POLITICAL CONCEPTS Politics is traditionally defined as the art and science of government (The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics,

1996). It is the process of making government policies. In its broadest sense, politics includes decision-making and decision-enforcing processes in any group that makes and enforces rules for its members (Ranney, 2001). According to Harold Laswell, politics is one who gets what, when and how. It is concerned with conflicts and their resolutions which is due to the competition for scarce resources. Politics is the art of managing conflicts in order to preserve social order. Governance is the process by which people collectively solve problems and meet the societys needs. It deals with process processes, intitutions, mechanisms and activities through which individuals and groups in the state articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and resolve conflicts. Types of Governance a. Political- the formulation and implementation of policies by the government. It is the interplay of the 3 branches of the government in which the legislative branch formulates policies, the executive implements policies and the judicial adjudicates conflicts. b. Economic- the process of decision-making that affects domestic activities and the relationship between the domestic and international markets. c. Administrative- the process of implementing public policies through an efficient, independent and accountable bureaucracy. d. Ecological- the use of science and technology and the mobilization of all stakeholders in the management of environment. Requirements of Good Governance a. Transparency- extent to which the general public should be informed about government operations. This requires that information is: accessible, timely, relevant, accurate and complete. b. Accountability- extent that government officials can be held responsible or tehir decisions and for the performance of their agencies. This requires: standards, measurements, feedback loops and sanctions. c. Participatory- the extent that the general public, inlcuding key stakeholders and marginalized groups (women, low income, workers, ethnic or religious minorities), are able to participate in and influence bot the decision-making process and on-going government operations. This requires known, strategic, regular and accessible mechanisms. Forms of Participation 1. Electoral Activity- includes voting, campaigning, giving contributions to the campaign of a candidate, working as a volunteer in an election, proselytizing during campaigns.

2. Lobbying- activity conducted by individuals or groups directed towards government officials or political leaders with the intentionto influence the formation and implementation of public policy. This includes visits, telephone calls, letters and other acts that bring some demands into the direct attention of political leaders. 3. Organizing- being a member or officer of an organizing that has primary and explicit goal of influencing government decision-making on issues that affect a significant number of people. 4. Contacting- individual action directed to government officials designed to produce benefits for only a single person or a very few number of people. 5. Violence- effort to affect government decision-making by doing physical damage to persons or property. d. Sustainability- the extent that the operation of the government recognizes and allows ethnic, cultural and religious pluralism. Public policies should be directed towards the reduction or elimination of social irritants in order to enhance harmony and cooperation among diverse groups in the society. e. Legitimacy- the extent that the operation of the government is acceptable to the people. Public decisions should be directed towards common welfare and the manner of implementing government policies and programs should be within the bounds of accepted practices and procedures. f. Efficiency and Effectiveness in the use of resources- Effectivess is the extent in which acts of government contribute to the performance of government functions such as in the maintenance of peace and order, delivery of basic goods and services, and maintenance of ecological balance. On the operations of the government agencies, it refers to their ability to focus to their fucntions and attain their goals and objectives. Efficiency can be measured in terms of the extent that goals and objectives are reached and in terms of the satisfaction of the governed. It is the extent that the functions of the government are performed through established processes and within reasonable cost. Power is the capacity of an actor to compel or influence other actors to alter their behavior or to do what they would not do otherwise. The behavior of one actor may be altered in a manner desired by the power wielder because of the fear that if he will not comply, he will be punished. In other words, non-compliance incurs more costs than compliance on the part of the target or receiver of power. Compliance may also be induced by a motivation or a promise of rewards. Power may be measured in terms of its domain, scope and weight. Authority refers to the formal or legal relationships between policymakers and citizens. Policymakers have the authority to formulate policies or make decisions for the political system if their ascendance into their position as policymakers is through legitimate or acceptable procedures. Authority therefore is power exercised is power exercised within the confines of established procedures, traditions and practices, ideology and laws (Dahl, 1976).

Influence is a species of power but it may connote more than those instances where power and authority manifest themselves. It is the capacity to produce an effect without the threat of coercion (Dahl, 1976). Legitimacy is the extent to which citizens regard the state and its institutions including its policies and programs as morally right and acceptable. A government is legitimate if its behavior corresponds to what is expected by the citizens or if they are satisfied with the response of the government to their demands. Legitimacy is founded on beliefs or ideology, practices and traditions, procedures, and even religion (Dahl, 1976). Attitude is a learned predisposition towards political objects. This predisposition may be positively or negatively directed towards certain people, issues, activity, or institutions. It is an idea charged with emotions, which predisposes certain kinds of actions to a particular situation (Dahl, 1976). ARTICLE I NATIONAL TERRITORY The constitution is a municipal law and as such, it binds only the nation promulgating it. Hence, a definition of the national territory in the constitution will bind internationally only if it is upported by proof that can stand in international water. The Philippine archipelago is that body of water studded with islands which is delineated in the Treaty of Paris of December 10, 1898, as modified by the Treaty of Washington on November 7, 1900 and the Treaty of Great Britain on January 2, 1930. Archipelagic doctrine enunciates the concept that a state comprising an archipelago shall be treated as a national unit so that the waters around, between and connecting the islands of the archipelago irrespective of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the state. Another element of the archipelagic principle is the straight baseline method of delineating the the territorial sea. This consists of drawing straight lines connecting appropriate points on the coast without departing to any appreciable extent from the general direction of the coast. These baselines divide the internal waters from the territorial waters of an archipelago. Baselines are line drawn along the low water mark of an island or group of islands which mark the end of the internal waters and the beginning of the territorial sea. Each country must draw its own baselines according to the provisions of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.