The Physical Layer

The Theoretical Basis for Data Communication

Fourier Analysis Bandwidth-Limited Signals Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

Bandwidth-Limited Signals

A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes. (b) (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)

(d) (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)

Relation between data rate and harmonics.

If b is bit rate (bps) then bit duration is 1/b s Time to send 8 bits T = 8/b s. Therefore for b = 300 Bps T = 8/300 = 0.02667 s = 26.67 ms. Since T is the period the first harmonic has frequency 1/T = 300/8 = 37.5 Hz. Within the bandwidth of 3000 Hz you can send 3000/37.5 = 80 harmonics.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)

Relation between data rate and harmonics.

If b is bit rate (bps) then bit duration is 1/b s Time to send 8 bits T = 8/b s. Therefore for b = 300 Bps T = 8/300 = 0.02667 s = 26.67 ms. Since T is the period the first harmonic has frequency 1/T = 300/8 = 37.5 Hz. Within the bandwidth of 3000 Hz you can send 3000/37.5 = 80 harmonics.

Nyquist (1924) analog to digital

The minimum sampling rate to recover any bandlimited signal to H Hz is 2H (samples per second). Example: assume 2400 bps 10 harmonics bandwidth 3000 Hz. T = 3.33 ms. Minimum sampling rate is 6000 samples/sec, or every 1/6 = 0.167 ms or 20 samples per period.
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.00

0.16

0.32

0.48

0.64

0.79

0.95

1.11

1.27

1.43

1.59

1.75

1.91

2.07

2.23

2.38

2.54

2.70

2.86

3.02

t (m s)

3.18

-0 .2

Telephone example
Subscriber loop has a bandwidth over 1 MHz. However, switching office filters every signal to 4000 Hz. Therefore, after entering a switch the analog voice is limited to 4000 Hz. Minimum sampling rate is then 8000 samples (pulses) per sec. Inversely Nyquist theorem also says that maximum sample (pulse) rate going through the filter H that can be recovered is 2H. Pulse per sec = baud. Since the value of every sample is represented by 8 bits, bit rate required for digital transport of voice is: 8000 bauds * 8 bits/baud = 64000 bps = 64 kbps. In addition if max amplitude pulse is divided into V levels then the bit rate carried with 2H baud is 2H*log2V. For example modem with 2400 bauds and V = 64 has bit rate of 2400*log264=2400*6=14,400 bps. Is there any limit on V?
8

Shannon (1948) theorems

Bit rate in a noisy channel. Shannon Capacity Theorem: maximum bit rate = H log2(1 + S/N), where H - channel bandwidth, S signal power, N noise power. For instance: Voice-grade line channel H = 3000 Hz and S/N = 30 dB -> S/N = 1000, therefore, maximum bit rate = 3000 log2(1001) = 30000 bps. Definition of dB = 10 log10 (S/N).

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the original signal (Proof - Stallings appendix 4A) Voice data limited to below 4000Hz Require 8000 sample per second Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation, PAM) Each sample assigned digital value

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (2)

4 bit system gives 16 levels Quantized Quantizing error or noise Approximations mean it is impossible to recover original exactly 8 bit sample gives 256 levels Quality comparable with analog transmission 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives 64kbps

Nonlinear Encoding
Quantization levels not evenly spaced Reduces overall signal distortion Can also be done by companding

Delta Modulation

Analog input is approximated by a staircase function Move up or down one level () at each sample interval Binary behavior Function moves up or down at each sample interval

Delta Modulation - example

Delta Modulation - Performance

Good voice reproduction PCM - 128 levels (7 bit) Voice bandwidth 4khz Should be 8000 x 7 = 56kbps for PCM Data compression can improve on this e.g. Interframe coding techniques for video

Digital Signal Encoding Formats

Nonreturn-to-Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
0 = high level, 1 = low level

Nonreturn-to-Zero-Inverted (NRZI)
0 = no transition at beginning of interval (one bit time) 1 = transition at beginning of interval

Bipolar Alternate-Mark-Inversion (AMI)

0 = no line signal 1 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive ones

Pseudoternary
0 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive zeros 1 = no line signal

Manchester Encodings
Manchester
Transition in middle of each bit period Transition serves as clock and data Low to high represents one High to low represents zero Used by IEEE 802.3

Differential Manchester
Middle of bit transition is clocking only Transition at start of a bit period represents zero No transition at start of a bit period represents one Note: this is a differential encoding scheme Used by IEEE 802.5

Comparison of encodings

NRZ pros and cons

Pros
Easy to engineer Make good use of bandwidth

Cons
dc component Lack of synchronization capability

Used for magnetic recording Not often used for signal transmission

Guided Transmission Data

Magnetic Media (tape/floppy) Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Fiber Optics

Twisted Pair

(a) Category 3 UTP. (b) Category 5 UTP.

Coaxial Cable

A coaxial cable.

Fiber Optics

(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles. (b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.

Transmission of Light through Fiber

Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region.

Fiber Cables

(a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.

Fiber Cables (2)

A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs as light sources.

Fiber Optic Networks

A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.

Fiber Optic Networks (2)

A passive star connection in a fiber optics network.

Wireless Transmission
The Electromagnetic Spectrum Radio Transmission Microwave Transmission Infrared and Millimeter Waves Lightwave Transmission

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.

Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth. (b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

Politics of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

The ISM bands in the United States.

Lightwave Transmission

Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems. A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.

Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites Low-Earth Orbit Satellites Satellites versus Fiber

Communication Satellites

Communication satellites and some of their properties, including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage.

Communication Satellites (2)

The principal satellite bands.

Communication Satellites (3)

VSATs using a hub.

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites Iridium

(a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the earth. (b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.

Globalstar

(a) Relaying in space. (b) Relaying on the ground.

Public Switched Telephone System

Structure of the Telephone System The Politics of Telephones The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless Trunks and Multiplexing Switching

Structure of the Telephone System

(a) Fully-interconnected network. (b) Centralized switch. (c) Two-level hierarchy.

Structure of the Telephone System (2)

A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.

Major Components of the Telephone System

Local loops
Analog twisted pairs going to houses and businesses

Trunks
Digital fiber optics connecting the switching offices

Switching offices
Where calls are moved from one trunk to another

The Politics of Telephones

The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the circles are LEC switching offices. Each hexagon belongs to the IXC whose number is on it.

LATA
Local Access and Transport Area

IXC
Intermediate Exchange POP: point of presence

LEC
Local Exchange carriers

The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL, and Wireless

The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to computer call. Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.

Analog Modulation

Modems

(a) A binary signal (b) Amplitude modulation

(c) Frequency modulation (d) Phase modulation

Modems (2)

(a) QPSK. (b) QAM-16. (c) QAM-64.

Modems (3)

(a) (a) V.32 for 9600 bps. (b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.

(b)

Digital Subscriber Lines

Bandwidth versus distanced over category 3 UTP for DSL.

Digital Subscriber Lines (2)

Operation of ADSL using discrete multitone modulation.

Digital Subscriber Lines (3)

DSLAM: digital subscriber line access multiplexer

A typical ADSL equipment configuration.

Wireless Local Loops

Architecture of an LMDS system.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

(a) The original bandwidths. (b) The bandwidths raised in frequency. (b) The multiplexed channel.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength division multiplexing.

Time Division Multiplexing

The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).

Time Division Multiplexing (3)

Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

Time Division Multiplexing (4)

Two back-to-back SONET frames.

Time Division Multiplexing (5)

SONET and SDH multiplex rates.

Circuit Switching

(a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching.

Message Switching

(a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching

Packet Switching

A comparison of circuit switched and packet-switched networks.

The Mobile Telephone System

First-Generation Mobile Phones: Analog Voice Second-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice Third-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and Data

Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells. (b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.

Channel Allocation
FCC initially allocated two slots for cellular telephone use in the 800 MHz band, one at 825 MHz to 845 MHz, and the other from 870 MHz to 890 MHz. These two 20 MHz slots are divided into 30 kHz wide channels, numbered from 1 to 666. Channels are paired in each of the slots, so a 30 kHz channel in the lower slot corresponds to a 30 kHz channel in the upper slot. The A Band carrier, was granted use of channels 1 to 333, and the B Band carrier, was given use of channels 334 to 666. In 1985 the FCC allocated another 10 MHz of spectrum, providing an additional 166 channels, which gave cellular networks a total of 832 channels.

Channel Categories
The 832 channels are divided into four categories:

Control (base to mobile) to manage the system Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to calls for them Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel assignment Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data
Frequency range (832 channel system) Direction Reverse (MT) Forward (T M) Lower (MHz) 824.040 869.040 Upper (MHz) 848.970 893.970

D-AMPS Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) A D-AMPS channel with three users. (b) A D-AMPS channel with six users.

GSM Global System for Mobile Communications

GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an eight-slot TDM system

GSM (2)

A portion of the GSM framing structure.

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access

(a) Binary chip sequences for four stations (b) Bipolar chip sequences (c) Six examples of transmissions (d) Recovery of station Cs signal

Third-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and Data

Basic services an IMT-2000 network should provide High-quality voice transmission Messaging (replace e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc.) Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.) Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)

Cable Television
Community Antenna Television Internet over Cable Spectrum Allocation Cable Modems ADSL versus Cable

Community Antenna Television

An early cable television system.

Internet over Cable

Cable television

Internet over Cable (2)

The fixed telephone system.

Spectrum Allocation

Frequency allocation in a typical cable TV system used for Internet access

Cable Modems

Typical details of the upstream and downstream channels in North America.