plaque-like dense area of of 1. biconcave (why?) 1. found within the confines of blood vessels composed of cells blood of cells arecomposed elongated than composed of dissolved solids iv. soft taller and cuboidal cytoplasm invertebrates 90% water i. Protein 2. for transoport of oxygen and carbon dioxide 2. for blood coagulation in watery ground palate found on highly absorptive surfaces such as the intestinal II. macula adherens/ below zona adherens 1. intermediate filament attachment sites a. cell to cell adherens junctions - hemolymph substance 1. Fibrinogen v. larynx 3. nucleated in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds3. no nucleus tract of most animals desmosome 2. contribute b. forms as separate plaques - closed circulatory 4. form continuously from large nucleated 4. formed from megakaryocyte to structural integrity of - synthesized microvilli often bear minute, fingerlike projections : by liver (increase arranged in a row around the cell systems ERYTHROBLASTS in red bone marrow 5. called thrombocyte epithelium as a whole and bird in amphibian, reptile, by linking - large proteins that functions in blood absorptive surface) cytoskeleton of adjoining cells - maintain a clear LEUKOCYTES (WBC) coagulation 3. site of attachement separaion 2. Albumin (most abundant) GRANULOCYTE % of total WBC nucleus Cytoplasm (granules) Other features/functions 3. excretion kidney 3. cuboidal bile duct I. specialized to accommodate great between blood - synthesized by liver (PMN) III.hemidesmosome attach cell to extracellular matrix stretching within blood - essential for maintaining colloid osmotic Neutrophil 60-75% 2-5 Fine and neutral pH Gap Junction/Nexus or more thin lobes connected by Location Function Phagocytic Characteristics I. short, boxlike cells II. urinary tract and bladder vessels and tissue pressure of blood slender chromatic threads I. communicating junction for communication II. usually fluid surrounding lines small ducts and tubules loss of fluid to extracellular matrix of - prevents Eosinophil 2-5% 2 oval lobes linked by thread-like Granules are coarse and Against helminthic infections III. may absorptive functions blood vessels have active secretory or tissues composed of gases chromatin stain pinkish-red 1. oxygen - transport of small molecules in the blood Basophil 0.5-2% Nuclei stain very faintly, often Stain blue with dye Inflammatory reaction 3. MUSCULAR TISSUE blood serum 4. secretion stomach 4. glandular 2. carbon dioxide - plasma minus the - help keep plasma in osmotic equilibrium with observed by cytoplasmic granules (U OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS TYPES SKELETAL CARDIAC SMOOTH 3. nitrogen proteins involved the cells of the body or J shaped) STRIATION striated striated Non-striated - function is for movement in clot formation 3. Globulin AGRANULOCYTE % of total WBCheart nucleus Cytoplasm digestive tube from middle ofOther features/functions - structure: LOCATION Attached to the skeleton Wall of 1. wall of (granules) esophagus to anal sphincter of anus - antibodies 1. actin 2. wall of cytoplasm Antibody production Lymphocyte 20-25% Large, somehwat spherical with some Narrow rimof respiratory passages (trachea to alveolar ducts) 2. myosin 3. wall of blood vessel (SMALLEST) indentations and only slightly 3. myocyte (muscle fiber) C.Cell Products 4. wall of ducts in glands concentric position B.Supplies for Cells 4. sarcolemma 1. Enzymes 5. amount of Monocyte 3-8% Nuclei vary from slightly indented Large arrectores pylorus in skin Macrophage (phagocytic) 1. Glucose 2. Hormones Cylindrical with blunt end - originates from mesoderm SHAPE OF FIBER Cylindrical but bifurcating (intercalcated discs) cytoplasm Spindle (BIGGEST) ovals to horseshoe-shaped structure 2. Fats 3. antibodies - unit: MUSCLE FIBER NUCLEUS acids - many - one nucleus 3. Amino D. Cellular Waste Products - specialized for contraction - syncytial - located in the center of the cell 4. Salts 1. Urea - smooth muscles lack the characteristic alternating bands - located in periphery of the cell 2. Uric acid of striated muscles INNERVATION - CNS : single innervations by motor nerve - ANS : double innervations by parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system - Voluntary control - Involuntary SPPED of CONTRACTION - Rapid and - Function is to return to the blood the excess fluid (lymph) filtered across capillary walls into interstitial spaces but with prolonged contraction - Intermediate - Slow LYMPH - Extensive network OF thin-walled vessels that arise as blind-ended powerful - Requires frequent rest period but with lower concentration of protein rest period is between successive - Only lymph capillaries in most tissues of the body - Similar to plasma - Center for production, maintenance, and distribution contraction of heart produce antibodies essential components of the bodys defense mechanisms of lymphocytes that CROSS SECTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE FLUID Fascicle - Packed fiber bundles enclosed by tough ADIPOSE for storage of lipids connective tissue TYPES OF CARTILAGE SOURCE FIBERS OTHER FEATURES Epimysium semi-rigid form a. ventral ends of ribs collagenous a. semi-translucent Perimysium with closely packed b. tracheal rings b. bluish gray color A. Hyaline Endomysium fibers embedded in c. nose larynx Sarcoplasm - Unspecialized cytoplasm of muscles matrix (gel-like d. joint surfaces Sarcolemma - Cell membrane ground substance) a. external ear elastic a. greater opacity Myofibrils CARTILAGE - Contractile elements within Elastic avascular B. the muscle fiber b. walls of auditory and Eustachian tube b. yellowish color c. epiglottis c. greater flexibility receive a. insertion of ligament and tendons into collagenous a. most resistant nourishment bone b. matrix enables to it to remove waste C. Fibrocartilage b. pubic symphysis withstand great forces of through matrix c. intervertebral discs articulation d. joints subject to severe stress calcified connective tissue BONE contains calcium salts organized around collagen fibers (see lab reviewer for parts) BASES OF CLASSIFICATION

4. NERVOUS TISSUE OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS - Irritability - Conductivity NEURON Soma Dentrites Axons/fiber Cell body GANGLION vs. NUCLEUS TYPES OF NEURON BASED ON CELL PROCESSES TYPES OF NEURON BASED ON FUNCTIONS TYPES OF CELL PROCESSES BASED ON PRESENCE/ABSENCE OF MYELIN SHEATH 1. Myelinated/medullated 2. Non-myelinated/non-medullated NERVE - Composed of several bundles of nerve fibers PART FUNCTION Fascicle Epineurium Perineurium Endonerium

1. Unipolar 1. Sensory afferent 2. Motor efferent - dorsal root ganglion 3. Association/interneuron 2. Bipolar: - pyramidal and horizontal cells from cerebral cortex, retina, olfactory membrane, ganglion of cranial nerve 3. Multipolar - Purkinje, and granular cells from cerebellum, motor neuron in spinal cord

5. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM STRUCTURE - Protective wrapping Mechanical protection against abrasion and INVERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT puncture a. Plasma membrane single celled organism - pellicle Effective barrier against bacteria Moisture proofing against fluid loss or gain b. Single layered epidermis multicellular organism - Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca) Protect underlying cells against UV - Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) - Regulatory function (temperature) Hypodermis, epicuticle, procuticle - Information getting (sensory receptors) - Excretory function Molting of arthropods (shedding of skin) - Respiratory function (frog, earthworm) - Survival Ways by which cuticle are hardened - Behavioral interactions between individuals Calcification deposition of calcium carbonate in the outer layers of the procuticle (crabs and lobsters)

ANIMAL COLOR VERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT & DERIVATIVES Basic Plan b. Dermis a. Epidermis - Blood vessels - Epithelial tissue - Pigment cells - Keratinization - Connective tissue cells - Cornified cells - Nerves - Derivatives: - Derivatives: Hair (pelage) Fish scales Feather (plumage) Bony plates Epidermal scales Fin rays Hoof Antlers Nail Flat bone of Claw skull beak structure of the surface tissue, which reflects certain light wavelengths and eliminates others 2. Color due to pigments or some molecules - Chromatophores: Melanophores melanin (black/brown) - Group of balck/brown polymers that are responsible for the various earth colored shades that most animals wear Xanthophores carotenoid (yellow) Iridophores guaninine, purine (silvery/metallic)

1.Structural color colors produced by the physical

1.

2.Sclerotization formation of highly-resistant and

insouluble protein (sclerotin) and happens when protein Vertebrate integument and derivatives molecules bond together with stabilizing cross linkages A. Epidermis within and between adjacent lammelae of the procuticle - Out stratified epithelial layer - Derived from the ectoderm Invertebrate integument - Devoid of blood vessels A. Epidermis and noncellular cuticle for additional - Keratinization: accumulation of keratin protection - Cornified (stratum corneum) - Gives rise to most derivatives of the integument (hair, feather, hooves, etc) Arthropod integument (single layered B. Dermis epidermis) : hypodermis secretes two cuticle zones - Inner, thicker layer procuticle (thicker) and epicuticle (thinner, non- Derived from the mesoderm chitinous complex of proteins and lipids) - true skin - One of the toughest materials synthesized by animals Dense connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, collagenous fibers, nerves, pigment cells, fat cells, and fibroblasts (connective tissue cells) - Support, cushion, and nourish the epidermis - Dermal derivatives: true bony structures such as heavy bony plates, scales, antlers

B.

6. SKELETAL SYSTEM OVERALL STRUCTURE CHARACTERISTICS Hydrostatic skeleton - support - protection Body fluid Muscular hydrostat - movement 1. tongue - mineral depot - earthwor 2. elephant - blood synthesis ms trunk

Rigid Skeleton (consist of rigid elements which are usually jointed and attached with muscles; antagonistic sets; can only contract and relax; provide movement in one direction only) Exoskeleton Endoskeleton (formed inside the body and is composed of bone and cartilage) 2. vertebrates - they work - skin because they derivatives a. main components b. parts c. appenicular d. parts of a long bone are composed epidermal Notochord Active connective tissue proper axial girdles (where limb Periosteum of and Spongy bones Loose areas - Semi-rigid supportive axial rod of the protochordates and all - cranium/skull bones are incompressible dermal vertebrate larvae and embryos attached) : pectoral Compact bones Haversian canals - notochord - lacks any tissues that derivative & pelvic - Composed of large, vacuolated cells - vertebral column Endosteum Squamous epithelium o parts: obvious form of remain at s - Surrounded by layers or elastic and fibrous sheaths o types: skeleton of paired Bone marrow neural arch skeletal support, constant 1. invertebrate - Stiffening device fins or limbs (wings) Diaphysis Middle part, primary ossification neural canal yet it is capable volume - test, pen, cervical (7) - neck - Preserves body shape during locomotion skeleton of median center neural spine of bending, 1. invertebrate dermal plates - Surrounded/replaced by the backbone during embryonic fins (fish) Epiphyseal plate Cartilaginous space between the centrum twisting, - spicules thoracic (12) - chest development epiphysis and diaphysis pre and post zygopophyses elongating, and - shells Cartilage Epiphysis lifting heavy (mollusks, lumbar (5) - back bone weights arthropods) cartilage + bone - tentacles 2. vertebrate sacral (5: fused) - pelvic Articular Outer part of the epiphysis - Caudal (about 4: coccyx) cartilage ribs sternum e. stages of bone formation f. growth and ossification of bone g. joints 1. Mesenchym - lose reticulate cell Growth hormones / Bones Synarthoses/i al mmovable joints 2. Cartilage Somatotrophin - growth hormoe Diarthoses/ Pivotal/rotary freely movable Gliding - stimulate the osteoblast (rapidly dividing cells) joints Ball-and-socket joint 3. Bone Calcitonin - From the thyroid gland Develops from cartilage (endochondral) Hinge joint - Inhibits bone resorption - together with vitamin D, these maintain a constant 7. LOCOMOTORY SYSTEM Embryonic cartilage is eroded bone forming cells (replacement bone) level of calcium in the blood FUNCTION TYPES OF MOVEMENT begin depositing calcium salts around strandlike remnants of the cartilage Parathormone/ - parathyroid hormone which stimulates bone Amphiarthoses 1. For movement Ciliary Muscles parathyroid resorption 2. Allows organism to move from one 1. Protozoa Origins of skeletal muscle Sequence of events involved in contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscle Intramembranous bone develops directly from shets of embryonic cells hormone - together with vitamin D, these maintain a constant place to another 2. Ciliated cells 1. Muscle I. Structures blood (dermal bone; face bones, cranium, clavicle) level of calcium in the involved 3. Allows organism to obtain food 3. Cilium/flagellum 2. Muscle fiber II. Steps in contraction Cancellous the myofibril bone) consists of an open interlacing bone (spongy STRUCTURE a. Axoneme (9+2 3. Sacromeres 1. Discharge of motor neuron - Functional unit of framework of bony tissue oriented to give maximum strength under arrangement) 2. Release of transmitter (acetylcholine) at motor-end plate Z line: dense structure that holds thin filaments together normal stresses and strains that the bone receives 3. Binding of transmitter to receptor Cilia i. Dynein - Minute, hairlike, motile all bone develops as cancellous bone (but some become compact upon processes that extend - ATP are motor 5. Thick filament (myosin) Increased permeability of end-plate membrane to Na+ and K + further deposition) from the surfaces of cells proteins attached to 5. Generation of endplate potential Osteocyte - mature bone cells of many animals microtubules Cartilage stage already (starting point) 6. - Tubulin Osteoblast Growing bones Generation of action potential in muscle fibers iii. Radial spokes 6. Sarcolemma Diaphysis : primary channels that runs 7. - Protein dynein iv. Nexin 7. Sarcoplasmic reticulum - System of fluid-filled ossification center parallel to the myofilaments Osteoclast Responsible forInwards spread of depolarization along T tubules making the bone hollow System of tubules found along the surface of the sarcolemma - Speeds up depolarization from the myoneural junction to the myofilaments within the fiber Secondary center : ephiphysis (ephiphysal plate cartilaginous : as long as the (invaginations) v. Sheath projections 8. Fascicle See myoneural junction and sarcoplasmic reticulum plate is Contractile elements within the muscle fiber present, the bone will grow) b. Kinetosome/blepharoplast/ 9. Myofibrils 8. Release of Ca from lateral sacs of sacroplasmic reticulum and diffusion to thick and basal body/basal granule thin filaments c. Microtubules 10. Myofilaments 11. Thin filaments Binding of Ca+2 to troponin C, uncovering myosin binding sites on actin Tubulin (protein Tropomyosin: two thin strands of protein that lie between actin strands (actin, tropomyosin, 10. Formation of cross-linkages between actin and myosin subunits) troponin :: contractile Troponin: located at intervals along the filament that is calcium-dependent and acts as the elements) Locomotion in some organisms control point in the contraction process Flagella - Whip-like structure 1. Planaria 13. Sarcoplasm - Unspecialized cytoplasm of muscles III. Steps in relaxation longer than a cilium and 2. Snail 14. T tubules - Numerous invaginations that project as a system of tubules into the muscle fiber Ca2+ pumped back in sacroplasmic reticulum usually present singly or 3. Earthworm - Arranged for speeding the electrical depolarization from the myoneural junction to the in small numbers at one 4. Vertebrate 2. Release of calcium from troponin myofilaments within the fiber end of a cell 3. Cessation of interaction between actin and myosin - Different from a cilium: Amoeboid Control of muscle contraction Sliding filament hypothesis Other concepts beats symmetrically with 1. Protozoa - Muscle contracts in response to nerve stimulation snake-like undulations so 1. Muscle twitch - Used to explain striated muscle contraction that water is propelled If the nerve supply to a muscle is severed, the muscle atrophies or wastes away Pseudopodia (false 1. Thick and thin filaments become linked 2. Stair case/treppe parallel to the long axis feet) together by molecular cross bridges, which act as 3. Muscle trophy and hypertrophy Motor unit: motor neuron and all muscle fibers it innervates (functional unit of a skeletal muscle) of the flagellum 4. Tetanus levers to pull the filaments past each other 3. Microfilaments 2. During contraction, cross bridges on the 5. Muscle tonus Pseudopodi - False feet 4. White blood cells Motor unit recruitment: happens when a smooth and steady increase in muscle tension is produced thick filaments swing rapidly back and forth, a by increasing the number of motor units brought into play alternately attaching to and releasing from Muscle - Fibers (highly developed special receptor sites on the thin filaments and muscle cells) Myoneural junction drawing thin filaments past thick in a kind of - Place where a motor axon terminates on a muscle fiber ratchet action 3. Z-lines pulled closer together Synaptic cleft: tiny gap that thinly separates a never fiber and muscle fiber 4. Sacromere shortens 5. Muscle contracts Acetylcholine in synaptic vesicles Released when a nerve impulse reaches a synapse Relaxing requires the force supplied by the A chemical mediator that diffuses across the narrow junction and acts on the muscle fiber membrane to antagonistic muscles or forced gravity generate an electrical depolarization = contraction

1. 2. 3. 4.

4.

i.

9.

1.

2.

8. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 9. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM TYPES OF ORGANISMS RESPIRATION TYPES OF AS TO HOW THEY OBTAIN VENTILATION - respiratory medium and structure (increase frequency of contact) GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN LUNGS ORGANIZATION OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL THEIR ENERGY OR NUTRITION Rhythmic body 1. Direct/cutaneous Water current Breathing Use of air sacs Laws of physical diffusion (high to low concentration) 1. Autotrophs movements 1. Herbivores have suppressed canines but well developed molarsgreater than - Partial pressure of oxygen in lung alveoli is Terminal digestion & Absorption Reception (mouth) a. Phototrophs with enamel ridges for grinding in venous blood of lung capillaries, oxygen diffuses it is 2. Indirect 1. Paddle-like 1. Positive pressure breathing (frog) Action to force air into lungs Parabronchi I. Structure - First region of the alimentary canal consists of devices - Long, coiled to increase surface length b. Chemotrophsstages energy from inorganic 2. Rodents have well developed, self-sharpening incisors that grow into the lung capillaries appendages - Birds 2. Negative pressure breathing Conduction pulled into the lungs by expansion of the thoracic cavity increase inner surface Air is 2 gain (energy from food is for feeding and swallowing - Inward folding chemical reactions by oxidative - Carbon dioxide by gnawing to keep pace with 2. Coordinated - Air sacs that servethroughout their life and must be worn awayin blood of the lung capillaries has a as air reservoirs during (humans) released - Swallowing begins with the tongue pushing moistened area for more absorption 2. Heterotrophsprocesses usually with growth higher concentration than has this same gas in lung movements of jaws ventilation a. Intercostal muscles food toward the pharynx 3. modified carbon dioxide diffuses from the FEEDING MECHANISMS and operculum 1. Small intestine - Where gas exchange takes Elephants tusk is a alveoli =upper incisor used for defense, blood into the place (25%) molecular oxygen as the b. Diaphragm attack, and rooting alveoli 3. - churning is a. Suspension feeder (worms) a. Buccal Countercurrent a. Esophagus Duodenum - The intestinal end where Remaining air bypasses the lungs to enter terminal electron acceptor :: c. Inspiration Pulls ribs upward, flattens the diaphragm, and enlarges the chest exchange the air sacs (gas exchange does not occur cavity -Most important and widely employed methods for - Peristaltic contraction of most vigorous with oxygen taken across a cavity 4. Digestion (carrying asunder) here) feeding esophageal muscles forces - First region of the small intestine respiratory process) b. Teeth Opposite Causes air pressure in lungs to fall below atmospheric pressure movement of blood - Receive nearly fresh air during inspiration Partial pressure of gas broken down into small - Organic foods are mechanically and chemically -Use ciliated surfaces to produce currents that draw c. - Where food is steadily released a. External respiration Pharynx d. Expiration food smoothly toward the Less active process than inspiration in capillaries slides down the pharynx, and expiration units for absorption As food drifting food environment to RBC : stomach (from particles into their mouths due to the mixture of gases (71% nitrogen and 20.9% Muscles relax, diaphragm return to original position, chest cavity (oxygen towards tips down over the b. Substrate feeder of carbon dioxide and - Serves to transfer food to size, elastic lungs deflate, air exits exchange the epiglottis oxygen) decreases in the blood vessel) A. Action of digestive enzymes -Remove whatever provides nourishment from the oxygen between the organism and trachea, nearly closing it Tidal volumethe500 mL region Partial pressure of oxygen in blood is greater than that e. = digestive food (annelids) environment) d. Tongue b. Jejunum - Attached to thef.Vitalof the floor capacity = b. Crop or in the blood 3400 mL Reduction of foods to small, absorbable units relies principally on c. Fluid feeder - used for food storage before Ileum b. Internal respiration mouth Gases diffuse from a location of higher concentration to 4800 mL chemical breakdown by enzymes -Absorb(RBC to epithelial cells)them nutrients surrounding digestion - Assists in food manipulation one of lower concentration 2. Villi - Increase internal surface area g. Residual volume - annelids, insects, octopods, -Used by parasites (ecto and endo), mosquitoes - Facilitates greater absorption g. Bolus - Food mass h. Total lung capacity Digestive enzymes are hydrolytic enzymes Hg x 20.96% = 159 mm Hg birds d. Bulk feeder PO2 = 760 mm (hydrolases) - Minute finger-like projections inside the h. Salivary - Buccal glands that produce - serves to store and soften Types of teeth (mammals are the only ones intestines gland lubricating secretions containing Hydrolalses = food is split by the = 760 mm hydrolysis = 0.3 mm Hg PCO2 process of Hg x 0.04% food before it passes to the capable of true mastication) - Gives the intestine a velvet-like feeling mucus to assist swallowing B. Motility in the alimentary canal stomach a. Incisors for biting, cutting, and stripping RESPIRATORY MEDIUM RESPIRATORY PIGMENT AND TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN STRUCTURE AND 5. Microvilli - Delicate processes that border each cell FUNCTION OF THE MAMMALIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM b. Canines for seizing, piercing, and tearing Hemocyanin RESPIRATORY ORGANS/ RESPIRATORY intestinal cavity - Solubility of oxygen in Blue, copper-containg protein, occurscarbohydrate- and mollusks salivary amylase : in crustaceans of the lining of the Food is moved through the digestive tract by cilia or by specialized Premolars - for grinding so low that plasma Hemoglobin Air enters the respiratory system through nostrils (external nares) plasma is and crushing (back of the jaw) STRUCTURES Most widespread respiratory pigment - Increase splitting enzyme that begins musculature d. Molars for grinding and crushing (back of the jaw) alone cannot carry enough A. Gas exchange by driedFacilitates(plasma surface area Red-iron-containing protein present inand vertebrates and many invertebrates - diffusion internal hydrolysis of plant all animal Movement with mucus-secreting epithelium Air passes through a nasal chamber (linedby cilia in the aceolomate and oxygen to support metabolic Heme membrane, integument) - Facilitates greater absorption 5% heme (iron-containing compound givingthe acidic starches (inactivated by the red color to the blood pseudocoelomate metazoan that lack mesodermally derived processes 1. Cutaneous respiration direct diffusion of Great affinity for oxygen) environment of the stomach) musculature of true: coleomates Air then passes through the internal nares nasal openings connected to the pharynx - Needs hemoglobin 6. gases of Valve does not completely hydrolyze -Kerkring sponges, protozoa Worms, CHARACTERISTIC OF Globin 95% globin (colorless protein) Cilia move intestinal fluids 2. 7. Eel vascularof RESPIRATORY STRUCTURES Typhlosole skin - Inward folding of dorsal intestinal Inhaled air leaves the pharynx by passing into a narrow opening : glottis walls food = MALTOSE (2 glucose oligochaete of of worms 1. Highly vascularized internal Oxyhemoglobin - Hemoglobin with fragments) bound oxygen Most characteristic of the gut movement : segmentation Food pass to B. Gas exchange through Effectively increases internal surface enters the esophagus to IN THE the stomach CANAL - tubes : tracheal cavities - Its sensitivity to carbon dioxide affects the conformation of hemoglobin and TYPES OF HETEROTROPHS BASED ON DIETARY /MOTILITY ALIMENTARY systems area of the gut in a narrow body lacking 2. Thin walled for exchange therefore its release of oxygen to tissues digestion Grinding & Early HABITS Alternate constriction of rings of smooth muscle of the Glottis opens to the larynx (voice box) and then to the trachea (wind pipe) 1. Use of branching systems of tubescoiled intestine space for a (trachea) of 1. Herbivorous gases Carboxyhemoglob - Carbon monoxide intestine that constantly divide and squeeze the contents 3. Wet so oxygen can move in I. Structure II. that extends to all parts of the body Secretions into 2. Carnivorous back and forth Trachea branches into two bronchi a. Tracheoles : end channels duodenum 3. Omnivorous Dissociation curve- Oxygen dissociation curve Serves to mix food but does not move it through the b. TYPES OF DIGESTION 1. - Hemoglobin saturation curves Stomach of 1. Spiracles: where air enters in the tracheal Pancreatic juice gut Within the lungs each bronchus divides and subdivides into small tubes (bronchioles) that lead system a. Intracellular ruminant - The lower the surrounding oxygen tension, the greater the quantity if oxygen via alveolar ducts to the air sacs (alveoli) food down the gut with waves of Valve like- openings Peristalsis : sweeps the - Food particle is enclosed within a food vacuole by released a. Rumen a. Bicarbonate High bicarbonate content of pancreatic - Single-layered endothelial walls of the alveoli and alveolar ducts are thin and moist to facilitate - Where carbon dioxide diffuses out phagocytosis -b. Omasum oxygen to be released to those tissues which need it most (those with Allows more juice and bile of gases contraction of circular adjacent between air sacs and muscle 2. Insects respiration is -independent the acidic pH of food exchangeOrganization and regional function of theblood capillaries 1. Digestive enzymes are added and the the lowest partial pressure of oxygen) Neutralized of its alimentary canal c. Rennin - milk curdling enzyme found in the stomach - Lined with mucus-secreting and ciliated epithelial cells circulatory system (no direct role in oxygen products of digestion (simple sugars, amino digestied Bohr shift - Carbon dioxide shiftsusedhemoglobin saturation curve to the right A. Receiving Region: mouthparts - the in making cheese - Partial cartilage rings in the walls of the trachea, bronchi, and even some of the bronchioles transport) acids, and other molecules) are absorbed into - As carbon dioxide enters the blood from respiring tissues, it causes hemoglobin to b. Pancreatic B. Conduction collapsing region and storage prevent structures from the cell cytoplasm where they may be used unload more oxygen enzymes 7. THE PARTS OF THE LUNGS: C. Efficient exchange in water: Gills directly or (in multicellular animals) be -e. Reticulum Opposite event occurs in the lungs = as carbon dioxide diffuses from venous blood i. Trypsin - Both continue the enzymatic digestion of connective tissue and someearly digestion a. Elastic C. Region of grinding and muscle 1. Examples: transferred to other cells ii. Chymotrypsin proteins begun by pepsin, which is now f.into alveolar space, the hemoglobin saturation curve shifts back to the left allowing Absomasum a. External surfaces Cellulase: the only enzyme capable of pleura 2. Food wastes are simply extruded from the oxygen activated by the alkalinity of the Covered by a thin layer of tough epithelium visceralbreaking down the woody 2. moreGizzard to be loaded onto hemoglobin - Muscular structure b. Dermal papulae sea stars cell cellulose that encloses the plant CONTROL OF BREATHING parts that assist in digesting harder food intestine - Hardened c. Brsnchial tufts marine worms - Limitations: - Split apart peptide bonds deep inside Medulla - Neurons in the medulla of the3. brain regulate normal. Quiet breathing pouches arising from the main passage lined Parietal D. Region of terminal digestion of the walls of the chest pleura lines the inner surface and absorption: The intestine Digestive - blind tubules or d. Internal gills fish 1. Only E. Digestion pleura vertebrate small intestine the protein molecule oblongataparticles small enough to be - Neurons spontaneously produce rhythmical bursts thatwith a multipurpose epithelium having cells specialized for stimulate contraction of the diaphragm and external diverticula o Two layers of the in the are in contact and slide over one another as the lungs expand and o Countercurrent flow phagocytized can be accepted - Powerful protease intercostals muscles secreting mucus, digestive enzymes, or absorption or storage contract 1. Pyloric sphincter provides greatest possible extraction 2. 2. Duodenum iv. Carboxypeptid - Removes amino acids from carboxyl PonsEvery cell must be capable of secreting (invertebrates) of oxygen from water 2 all of the necessary enzymes 3 2 2 3+ - Essential change in pleura maintains a partial vacuum, which helps Pleural cavity space between the pH of chime because all intestinal enzymes are keep the ase ends of polypeptides CO + H O H CO 4.HCO + H Stomach - Provides initial digestion as well as storage and mixing of foods Water flows over the gills in a steady 3. - Carbonic acid is created Every cell must be capable of absorbing effective only in a neutral or slightly alkaline medium with digestive juices v. Pancreatic pulled and pushed by an fatty acids and lungs expanded to fill the pleural cavity - Hydrolyzes fat into stream, the products into the cytoplasm F. Absorption - Carbonic acid then dissociates to release hydrogen ions, making the cerebrospinal fluid more acidic, and stimulating respiratory lipase glycerol efficient, 2-valved, branchial pump b. Extracellular (most arthropods and vertebrates) Little food by the spine, the and breastbone, digestion is still the chest cavity is bounded is absorbed inribs, stomach becauseand floored by the diaphragm U-shaped muscular tube provided with glands that receptors in the medulla of the brain vi. Pancreatic - often splitting enzyme identical to Gill ventilation isStarch assisted by - Where digestion of anhydrase: water-carbonate part incomplete and because of limited surface area - Carbonic large food masses could take : dome-shaped, muscular partition between the chest cavity and abdomen produce proteolytic enzymes and strong acids amylase salivary amylase in its the fishs forward movement through action place Most digested food is absorbed from the small intestine (villi) Phrenic nerves a. Cardiac the water (ram ventilation) -Certain cells lining the lumen of the alimentary canal Intestine is impermeable to muscular abdomen found only in mammals polysaccharides (carbohydrates are Opens reflexively to allow food to enter then closes to sphincter Intercostal vii. Nucleases - Degrade RNA and DNA to nucleotides specialize in forming various digestive secretions, absorbed as simple sugars) prevent regurgitation back into the esophagus (as food enters nerves D. Lungs whereas other function largely in absorption Proteins A. VENTILATING- THE LUNGS are absorbed principally the stomach) MAMMALS -With increased regional specialization 3 IMPORTANT CHANGES IN AIR DURING ITS PASSAGE TO AIR SACS of the Absorbed food, etc Chest cavity is an air-tight chamber are diffused into the blood (lower a. It is filtered free from most dust and other foreign substances 1. Alveoli digestive tract concentration) b. Warmed by body temperature - Large surface area essential for the high B. HOW BREATHING IS COORDINATED c. oxygen uptake required - Secreted by the liver in the bile duct to support the NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS Saturated with moisture c. Pyloric - Regulates the flow of food into the intestine and prevents 2. Bile of air changes regulate digestion 1. Composition Hormones that as soon as it enters the respiratory tract elevated metabolic rate of endothermic -Vitamin is a relatively simple organic compound that sphincter regurgitation in the stomach COMPOSITION OF INSPIRES, EXPIRED & ALVEOLAR PAIRS 2. Inspired air becomes saturated with water vapor as it travels through air-filled passageways mammals Drained into the upper intestine is not a carbohydrate, fat, protein, mineral; required Inspired air (vol %) Expired air (vol %) Alveolar air (vol%) toward the alveoli Leptin: tells the hypothalamus how much fat the body carries (at high - Many capillaries Deep tubular glands in the stomach secrete gastric (duodenum) in very small amounts in the diet for some specific levels, release of leptin from cells leads to diminished appetite and Oxygen 20.96 16 14 3. Air mixes with residual air remaining by fatthe previous respiratory cycle 2. Disadvantages juice 5.5 cellular function increased thermogenesis) 4. Partial pressure of oxygen drops and that of carbon dioxide rises Carbon dioxide 0.04 4 Collects in the - Gas is exchanged between blood and air gallbladder (storage 5. Upon expiration, air from the alveoli mixes with the air in the dead space to produce a different nitrogen 79 80 80.5 Relaxes at intervals to allow entry of acidic stomach Essential nutrients: needed for normal only in the alveoli (located in at the ends ofbile when stimulated sac that releases a Gastrin: produced by endocrine cells in the pyloric portion of the mixture TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE the initial segment of the small intestine branching tree of air tubes the presence of fatty food in the contents into by trachea, bronchi, growth and maintenance and that must be supplied stomach which stimulates HCl secretion and increase gastric motility 1. 67% bicarbonate ion (plasma and RBC water) and bronchioles) (duodenum) duodenum) in the diet Although no significant gas exchange takes place in the dead space, air it contains is the first 2. 25% combined with hemoglobin (carbaminohemoglobin) - Air must enter and exit through the same - 2 secretions: BILE and PANCREATIC JUICE (high bicarbonate TYPES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM air to leave the CCK (cholecystokinin):begins body when expiration secreted in the walls of the small intestine 3. 8% physically dissolved CO2 in plasma and RBC channel content) which: a. Complete - After exhalation : air tubes are filled with 1. stimulates gallbladder contraction and increases flow of PRESSURE b. Incomplete PROBLEMS OF AQUATIC AND AERIAL BREATHING C. GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN LUNGS & BODY TISSUES: DIFFUSION AND PARTIAL bile into used air from the alveoli Since fats are resistant to enzymatic the intestine ACTION OF DIGESTIONmust be thin f. Rugae a. No enzyme - which, during the - Respiratory surfaces ENZYMES D. HOW RESPIRATORY GASES ARE TRANSPORTED following inhalation is pulled back into the 2. stimulates an enzyme-rich secretion from digestion - Respiratory surfaces must always be kept wet with a fine film of fluid to allow diffusion of gases across an aqueous phase between - Respiratory pigments in the blood transport carbon dioxide the pancreas lungs 3. the R-R + H2O environment and the underlying circulation g. Types of cells: digestive enzyme R-OH + H-R b. Bile salts (mainly - Essential for digestion of fats - For hemoglobin to acts on the the bodycontribute a feeling of satiety after a meal chemical of value to brain to it must hold oxygen in a loose, reversible - Volume of air in a lungs passageways : Evaginations - gills (food molecule) 9. sodium - Reduce surface tension of fat globules combination so that it can be released to tissues i. Chief cells (pepsin) - Secrete pepsin (a protease : protein splitting enzyme) that acts DEAD SPACE secretin: produced in theis high (capillaries and lung alveoli) 10. Invaginations lungs and trachea (pumping mechanisms to move air anand out of the body) (products) taurocholate and (large, water-insoluble) a. Hemoglobin binds oxygen: when oxygen concentration duodenal wall and secreted in response only in in acidic medium - Lung ventilation is so inefficient : in normal to food and strong acid in when oxygen partial pressure is low sodium - Allows the churningb. Hemoglobin releases its stored oxygen reserves:the stomach (stimulate the release of an alkaline action of intestine REGULATION OF FOOD INTAKE - Splits large proteins by preferentially breaking down certain breathing only 1/6 of the air in the lungs is pancreatic fluid that neutralizes stomach acid as it enters the intestine) glycocholate) to break fats into tiny droplets FROG RESPIRATION peptide bonds scattered along the peptide chain of protein replenished with each inspiration Hunger center regulates intakedrawing air into the mouth through the molecules (emulsification) 1. Ventilate lungs by first of food external nares (nostrils)

a. b.

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