Social Change and Development

1. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), in its Human Development Report 1994, states that, "Despite all our technological breakthroughs, we still live in a world where a fifth of the developing world's population goes hungry every night, a quarter lacks access to even a basic necessity like safe drinking water, and a third lives in a state of abject poverty - at such a margin of human existence that words simply fail to describe it. "We also live in a world of disturbing contrasts - where so many go hungry, there is so much food to waste; where so many children do not live to enjoy their childhood, there are so many inessential weapons" (p. 2). 2. This grave social situation, which has tended to deteriorate over the past few decades, requires profound changes in economic and social policies. The challenge is enunciated in the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development: "Our challenge is to establish a people-centred framework for social development to guide us now and in the future, to build a culture of cooperation and partnership, and to respond to the immediate needs of those who are most affected by human distress" (A/CONF.166/9, chap. I, res. 1, annex I, para. 24). Together with these policy changes, deep-seated governmental reforms must be carried out so that the State can efficiently implement the bold social policies that are required. A critical conceptual problem arises with regard to this implementation.

__________________________________________________________ Social change is a change in the distribution of goods, resources, roles, ideas or relationships at a large scale and are often related to changes in institutions, rules, laws or infrastructure. Development is a specific type of social change (generally a positive change), which includes the growth or creation of new and better systems of exchange and/or infrastructure. Development is always for improvement in economic, social, or bodily well-being (sometimes unintentionally). One example of development is the proliferation of affordable cell phones in Africa, which created several unintended improvements, such as improved economic opportunity and unobtrusive reminders to take medications. Meaning of Social Change Any alternation or modification that occurs in a situation over a time is called social change. It is the change in human interactions and inter-relations. There are sources which are greatly responsible for change. The first source is unsystematic and unique factors day or night, climate, existence of people or groups. The second source is systematic factors like if we need sound development there must be a stable and flexible government and system as well as different social organizations. Definition of Social Change There are some definitions by well-known sociologists According to Mr. Mohammad Iqbal Chaudhry, It is the reorganization of society in terms of time and place. Majumdar defined it as a mode or fashion either modified or replacing previous one in the life of individuals or in society.

Horton and Hunt defined it as a change in overall societal structure and relationship of a society. Characteristics of society The socialization process can be understood from the following characteristics. 1. The socialization process starts from birth and continues till death. It never stops however, the speed and nature of socialization is different at different stages of life. 2. The socialization process converts "human being" into a "social being" so that he might be able to play his role more effectively as a member of an organized group. 3. Healthy growth of personality is possible only due to proper socialization. 4. The socialization of an individual belonging to one and the same society may be different from one another. 5. The process of socialization is different in different societies and groups and that's why the ways of life of the people belonging to different group are different from one another. 6. With the help of socialization, the culture is transmitted to the next generation. 7. With the passage of time, the individual leaders the old roles, responsibilities and interests and adopts the new ones. This process is called re-socialization. 8. When the child is made involved in the process of his own socialization, he is given the freedom and is encouraged to bring to the front his hidden qualities, this is called participant socialization. 9. When a child (or an adult) is given a limited freedom, he is made obedient and is forced and compelled to know the social values and norms is called repressive socialization 10. The examples of repressive socialization are commonly found in socialistic societies. Socialization process is a two-way process i.e. not only adults socialize the children, but sometimes adults can also be socialized by children. e.g. his educated child may socialize an uneducated father. Global Social Changes: The issue of social change is the core of sociology. History of sociological thought Marx, Weber, Durkheim, Feminist Theory Examples of global issues of social change today: security/terrorism, environment, climate, energy, development, population, disarmament, economic issues, globalization, health, human rights, scientific development, biotechnology, human trafficking, war/conflict, drugs, and crime Social change is interdisciplinary. For example, the high infant mortality in less developed countries as compared to the low infant mortality rate in more developed countries. Why is it higher in less developed countries? What should we do about it? The answers to these questions require interdisciplinary science. Historically, there are many social changes that have occurred on a global scale. Below we discuss some of these in detail. 1. Globalization: the rapid increase in cross-border economic, social, technological and cultural exchange (Guilln 2001); convergence among states and organizations Examples of: Foreign direct investment Government policy making

 Why:

International security/military forces Internet More free markets leads to more trade, which leads to more sharing of culture Global problems: AIDS epidemic, global warming, pollution, terrorism

Consequences:

More income inequality in developed countries Concentrations of international power Cheaper and more diverse goods and services Higher income for employed in developing countries.

2. Urbanization: The increase in the number of people living in urban areas. There have been large increases in urbanization. Consequences: Urban sprawl (loss of green space) Air quality declines Crime increases Transportation needs increase Emergency service needs increase 3. Population Characteristics Asian countries have historically represented the vast majority of the Worlds population. This remains true today. Higher population growth in less developed countries, lower pop growth in more developed countries. The population in less developed countries is becoming an increasingly large proportion of world total population, growing from 70% in 1960 to 81% in 2001. Consequences: less developed countries are increasingly dependent on other countries for resources Population decreases in more developed countries due to older ages at first marriage and higher education, particularly among women (more people use birth control) The population age 65 and older is increasing, particularly among women in developed countries. The population age 0-4 is larger in less developed countries than in more developed countries, but is declining in both developed and less developed countries. 4. Health 5. Education There have been large decreases in illiteracy among more developed and less developed countries. However, the illiteracy rates are much higher for less developed countries. Illiteracy rates were about 10 times larger in less developed countries than they were in more developed countries in 1970, and about 20 times larger in 2000. The percent of population without any school decreased from 36% in 1960 to 25% in 2000. Among developing countries, the percent without school in 2000 was about half of what it was in 1960. Percent of population with no school varied greatly among LDCs in 2000, from

less than 10% to over 65%. Variation among MDCs was much less, varying from less than 2% to 17%.

Social Change
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. It may refer to the notion of social progress or sociocultural evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer to a paradigmatic change in the socio-economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism and towards capitalism. Accordingly it may also refer to social revolution, such as the Socialist revolution presented in Marxism, or to other social movements, such as Women's suffrage or the Civil rights movement. Social change may be driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces. Basically, change comes from two sources. One source is random or unique factors such as climate, weather, or the presence of specific groups of people. Another source is systematic factors. For example, successful development has the same general requirements, such as a stable and flexible government, enough free and available resources, and a diverse social organization of society. So, on the whole, social change is usually a combination of systematic factors along with some random or unique factors.[1] Hegelian: The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is based on the interaction of opposing forces. Starting from a point of momentary stasis, Thesis countered by Antithesis first yields conflict, then it subsequently results in a new Synthesis. Marxist: Marxism presents a dialectical and materialist concept of history; Humankind's history is a fundamental struggle between social classes. Kuhnian: The philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn argues in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions with respect to the Copernican Revolution that people are unlikely to jettison an unworkable paradigm, despite many indications that the paradigm is not functioning properly, until a better paradigm can be presented. Heraclitan: The Greek philosopher Heraclitus used the metaphor of a river to speak of change thus, "On those stepping into rivers staying the same other and other waters flow" (DK22B12). What Heraclitus seems to be suggesting here, later interpretations notwithstanding, is that, in order for the river to remain the river, change must constantly be taking place. Thus one may think of the Heraclitan model as parallel to that of a living organism, which, in order to remain alive, must constantly be changing. Daoist: The Chinese philosophical work Dao De Jing, I.8 and II.78 uses the metaphor of water as the ideal agent of change. Water, although soft and yielding, will eventually wear away stone. Change in this model is to be natural, harmonious and steady, albeit imperceptible. Resource-based economy: Jacque Fresco's concept of a resource-based economy that replaces the need for the current monetary economy, which is "scarcity-oriented" or "scarcity-based". Fresco argues that the world is rich in natural resources and energy and that with modern technology and judicious efficiency the needs of the global population can be met with abundance, while at the same time removing the current limitations of what is deemed possible due to notions of economic viability.

Some major current social changes One of the most obvious changes currently occurring is the change in population distribution. In the recent decades, developing countries became a larger proportion of world population, increasing from 68% in 1950 to 82% in 2010, while population of the developed countries has declined from 32% of total world population in 1950 to 18% in 2010. China and India continue to be the largest countries, followed by the US as a distant third. However, population growth throughout the world is slowing. Population growth among developed countries has been slowing since the 1950s, and is now at 0.3% annual growth. Population growth among the less developed countries excluding the least developed has also been slowing, since 1960, and is now at 1.3% annual growth.

Population growth among the least developed countries has not really slowed, and is the highest at 2.7% annual growth. Social development theory Social development theory attempts to explain qualitative changes in the structure and framework of society; that help the society to better realize its aims and objectives. Development can be broadly defined in a manner applicable to all societies at all historical periods as an upward ascending movement featuring greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality, productivity, complexity, comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and accomplishment. Development is a process of social change, not merely a set of policies and programs instituted for some specific results. This process has been going on since the dawn of history. But during the last five centuries it has picked up in speed and intensity, and during the last five decades has witnessed a marked surge in acceleration. The basic mechanism driving social change is increasing awareness leading to better organization. Life evolves by consciousness and consciousness in turn progresses by organization. When society senses new and better opportunities for progress it accordingly develops new forms of organization to exploit these new openings successfully. The new forms of organization are better able to harness the available social energies and skills and resources to use the opportunities to get the intended results. Development is governed by many factors that influence the results of developmental efforts. There must be a motive that drives the social change and essential preconditions for that change to occur. The motive must be powerful enough to overcome obstructions that impede that change from occurring. Development also needs resources such as capital and technology and the availability of supporting infrastructures. Development is the result of society's capacity to organize human energies and productive resources in order to meet the challenges and opportunities that life presents society with all the times. Society passes through well-defined stages in the course of its development. They are nomadic hunting and gathering, rural agrarian, urban, commercial, industrial and post-industrial societies. Pioneers introduce new ideas, practices and habits etc. which are resisted in the beginning by the conservative element in society. At a later stage the innovations are accepted, imitated, organized and made use of by other members of the community. The organizational improvements introduced to support the innovations can take place simultaneously at four different levelsphysical, social, mental and psychological. Moreover four different types of resources are involved in promoting development. Of these four, physical resources are the most visible but the least capable of expansion. The productivity of resources increases enormously as the quality of organization and level of knowledge inputs rise. The pace and scope for development varies according to the stage that society is in during the developmental process. The three main stages are physical, vital (the term vital refers to the dynamic and nervous social energies of humanity that propel individuals to accomplish) and mental and all these three have their own unique characteristics

Theories of Social Change

I. Functionalist Theories of Societal Change

Functionalist theories tend to assume that as societies develop, they become ever more complex and interdependent (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:420). Herbert Spencer referred to it as a change from "incoherent homogeneity to coherent heterogeneity." a. Differentiation

What distinguished pre-modern from modern societies is differentiation (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:420). Differentiation is the development of increasing societal complexity through the creation of specialized roles and institutions. Pre-modern society was characterized by people acquiring a broad range of skills that enable them to act relatively independent of one another. Modern society, on the other hand, requires people to master a narrow range of skills and act interdependently. b. Evolutionary Theories Early functionalist theories argued that all societies are gradually moving in a single direction. They are becoming more complex and, according to the early functionalist, are becoming more adaptable to their external environments (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:421). There is a bit of ethnocentrism here. It is assumed that all change is "progress." The Europeans, for example, saw their societies as more evolved that those they conquered. The Europeans concept of self allowed then to see their involvement in the new world as necessary to help the "primitive and backward" societies move toward a more desirable (European) style of life.

II. Conflict Theories of Societal Change

a. The Trigger Conflict theory tends to argue that a precipitating event is needed before change occurs. The "trigger," as Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997:421-22) call it, is something like population growth, contact with other cultures, technological advances, or changing environmental conditions. b. Contradiction and Change "All social systems have within them the seeds of their own destruction." -- paraphrase of K. Marx 1. Marx and Class Conflict All societies are seen as having built-in sources of conflict that eventually lead to a sharp break with the past. According to Marx, the trigger, inevitably involved the relationships between social classes. Under capitalism, Marx contended that conflict was inevitable in a class-relationship that pitted the interest of the working class against the owning class. Eventually, any type of society reaches a point when its social organization becomes a barrier to further economic growth. Reaching this limit precipitates a revolutionary transformation of society into a new type (e.g., from feudalism to capitalism) or from capitalism to socialism (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:422).

2. Dialectical Change Marx's concept of change is a specific example of a more general theory called dialectics. For Marx, change occurred because contradictions developed within the relationships between the two primary classes in capitalist society. More generally, contradictions can be seen as developing within any type of social relationship. The contradictions appear as minor irritants at first, but as the relationship progresses the irritants become profound impediments to the relationship. Ultimately, the relationships experiences sweeping change.

III. Rise and Fall Theories

Both the evolutionary and conflict theories discussed so far tend to imply a "progress" toward more "desirable" forms of social organization. Rise and Fall theories depart from this assumption. Rise and Fall theories argue (in Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:422) that as nations grow in economic power, they often seek to become world military powers as well. That goal becomes their undoing. Support for the military eventually weakens the domestic economy. This, in turn, undermines the prosperity that once fueled the economic power.

IV. Theories of Global Social Change: Market-Oriented Theories and Modernization Theory
a. What is Modernization? A host of scholars, from the left to the right, connects the incredible change experienced in the modern era with modernization. Smelser (1988:387) defines modernization as a complex set of changes that take place in almost every part of society as a society attempts to industrialize.
Four General Characteristics of Modernization: 1. 2. There is a shift from the simple to the complex. Agriculture progresses from being oriented toward subsistence farming that occurs on small plots to commercial farming of large scale. There is a trend toward industrialization. Human and animal power are deemphasized and are replaced by machinery driven production. Society changes from one centered on the rural to one centered on cities.

3.

4.

b. What is Capitalism?
Capitalism is one of two methods that industrial societies use to organize their economic activities. (Socialism is the other.) It is an economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately owned. Personal profits are derived through market competition and without government intervention Capitalism is based on the following assumptions. 1. Private Ownership of Property Individuals are encouraged to own not only private possessions, but the capital to buy more possessions (see Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1998:356-57). 2. Pursuit of Maximum Profit Individuals are encouraged to maximize their personal gains. Seeking personal gain is morally and socially appropriate. It's the position of Adam Smith that this has many beneficial consequences for Americans. 3. Free Competition This is the element that keeps out profit seeking in check. In a competitive society, if one agent raises prices too high, then others will step in to sell goods more cheaply. Fraud is thus weeded out and the market is stabilized.

4. Laissez-faire Government Laissez-faire government is a government that does not intervene in the economy. How does a society hang together in a scenario where everyone is pursuing their own interest? Adam Smith argues the capitalist economy maintains integrity because someone will provide whatever is needed. As demand increases for a product, the potential to make profit will increase. The potential of earning profit will encourage someone to produce those commodities that are in demand. Competition acts as an economic regulator. Competition not only regulates the supply of desirable commodities, it also ensures that prices remain fair and product quality remains high. Capitalism regulates wage levels in much the same way as it regulates production and prices. If wages are too high, someone else will rush in to work for a lower wage. If wages, on the other hand, are too low, employees will seek better jobs. The law of the marketplace ensures a self-regulating economy. This is the philosophy behind free enterprise. The economic system of Adam Smith is not egalitarian, because through competition someone wins and someone loses. Grass roots capitalism is, however, fair when all competitors have essentially the same economic base. The capitalist economy, however, is not a static phenomenon. It undergoes continual transformation and has done so since the end of the 15th century (see Wallerstein, 1974). c. Positions of Market Oriented Theory The developmental or modernizationist view of social change was the dominant paradigm during the 1950s and 1960s. It lays out the conditions under which traditional societies can become fully modern (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:171). Market-Oriented theory argues that unrestricted capitalism, allowed to develop fully, is the best route to economic growth. Further, they argue that the best economic outcomes result when individuals are free to make their own economic decision, uninhibited by any form of government constraint. Constraints might include efforts by Third world governments to set prices and wages (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:171). The following material presents some assumptions associated with modernization theory.

V. Assumptions of Modernization Theory

a. The World is A Stable System of Interrelated Parts Modernization theory, according to Shannon (1989:2), views the world society as a "relatively stable system of interrelated parts." Modernization theory views social change as an evolutionary type process that gradually adapted to a changing environment (Ragin and Chirot, 1984:299). b. All Will Develop Like Europe Shannon (1989:2-3) contends that much of the modernization theory is based upon the European developmental experience. It suggests that all countries can become modern industrial societies. c. Differentiation and Modernization The primary characteristic of modernization is differentiation. A few institutions that provided broad ranging services to the citizenry characterized premodern societies. Modern societies consist of a variety of specialized institutions. d. Development: An Internal Process

Modernization theory views development as an internal process in each society (generally perceived of as nation-states.) They often view each case as independent of the others.

VI. Modernization Theory's Prerequisites for Modernization

a. Institutional Preconditions for Modernization Institutional preconditions inevitably involve democracy, anti-communism, and laissezfaire government policy regarding the economy. Modernizationist solutions to domestic economic problems advocated free-market activities that stress comparative advantage -- a philosophy that suggests that in order for countries to develop, each country should do what it does best. b. Psychological Change New values have to be learned. People in developing countries have to develop traits like individualism, personal achievement, and a desire to control their own destiny. Individuals must learn to want economic growth and must be willing to become more mobile. They must learn to defer gratification. The legitimacy of the state becomes important.

VII. Theories of Global Social Change: Marxist Theories

Marxists argue that first-world involvement in the internal development of poor countries is not desirable. International relationships, overall, flow from a basic desire by firstworld capitalists to acquire profit. Eventually, first-world capitalists have to look outside their border for new sources of profit (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:173). The quest for profits can involve the search for raw materials (e.g., oil), inexpensive agricultural products (bananas in Central America), land, or people (e.g., inexpensive labor or slaves). a. A Never-ending Search for Raw Material 1. Agriculture Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997:173) note that to profit from the sale of agricultural products, a first-world country might look to acquire land in a semitropical area where the crop can be grown in abundance. This is the case for crops like coffee, cotton, or sugar.

2. Exploitation of Natural Resources Natural resources, such as petroleum, copper, and iron are needed in industrial economies. Poor countries are sources for these raw materials. b. Colonialism The search for agricultural and natural resources can lead to colonialism. Colonialism is a political-economic arrangement under which powerful countries establish, for their own profit, rule over weaker countries. c. Use of Third-World Labor A relatively new strategy is to move factories from high-wage countries to low-wage countries. A company may choose this strategy when rising wage rates in industrial countries begin to threaten corporate profits.

VIII. Theories of Global Social Change: Dependency Theory

Dependency theories represent a critique of modernization theory's assumptions that poor countries are poor because of their lack of economic, social, and cultural development. Dependency theories argue that the poverty experienced by low-income countries is the immediate consequence of their exploitation by wealthy countries on which they are economically dependent (Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997:173). The authors argue that poor countries are "locked-in to a downward spiral of exploitation and poverty." Andre Gunder Frank (1972) calls this the development of underdevelopment. Dependency results when foreign businesses make important economic and political decisions for their own advantage and without regard to the best interests of the local population. Except for a few local businessmen who serve the interests of foreign capital, the local population becomes impoverished (Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997:173). The market oriented theories have generally ignored the role of the military and of political power. Dependency theories contend that power is central in enforcing unequal economic arrangements. Local leaders opposed to inequitable economic arrangements are suppressed. Unionization is outlawed. A popular government opposed to outside influence can be overthrown by the military. Often the police and the military act, not for the needs of the masses, but rather for the economic elite (Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997:174). a. Critique Dependency theory is successful in explaining the lack of development experienced by some countries (like those in Central America), but cannot account for the development that occurred in areas like East Asia (Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997:174).

IX. Theories of Global Social Change: World System Theory

Immanual Wallerstein (1974, 1979) coined the term World-System. The World-System represents a system of international stratification. Its proponents argue that "we must understand the world capitalist system as a single unit, not as individual countries" (Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997:174). Unlike dependency theory, World system theory argues that there is room for poorer countries to advance within the context of the world economy although this happens rarely.

a. The world economic system: Four overlapping elements: 1. The world system is a world market for goods and labor 2. The world system calls attention to a division of the world's population into economic classes 3. The world system is an international system of formal and informal political relations among the most powerful countries, whose competition with one another helps shape the world economy 4. It includes a carving up of the world into unequal economic zones with the wealthier zones exploiting the poorer zones. b. The Three Zones of the World System are: 1. The Core Core countries are the most advanced industrial countries and control most of the wealth in the world economy (Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997:174). 2. The Periphery

The periphery consists of low-income, largely agricultural, countries. Core countries manipulate it for the economic advantage of the core. 3. The Semi-periphery The Semi-periphery refers to countries that occupy an intermediate position in the world economy. They extract profit from the periphery and are simultaneously exploited by the core. The existence of the middle (the semi-periphery) is critical, because poor countries can hope to advance at least to this stage. With the possibility of advancement within the world system, revolutionary tendencies are mitigated.

X. Collective Behavior
Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997:422) define collective behavior as a voluntary, goaloriented action that occurs in a relatively disorganized situation, in which society's predominant social norms and values cease to govern individual behavior. Collective behavior consists of a groups reaction to some situation. The study of collective behavior is especially concerned with the behavior of people in crowds (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:423). a. Crowds Crowds are temporary gatherings of closely interacting people with a common focus. People in crowds are prone to being swept up in group emotions and loose their ability to make rational decisions. The group-mind is viewed as irrational and dangerous.

XI. Theories of Collective Behavior

a. Contagion Theories Contagion theories argue that human beings revert to herd-like behavior when they get together in large crowds. People in crowds mill about, like a group of animals, stimulating and goading one another into movement (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:423). The acts of individuals are copied by other individuals. A skilled leader can manipulate crowds.

b. Emergent-Norm Theories Emergent-norm theories suggest that it is values and norms, and not unconscious process, that prompt groups of people to act in unison. Emergent-norm theories argue that even in seemingly chaotic crowd behavior, norms emerge that explains a crowds actions. While it may appear to an observer that the group is acting in a single purpose, the individuals within the crowd may have differing reasons for taking part (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:424).

XII. Forms of Collective Behavior

a. Riots A riot is a prolonged outbreak of violent behavior by a large group of people that is directed against people and property. They are spontaneous, but are motivated by a conscious set of concerns. During a riot conventional norms are suspended and replaced by other norms developed by the group (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:425). b. Fads and Fashion 1. Fads

Fads are temporary, highly imitated outbreaks of mildly unconventional behavior (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:425). Fads can include "the grunge look," wearing Levis with holes in the knees, or cramming people into a phone booth. 2. Fashion A fashion is a somewhat long-lasting style of imitative behavior or appearance. (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:425). A fashion reflects a tension between people's desires to be different and their desire to conform. It's very success undermines its attractiveness, so the eventual fate of all fashions is to become unfashionable. c. Panic and Crazes 1. Panics A panic is a massive flight from something that is feared. The 1938 radio show "War or the Worlds" is an example (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:426). 2. Craze A craze is an intense attraction to an object, person, or activity (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:426). An example is the cases where people flock to a region where someone is said to have seen a deity's face. d. Rumors Rumors are unverified information that is transmitted informally, usually originating in an unknown source (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:426). Example: Allport & Postman (1947) A white student is asked to study a photograph with one man menacing another. The student describes the picture to another who passes the information on to a third and so forth. At some point the information being passed along begins to reflect the commonly held beliefs of the students. As the information spread, the message came to reflect a picture when a black man was menacing a white man, but in fact the opposite was true.

XIII. Social Movements

A social movement is defined as a large number of people who come together in a continuing and organized effort to bring about (or resist) social change. They rely at least partially on non institutionalized forms of political action (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:426). a. Reformist Movements Reformist movements seek to bring about change within an existing economic and political system (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:427). b. Revolutionary Movements Revolutionary movements seek to alter fundamentally the existing social, political, and economic system in keeping with a vision of a new social order (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:428). c. Rebellions Rebellions seek to overthrow the existing social, political, and economic system, but lack a detailed plan for a new social order (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:428-9). d. Reactionary Movements

Reactionary movements seek to restore an earlier social system -- often based on a mythical past -- along with the traditional norms and values that once presumably accompanied it (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:429). The term reaction is used because often these movement rise as a reaction to some kind of unwelcome social change. e. Communitarian Movements Communitarian movements seek to withdraw from the dominant society by creating their own ideal communities (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:429). f. Anarchy

XIV. Why Do Social Movements Arise?

a. Micro-Level Studies What motivates individuals to become active members of social movements? This material contends that personal identification with others is a far more important indicator of who will likely join a social movement. Psychological factors are poor indicators of participation in social movements. 1. Psychological and Personality Types Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997:430) argue that psychological factors are poor indications of whether one becomes involved in social movements. Personality type is also a poor predictor. 2. Personal Identification with Others Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997:430) contend that the motivation for involvement in social movements appears to be less related to personal gain and more related to an identification with others.

Activists have prior contact with movement members A family background of social activism is important A lack of personal constraints facilitates involvement A since of moral rightness

b. Organizational-Level Studies Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997:430) suggests that some social movements are deliberately organized to create social change. 1. Social Movement Organizations (SMOs) SMOs are formal organizations that seek to achieve social change through non-institutional forms of political action. NAACP is an example (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:430). 2. Resource Mobilization Resource mobilization focuses on the ability of social movement organizations to generate money, membership, and political support in order to achieve their objectives (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:430). 3. Grassroots Organizing Grassroots organization attempts to mobilize support among the ordinary members of a community (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:431).

4. Conscience Constituents Conscience constituents are people who provide resources for a social movement organization but who are not themselves members of the aggrieved group that the organization champions (Appelbaum and Chambliss, 1997:431). c. Macro-Level Studies This section differentiates between the impact that individuals have on change from that associated with evolving institutional structures. It acknowledges the influence of the individual, but is more concerned with the influence of larger structures. When change occurs in structures, like the global economy, the lives of individuals are greatly altered. The changing economy transforms the character of social relations between people. Huge social structures anchored in history ultimately dictate the character of day-to-day social relations. 1. Individuals Change Social Patterns The actions of individuals, specific organizations, and specific social movements have impact on society. Napoleon, Jesus, Lenin, and Gandhi are individuals that have had great impact on society. Although individuals have impact on society, we tend to exaggerate what an individual can do. The actions of individuals happen within power structures, culture, and institutions inherited from the past. These exiting conditions make it difficult for an individual to change society substantially. Usually, when we perceive individuals leading a population through dramatic change, the time is "ripe" for change. 2. Broad Social Trends Change Social Patterns Broad social trends include shifts in population, industrialization, urbanization, technology, and bureaucratization. Modernization can explain much of the change. Modernization refers to the process where a society moves from traditional, less developed modes of production (like agriculture) to advanced industrial modes of production. Trends, such as population growth and urbanization, have tremendous impact on other features of society like social structure, culture, and all the institutions that tie society together.
Bibliography Appelbaum, Richard P. and William J. Chambliss 1997 Sociology: A Brief Introduction. New York: Longman.