Variation of muscle-tendon flexibility during different training sessions of a microcycle in soccer: practical applications

Marco De Michelis, MSc, BSc, DUEPP, University of Motor Science, Turin, Italy.
Abstract This research focuses on the variation of muscle-tendon flexibility (MTF) in hamstring and back muscles during different training sessions of a microcycle in soccer. The sample examined consisted of 16 mid-level football players, tested at four different times during the training session: before warm-up (pre warm-up), after warm-up (post warm-up), after main training (post main training) and after cool-down (post cool-down). Tests were performed through Sit and Reach Test (SRT). There was a significant increase (p<0.04) in flexibility in the pre warm-up and post cool-down trials compared to the sprint session, while during technical-tactical session MTF did not show any significant change. The data as evaluated, being specific to the nature of the sample, the sport of soccer and hamstring muscles in particular, showed that both warm-up of training sessions does not provide the highest values of ROM, suggesting therefore the inception of additional stretching exercises on basal conditions to reach the maximum ROM since the beginning of workouts. Key words: muscle-tendon flexibility, micro-cycle, injury, hamstring, warm-up
Authors e-mail address: marco.demy@tiscali.it

Introduction Strength and conditioning is a key element in coping up with the various demands of the soccer game (Le Gall 2002), that consists of frequent high intensity anaerobic bouts alternated almost every 6 seconds with aerobic phases of lower intensity: rest periods, jogging, walking, utility movements and ball stop as imposed by the game rules (Mohr et al. 2003). Osgnach et al. (2010) showed that in soccer performance, 46% of the total amount of energetic cost and almost 25% of total distance covered rely on anaerobic systems during the game. Several studies (Dellal et al. 2008) highlight how soccer players need to improve different physical skills to be competitive, such as explosive strength, quickness, agility and endurance. Among these, one in particular is often underestimated and its training neglected: mobility of the locomotive apparatus. Recent surveys (Witvrouw et al. 2003, Croisier 2004) highlight how the mobility of the locomotive apparatus is a determining factor in regard to balanced physical fitness. This physical skill consists of joint mobility (JM) in conjunction with muscle-tendon flexibility (MTF) (Gollin 2006). JM is the ability to perform wide movements around joints, while MTF represents the maximum longitudinal stretching sustainable by muscle-tendon structures. Gaining flexibility means to stretch ones own muscles without incurring an injury such as those that can occur with unusual movements, which may cause possible overstretching phenomenon. Furthermore, it has been shown that during repeated high intensity bouts, the onset of fatigue significantly reduces MTF (Weineck 2009). Considering this finding, training the reserve of MTF seems to be very important, that is the difference between the higher physiological ranges of motion (ROM) sustainable by muscle-tendon unit (MTU) by active stretching and that by passive stretching (Gollin 2009). In other words, achieving higher levels of active MTF compensates for the physiological decrease in ROM following fatiguing conditions (Weineck 2009). Additionally, training aerobic fitness and muscular endurance as well as resistance to fatigue in terms of strength and specific movements could let athletes to withstand the onset of fatigue and consequent reducing injury risks (Brooks et al. 2006). Aerobic and muscular endurance will improve economy of movement, reducing the risk to perform rough movement in terms of technique, improving performance and reducing the risk of sustaining injuries.

Several authors (Witvrouw et al. 2003, Croisier 2004) found a strong inverse correlation between reduced MTF values and injury onset in soccer; it seems that the lack of MTF of hamstring muscles is related to muscle-tendon injuries because of the apparent decrease of strain tension absorption capacity of the hamstring muscles during the game. Out of football topic, to highlight how hamstring strains are related to the lack of flexibility one cites Hartig, Hendersons (1999) study, which found a correlation between the training of hamstring flexibility and the strain occurrence. They monitored a sample of U.S. Marines troops along a 13 weeks training period and stated that the group who underwent training on hamstring flexibility had significantly less strain injuries than the one who did not (p<0.02). It is important to state that hamstring strain injuries do not concern only with lack of MTF: they have a multi-factorial etiology such as fatigue, strength imbalance between flexors and extensors thigh muscles and, most importantly, the preinjury situation (Croisier et al. 2008, Greig, Siegler 2009). Scientific literature shows that soccer is a very traumatic sport, with reports of several types of strain injury, especially of leg flexors muscles, more frequently in high level soccer; 85% of injuries occur on lower limbs; of which, 23% are thigh strains, being more frequent in hamstring muscles than in quadriceps (Ekstrand 2008, Walden et al. 2005). Literature reports as well that main soccer-specific actions involved in thigh strains occur during training and most frequently during matches, performing sprint bouts and kicks to the ball (Ekstrand et al. 2011). Analysis of MTF variation within specific training sessions becomes very important in providing a practical preventive measure while achieving optimal physical fitness, focusing on one of many issues involved in several game-specific injuries, that is the lack of MTF (Witvrouw et al. 2003, Dadebo et al. 2004). Despite several studies concerning with MTF and soccer topics, there is little or no research which has specifically investigated MTF variation trends during different training sessions in this sport. There is just some information regarding the most often used test for hamstring and back muscles to assess stretching values, namely the Sit and Reach Test, which is used for its ease of application, for its reliability and for reproducibility of measurements (Gabbe et al. 2004), and regarding the most appropriate technique to

gain flexibility in soccer, passive static stretching (PSS) or PNF technique (Dadebo et al. 2004). Despite some information about methodology and test used, the trends assumed by MTF during training sessions in soccer are currently unknown. The purpose of this study was to gain useful information about the most appropriate time to perform one of the best technique for gaining flexibility, that is PSS into training sessions, with particular regard to hamstring muscles, which are often injured during soccer-specific trainings and matches (Ekstrand et al. 2011); basing on consequent findings, it will be possible to use data to provide useful applications for a more effective warm-up protocol suitable for the following training sessions, able to meet specific trend of hamstring muscles flexibility.

on MTF occur because of different training contents are performed during the microcycle. For this reason the aim of this study was to monitor MTF trends during different training sessions, containing different technical-conditioning elements. Subsequent exercitations are world-wide recognized by scientific literature (Dellal et al. 2008). Interspersed through the microcycle there were some rest days; such as Monday (day after match), Thursday and Saturday before the match. A third aerobic training session on Wednesday was arranged but was not included in the results as consistent measurements could not be obtained because there was no standard protocol for all players. Training sessions: Tuesday, sprint session (Table 1): main part of workout was focused on improvement of stride rate and quickness. During general warm-up pre-athletic gaits were performed as skip, heel kick, etc., typical track and field sprint warm-up exercises. Furthermore, JM exercises were performed, focusing on shoulder and pelvic girdle, to improve ROM of main joints involved in this sport. Specific warm-up was composed of a match simulation with progressively growing intensity and limited body contacts, with reduced ball touches; with a total duration of 15 minutes. Main training was composed of three essential drills, with duration of 65 minutes. Agility and stride rate drills: quick feet movement limiting ground contact time around cones or movement sideward or forward beyond a line traced on the ground. Resisted sprint: acceleration over 20 meters resisted by a load of 5 kg tied to players waist by a cord. Technical exercises: technical-tactical exercises carried out by the coach to improve team playing specific-skills. Cool-down was required to return the body progressively back to starting conditions, lowering heart rate and reducing blood lactate by a low intensity run of 5 minutes duration. Trained skills on Tuesday are important to improve agility drills for shifting in tight spaces, the ability to perform acceleration and deceleration capacity on short distances of approximately 20 meters as well as sprint stride rate and stride length (Le Gall 2002).
Tuesday, (Table 1): Sprint training session into the microcycle of tests.
TUESDAY
Session duration: 90' PHASES 1 Warm-up CONTENTS low intensity match simulation + athletic gaits and joint mobility sprint stride rate and agility drills resisted sprint technical/ tactical (trainer) 3 Cool-down low intensity run 5' 3 x 10'' X 5 6x20 m LOAD DURATION 15'

Methods
Sixteen mid-level football players were tested (aged 161 years, height 1746 cm, body mass 668 kg, 101 years of training). They belong to the Academy of an Italian semiprofessional football team during the season 2009/2010. These athletes competed in a regional-level championship and carried out three training sessions per week, plus a match on Sunday. Training sessions were carried out from 18:30 to 20:00 p.m. The match was played on Sunday morning at 10:30 a.m. At the time of testing no athlete reported any physical impairment capable of affecting test results. Equipment The apparatus used for the measurements was a wooden box with a millimeter scale attached to the upper surface, with a range of 0-60 cm, where 0 was closer to the subject. On the front side of the box a wooden triangle with a base of 17 cm was attached with the vertex pointing downward, making an angle of 36, so-called Pioks angle. Tests development With the purpose of providing the coach with practical applications regarding the use of stretching exercise during training sessions, assessment through SRT occurred at 4 different times during workout: 1. Before warm-up (pre warm-up); 2. After warm-up (post warm-up); 3. After main phase of training (post main training); 4. After cool-down (post cool-down). One by one, subjects sat on the ground, with the plantar surface firmly pressed against the vertical side of the wooden box, with 0 value of the scale orientated toward the subject. The evaluation point was the distal extremity of the middle fingers. During tests the order of overlapping of hands was consistent and subjects did not wear shoes or gloves. With both hands overlapped, centered on the middle fingers, subjects flexed the trunk forward pivoting from the hip. To avoid invalid measurements, a second operator checked that no jerking movements occurred during flexion. Maximum extension was held for no more than 2 seconds. For each test just one execution was allowed for each subject in order to avoid the effect of adaptation of the muscletendon structure to stretching (Gabbe 2004). Chronology of tests Soccer requires different conditional skills to be trained during a micro-cycle, due to different expressions of technique, physical and psychological skills (Deutsch, Lloyd 2008); it can also be considered that different training effects

Main phase

65'

1.

Friday, technical-tactical session (Table 2): main training phase of Friday session lasted 60 and consisted of technical-tactical components about the head coach, while warm-up and cool-down are the same as sprint session.

50 45 40 35 30 25

Sprint training session

P< 0.04 + 2.3%

Table 2 Technical-tactical training session on Friday into the microcycle of tests.

FRIDAY
Session duration: 90' PHASES 1 2 Warm-up Main phase CONTENTS low intensity match simulation + athletic gaits and joint mobility game-specific situations technical/ tactical (coach) 3 Cool-down low intensity run LOAD DURATION 10' 15' 45' 10' 60'

20 15 10 5 0 pre warm - up post main train. post warm - up post cool - down Mean
Mean SD

Statistical analysis MTF values were assessed by descriptive statistics using nonparametric Friedmans Anova Test, comparing training session data. Afterwards, Dunnss Post Hoc Test was performed to compare paired data within different training sessions. Level of significance was set at p<0.05.

Analysis of MTF variation within technical-tactical training session Friedmans Anova (Figure 2) did not show any statistically significant differences within session, p<0.6, despite a mean percentage increase of +2.6% within pre warm-up vs post cool-down trials (Table 3).
Figure 2 Mean st.dev. SRT of technical-tactical training session; no statistically significant differences within trials (p<0.6, +2.6%).

50 45 40 35

Technical-tactical training session

Results
Analysis of MTF variation within sprint training session Friedmans Anova (Figure 1) showed a significant (p<0.04) difference in range of motion among session, and Dunnss Post Hoc found a statistically significant increase of +2.3% of MTF on post cool-down trial compared to pre warm-up one (Table 3).

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

+2.6%

Mean pre warm - up post main train. post warm - up post cool - down
Mean SD

Table 3 Mean st.dev. average MTF values in two different training sessions through SRT (within four different times among sessions).
Session Sprint session Technica-tactical session pre warm-up post warm-up 298 319 309 308 post main training 308 *('+2.3%) 309 *('+2.6%) post cool down 308 308

Discussion
While the data analysis did not show any significant decrease of hamstring MTF after warm-up, sprint training MTF trend showed a statistically significant variation (p<0.04) during the whole session, with an increase of +2.3% on post cooldown trial compared to pre warm-up one (Table 3). In respect with findings of early phase of sprint session, data show that athletes have the highest values of ROM at the end of training. A similar trend was found in high level karate (Gollin et al. 2006). During technical-tactical training session MTF analysis did not show any statistically significant increase. This may have been due to the different effects of training on the body, as a result of reduced metabolic demands of the session where density of load, that is work to rest ratio, was lesser than sprint session, and there were long pauses due to explanations by the coach and different contents of training session. The first result of the present investigation, according to other studies (Gollin et al. 2006), is that warm-up alone is not enough to provide the highest level of hamstring MTF since the beginning of both sessions of this study.

Values are expressed in cm * = Mean percentage difference pre warm-up vs post cool down = Statistically significant difference (p<0. 04) pre warm-up vs post cool down

Figure 1 Mean st.dev. SRT of sprint training session; statistically significant differences within pre warm-up vs post cooldown trials (p<0.04, +2.3%).

From results found in the present research on football it is possible to argue this following sentence: during sprint session hamstrings MTF increases from the beginning to the end of training, and the highest values of ROM are achieved just at the end of training, while during technical-tactical session MTF does not undergo any change. With this in mind, players would be exposed to injury during whole previous part of session where main contents responsible of injuries are performed, such as sprints and soccer-specific actions (Ekstrand et al. 2011). The practice of stretching during sport activity is very diverse, both for warm-up and cool-down purpose. Dadebo et al. (2004) show that the most performed stretching technique during trainings in football is PSS. As support of this thesis, researches of Kokkonen et al. (2007) and Bazett-Jones et al. (2008) deny previous studies which sustained that PSS performed before warm-up or training elements negatively affects strength, speed and reactivity values (Needham et al. 2009), showing no decrease of explosive and quickness performance following PSS exercises applied chronically. The study of Dadebo et al. (2004) provides some informations from different divisions of English professional football leagues (from Premiership to Division 3) about the practice of stretching exercises into training sessions: time dedicated to flexibility takes almost up to half of whole training microcycle volume; nonetheless, most part of clubs performed PSS just after warm-up. The latter research found an important correlation between flexibility training methodology with the rate of hamstrings strains, suggesting that PSS with at least 15-30 seconds of holding time is the most effective methodology directly related to the decrease in hamstrings strain incidence. Notwithstanding, in the scientific literature there are no studies which investigated MTF trend within training sessions in this sport, capable of providing practical applications on where to introduce stretching into training sessions and for what purpose, basing on scientific data, to meet specific demand of hamstrings flexibility. Based on the findings of the current research, it is stated that stretching performance as ROM recovery after warm-up and at the end of training would be useless, given the lack of significant decrease by MTF. It may be more appropriate to provide maximum values of MTF at the beginning of both training sessions, when MTF is lowest. With the purpose to increase compliance of hamstrings as much as possible, performing stretching exercises before the warm-up phase can provide the highest hamstrings ROM since the start of session, possibly reducing the risk of MTU injury during the following training activity. In respect to Dadebo et al. (2004), where they found that most part of English professional clubs performed stretching exercises just after warm-up and highlighted optimal flexibility protocols to decrease hamstrings strain rate, the present research adds further details basing on scientific data about the optimal time to perform stretching within session. Based on these findings and Dadebos et al. (2004) ones, there are now suggestions supported by data on where and why performing PSS into training session, namely on basal conditions with 15-30 seconds of holding time. This approach is postulated with the purpose to provide practical applications to make warm-up phase more effective, and the subsequent activity safer. This strategy would allow players to enjoy higher ROM already for warm-up, which allow them to face the whole session with higher level of range of motion in respect to a warm-up performed without any stretching exercise. Nonetheless, the significance of data found with regard to technical-tactical session could warn coaches to focus

especially on this kind of training, in which players are required to kick the ball or perform high intensity sprints, and then they will be in a high injury risk situation, given the lack of increase of MTF after warm-up compared to basal values. During sport-specific actions of soccer, hamstring muscles undergo dynamic stretches both running and kicking the ball. According to the principle of specificity (Graham-Smith et al. 2012), also warm-up should include some exercises related to specific actions performed in this game, with regard to hamstring muscles. For this reason it could be appropriate to insert after warm-up phase additional active dynamic stretching (ADS) exercises, able to simulate hamstrings specific strains and ROM sustained during the game for the following training session. Based on findings of the current research and looking at the specificity of soccer, the combination of PSS, warm-up and ADS is supposed to be an effective protocol to prepare soccer players both for trainings and matches for a preventive purpose with regard to MTF. Nonetheless, the present research has some limitations. It focuses only on MTF, which is just one of many risk factors involved in hamstring strain injury, neglecting strength imbalance between flexors and extensors thigh muscles, preinjury, overload, fatigue and improper contents of training (Croisier et al. 2008, Greig, Siegler 2009). The current research does not represent an ultimate preventive training strategy to avoid hamstring strain injury because it neglects the other events implicated into the injury process. Assessing also the other risk factors will provide a more complete preventive protocol with regard to hamstring muscles, and then a more complete research is warranted.

Conclusion
The main result of this study is that warm-up alone is not enough to provide the highest ROM for hamstring muscles with regard to the sport of soccer. This research shows as well that hamstring muscles MTF do not undergo any decrease within typical training sessions. During a conditioning session of training where sprint is the main target, hamstring muscles undergo a significant constant increase in flexibility among the whole workout, reaching the maximum ROM just at the end of session, while in a technical-tactical session hamstrings flexibility appears unchanged, that is without increasing or decreasing. The latter session is supposed to be particularly inclined to hamstring strain injury given the trend of MTF shown and contents performed. This session requires then more attention to stretching. Therefore, to stretch hamstring muscles at the end of training sessions appears useless, given the lack of decrease in flexibility by such musculature. Notwithstanding, it should be advised to perform PSS exercises on basal conditions for a preventive purpose, to provide athletes the highest levels of hamstrings ROM from the beginning of training. This combination of PSS and warm-up will let soccer players to meet effectively the hamstrings demand of this sport, concerning MTF, where already since the warm-up several kicks to the ball are performed for long or short-range passes. Nonetheless, the topics related to MTF alone are not the only solutions for hamstring strain injury prevention: given the multi-factorial etiology of hamstring strains, it is stated how focusing as well on eccentric strength, resistance to fatigue and pre-injury treatment of such musculature represents an optimal prevention strategy in addition to increase in flexibility. The most important findings of the current research is the warning about MTF trend within both training sessions.

In addition to previous researches and thanks to data obtained by the current investigation about variation of MTF it is possible to arrange a more complete warm-up protocol to meet sport-specific needs of hamstring muscles flexibility within training sessions in soccer.

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