CONTENTS

ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3
CHAPTER ONE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4)
INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -5
CHAPTER TWO- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(6-23)
2.1 THEORY- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- 6
2.1.1 BRIEF SUMMARY OFTHYRISTOR FAMILY-----8
2.1.2 TYPES OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER---------9
2.1.3 APPLICATION OF AC VOLTAGE \CONTROLLER--10
2.1.4 PHASE CONTROL-------------------------------------11
2.1.5 PRINCIPLE OF ON-OFF CONTROL TECHNIQUE---12
2.1.6 EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF THE
OUTPUT VOLTAGE---------------------------------- 17
2.1.7 PERFORMANCE PARAMETER OF AC
VOLTAGE CONTROLLER--------------------------19
CHAPTER THREE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (26-28)
3.1 DESIGN AND FABRICATION-------------------------26
3.1.1 EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED----------------------------26
3.1.2 COMPONENTS & PURPOSE-------------------------26
3.1.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM-----------------------------------27
3.1.4 DESCRIPTION------------------------------------------27
3.1.5 PROCEDURE-------------------------------------------28


2

CHAPTER FOUR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -29
4.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS--------------------30
CHAPTER FIVE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31
CONCLUSION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -32

Reference - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -33


3


ABSTRACT
AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage controllers) are employed to vary the
RMS value of the alternating voltage applied to a load circuit by introducing SCR
between the load and a constant voltage ac source. The RMS value of
alternating voltage applied to a load circuit is controlled by controlling the
triggering angle of the Thyristors in the ac voltage controller circuits.
In brief, an ac voltage controller is a type of SCR power converter which is
used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to obtain a
variable voltage ac output. The RMS value of the ac output voltage and the ac
power flow to the load is controlled by varying (adjusting) the trigger angle o



There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control
the ac power flow.
On-Off control.
Phase control.

These are the two ac output voltage control techniques.
AC
Voltage
Controller
V
0(RMS)
f
S
Variable AC
RMSO/P Voltage
AC
Input
Voltage
f
s
V
s
f
s
4

In On-Off control technique diac are used as switches to connect the load
circuit to the ac supply (source) for a few cycles of the input ac supply and then
to disconnect it for few input cycles. The diac thus act as a high speed contactor
(or high speed ac switch).












5







CHAPTER -1

6


INTRODUCTION

Voltage sags and extended undervoltages are one of the main concerns of
industry today. These voltage sags could cause high negative impact on
productivity, which is certainly an undesir-able aspect in industrial and
commercial applications. Current tap-changing transformers used in distribution
systems have proven tobe inadequate in solving these problems related to line
regulation.A solution to these problems is to install an ac voltage controller
that has been developed primarily for voltage-sag correc-tion. This system
incorporates Silicon controlled rectifier switching technology and was designed
to provide the speed and efficiency required by industrial customers. Further-
more, the system will provide the flexibility of installation with or without the
incorporation of tap-changin.











7






CHAPTER-2

8


2.1 Brief summary of the thyristor family
The term thyristor is a generic name for a semiconductor switch having four or
more layers and is, in essence, a p-n-p-n sandwich. Thyristors form a large
family and it is helpful to consider the constituents which determine the type of
any given thyristor. If an ohmic connection is made to the first p region and the
last n region, and no other connection is made, the device is a diode thyristor. If
an additional ohmic connection is made to the intermediate n region (n gate
type) or the intermediate p region (p gate type), the device is a triode thyristor.
If an ohmic connection is made to both intermediate regions, the device is a
tetrode thyristor. All such devices have a forward characteristic of the general
form shown in Fig. 1.
There are three types of thyristor reverse characteristic:
blocking (as in normal diodes), conducting (large reverse currents at low reverse
voltages) and approximate mirror image of the forward characteristic
(bidirectional thyristors).Reverse blocking devices usually have four layers or
less where as reverse conducting and mirror image devicesusually have five
layers.The simplest thyristor structure, and the most common, is the reverse
blocking triode thyristor (usually simply referred to as the thyristor or SCR
silicon controlled rectifier). Its circuit symbol and basic structure are shown in
Fig. 2.The most complex common thyristor structure is the bidirectional triode
thyristor, or triac. The triac (shown in Fig. 3) is able to pass current
bidirectionally and is thereforean a.c. power control device. Its performance is
that of a pair of thyristors in anti-parallel with a single gate terminal.
The triac needs only one heatsink, but this must be large enough to remove the
heat caused by bidirectional current flow. Triac gate triggering circuits must be
designed with care to ensure that unwanted conduction, ie. loss of control,does
not occur when triggering lasts too long.
9

Thyristors and triacs are both bipolar devices. They have very low on-state
voltages but, because the minority chargecarriers in the devices must be
removed before they can block an applied voltage, the switching times are
comparatively long. This limits thyristor switching circuits to low frequency
applications. Triacs are used almost exclusively at mains supply frequencies of
50 or 60Hz, while in some applications this extends up to the 400Hz supply
frequency as used in aircraft. The voltage blocking capabilities of thyristors and
triacs are quite high: the highest voltage rating for the Philips range is 800V,
while the currents (IT(RMS)) range from 0.8A to 25A.The devices are available as
surface mount components,or as non-isolated or isolated discrete devices,
depending on the device rating.














10


2.1.1 TYPE OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type
ofinput ac supply applied to the circuit.
Single Phase AC Controllers.
Three Phase AC Controllers.

Single phase ac controllers operate with single phase ac supply voltage of
230V RMS at 50Hz in our country. Three phase ac controllers operate with 3
phase ac supply of 400V RMS at 50Hz supply frequency.
Each type of controller may be sub divided into
Uni-directional or half wave ac controller.
Bi-directional or full wave ac controller.

In brief different types of ac voltage controllers are
Single phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional
controller).
Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional
controller).
Three phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional
controller).
Three phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional
controller).transformers.



11

2.1.2 APPLICATIONS OF AC VOLTAGE
CONTROLLERS
Lighting / Illumination control in ac power circuits.
Induction heating.
Industrial heating & Domestic heating.
Transformer tap changing (on load transformer tap changing).
Speed control of induction motors (single phase and poly phase ac
induction motor control).
AC magnet controls.











12

2.1.3 PHASE CONTROL

In phase control the Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit
to the input ac supply, for a part of every input cycle. That is the ac supply
voltage is chopped using Thyristors during a part of each input cycle.
The thyristor switch is turned on for a part of every half cycle, so that input
supply voltage appears across the load and then turned off during the
remaining part of input half cycle to disconnect the ac supply from the load.
By controlling the phase angle or the trigger angle o (delay angle), the output
RMS voltage across the load can be controlled.
The trigger delay angle o is defined as the phase angle (the value of et) at
which the thyristor turns on and the load current begins to flow.
Thyristor ac voltage controllers use ac line commutation or ac phase
commutation. Thyristors in ac voltage controllers are line commutated (phase
commutated) since the input supply is ac. When the input ac voltage reverses
and becomes negative during the negative half cycle the current flowing
through the conducting thyristor decreases and falls to zero. Thus the ON
thyristor naturally turns off, when the device current falls to zero.
Phase control Thyristors which are relatively inexpensive, converter grade
Thyristors which are slower than fast switching inverter grade Thyristors are
normally used.
For applications upto 400Hz, if Triacs are available to meet the voltage and
current ratings of a particular application, Triacs are more commonly used.
Due to ac line commutation or natural commutation, there is no need of extra
commutation circuitry or components and the circuits for ac voltage controllers
are very simple.
13

Due to the nature of the output waveforms, the analysis, derivations of
expressions for performance parameters are not simple, especially for the phase
controlled ac voltage controllers with RL load. But however most of the practical
loads are of the RL type and hence RL load should be considered in the analysis
and design of ac voltage controller circuits.


















14

2.1.4 PRINCIPLE OF ON-OFF CONTROL
TECHNIQUE (INTEGRAL CYCLE CONTROL)

The basic principle of on-off control technique is explained with reference
to a single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit shown below. The
thyristor switches
1
T and
2
T are turned on by applying appropriate gate trigger
pulses to connect the input ac supply to the load for n number of input cycles
during the time interval
ON
t . The thyristor switches
1
T and
2
T are turned off by
blocking the gate trigger pulses for m number of input cycles during the time
interval
OFF
t . The ac controller ON time
ON
t usually consists of an integral
number of input cycles.

L
R R = = Load Resistance
Single phase full wave AC voltage controller circuit

15


Waveforms
Referring to the waveforms of ON-OFF control technique in the above diagram,
n = Two input cycles. Thyristors are turned ON during
ON
t for two input
cycles.
m = One input cycle. Thyristors are turned OFF during
OFF
t for one input
cycle
V
s
V
o
i
o
i
g1
i
g2
wt
wt
wt
wt
Gate pulse of T
1
Gate pulse of T
2
n m
16


Power Factor

Thyristors are turned ON precisely at the zero voltage crossings of the
input supply. The thyristor
1
T is turned on at the beginning of each positive half
cycle by applying the gate trigger pulses to
1
T as shown, during the ON time
ON
t .
The load current flows in the positive direction, which is the downward
direction as shown in the circuit diagram when
1
T conducts. The thyristor
2
T is
turned on at the beginning of each negative half cycle, by applying gating signal
to the gate of
2
T , during
ON
t . The load current flows in the reverse direction,
which is the upward direction when
2
T conducts. Thus we obtain a bi-directional
load current flow (alternating load current flow) in a ac voltage controller
circuit, by triggering the thyristors alternately.
This type of control is used in applications which have high mechanical
inertia and high thermal time constant (Industrial heating and speed control of
ac motors). Due to zero voltage and zero current switching of Thyristors, the
harmonics generated by switching actions are reduced.
For a sine wave input supply voltage,
sin 2 sin
s m S
v V t V t e e = =
17


S
V =RMS value of input ac supply =
2
m
V
= RMS phase supply voltage.
If the input ac supply is connected to load for n number of input cycles
and disconnected for m number of input cycles, then

,
ON OFF
t n T t m T = =

Where
1
T
f
= = input cycle time (time period) and
f = input supply frequency.
ON
t = controller on time = n T .

OFF
t = controller off time = m T .
O
T = Output time period =
( ) ( )
ON OFF
t t nT mT + = + .
We can show that,
Output RMS voltage
( ) ( )
ON ON
S O RMS i RMS
O O
t t
V V V
T T
= =

Where
( ) i RMS
V is the RMS input supply voltage =
S
V .



18

2.1.5 EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF
OUTPUT VOLTAGE, FOR ON-OFF CONTROL
METHOD.


Output RMS voltage
( )
( )
2 2
0
1
.
ON
t
m O RMS
O t
V V Sin t d t
T
e
e
e e
e
=
=
}



( )
( )
2
2
0
.
ON
t
m
O RMS
O
V
V Sin t d t
T
e
e e
e
=
}


Substituting for
2
1 2
2
Cos
Sin
u
u

=

( )
( )
2
0
1 2
2
ON
t
m
O RMS
O
V Cos t
V d t
T
e
e
e
e
(
=
(

}



( )
( ) ( )
2
0 0
2 .
2
ON ON
t t
m
O RMS
O
V
V d t Cos t d t
T
e e
e e e
e
(
=
(
(

} }


19


( )
( )
2
0 0
2
2 2
ON ON
t t
m
O RMS
O
V Sin t
V t
T
e e
e
e
e
(
=
(




( )
( )
2
sin 2 sin0
0
2 2
m ON
ON O RMS
O
V t
V t
T
e
e
e
(
=
(



Now
ON
t = An integral number of input cycles; Hence
, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,.....
ON
t T T T T T = & 2 , 4 , 6 ,8 ,10 ,......
ON
t e t t t t t =

Where T is the input supply time period (T = input cycle time period). Thus we
note that sin 2 0
ON
t e =
( )
2
2 2
m ON m ON
O RMS
O O
V t V t
V
T T
e
e
= =

( ) ( )
ON ON
S O RMS i RMS
O O
t t
V V V
T T
= =

Where
( )
2
m
S i RMS
V
V V = = = RMS value of input supply voltage;


( )
ON ON
O ON OFF
t t nT n
k
T t t nT mT n m
= = = =
+ + +
= duty cycle (d).

20


( )
( )
S S O RMS
n
V V V k
m n
= =
+

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

- RMS Output (Load) Voltage
( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
2 2
0
sin .
2
m O RMS
n
V V t d t
n m
t
e e
t
(
=
(
+

}


( )
( )
( )
2
m
S O RMS i RMS
V n
V V k V k
m n
= = =
+


( ) ( )
S O RMS i RMS
V V k V k = =

Where
( )
S i RMS
V V = = RMS value of input supply voltage.

- Duty Cycle
( ) ( )
ON ON
O ON OFF
t t nT
k
T t t m n T
= = =
+ +


Where,
( )
n
k
m n
=
+
= duty cycle (d).

- RMS Load Current

( )
( ) ( ) O RMS O RMS
O RMS
L
V V
I
Z R
= = ; for a resistive load
L
Z R = .
21


- Output AC (Load) Power

( )
2
O L O RMS
P I R =

- Input Power Factor


output load power
input supply volt amperes
O O
S S
P P
PF
VA V I
= = =


( )
( ) ( )
2
L O RMS
i RMS in RMS
I R
PF
V I

;
( )
S in RMS
I I = =RMS input supply current.

The input supply current is same as the load current
in O L
I I I = =

Hence, RMS supply current = RMS load current;
( ) ( ) in RMS O RMS
I I = .

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
L O RMS O RMS i RMS
i RMS in RMS i RMS i RMS
I R V V k
PF k
V I V V

= = = =

n
PF k
m n
= =
+


- The Average Current of Thyristor
( ) T Avg
I

22



( )
( )
( )
0
sin .
2
m T Avg
n
I I t d t
m n
t
e e
t
=
+
}


( )
( )
( )
0
sin .
2
m
T Avg
nI
I t d t
m n
t
e e
t
=
+
}


( )
( )
0
cos
2
m
T Avg
nI
I t
m n
t
e
t
(
=
(
+



( )
( )
| | cos cos 0
2
m
T Avg
nI
I
m n
t
t
= +
+

( )
( )
( ) 1 1
2
m
T Avg
nI
I
m n t
= + (

+


( )
( )
| | 2
2
m T Avg
n
I I
m n t
=
+


( )
( )
.
m m
T Avg
I n k I
I
m n t t
= =
+


0 t
2t 3t et
I
m
n
m
i
T
Waveform of Thyristor Current
23

( ) ( )
duty cycle
ON
ON OFF
t n
k
t t n m
= = =
+ +


( )
( )
.
m m
T Avg
I n k I
I
m n t t
= =
+
,

Where
m
m
L
V
I
R
= = maximum or peak thyristor current.

- RMS Current of Thyristor
( ) T RMS
I
( )
( )
( )
1
2
2 2
0
sin .
2
m T RMS
n
I I t d t
n m
t
e e
t
(
=
(
+

}


( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
2
0
sin .
2
m
T RMS
nI
I t d t
n m
t
e e
t
(
=
(
+

}


( )
( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
0
1 cos 2
2 2
m
T RMS
t nI
I d t
n m
t
e
e
t
(
=
(
+

}


( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
2
0 0
cos 2 .
4
m
T RMS
nI
I d t t d t
n m
t t
e e e
t
(
=
( `
+
(
)
} }


( )
( )
( )
1
2
2
0 0
sin 2
2 4
m
T RMS
nI t
I t
n m
t t
e
e
t
(
| |
=
( ` |
+
\ .
(
)


24

( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
sin2 sin0
0
4 2
m
T RMS
nI
I
n m
t
t
t
(
| |
=
` (
|
+
\ . )



( )
( )
{ }
1
2 2
0 0
4
m
T RMS
nI
I
n m
t
t
(
=
(
+



( )
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2 2 2
4 4
m m
T RMS
nI nI
I
n m n m
t
t
( (
= =
( (
+ +



( )
( ) 2 2
m m
T RMS
I I n
I k
m n
= =
+


( )
2
m
T RMS
I
I k =
















25







CHAPTER-3

26


3.1 DESIGN & FABRICATION



3.1.1 EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Multi meter.
Patch cords.
Power scope.
Incandescent lamp.



3.1.2 COMPONENTS & PURPOSE

Sl no.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
components

Resistor(R
1
)
Resistor(R
2
)
Resistor(R
3
)
Variable resistor(P
1
)
Variable resistor(P
2
)
Capacitor(C
1
)
Capacitor(C
2
)
Capacitor(C
3
)
Triac(TR
1
)
Diac(D)
Lamp
Specification

68k
260k
10k
100k
500k
330n/400v
330n/400v
27n or 33n/400v
4amp/400v
ER900
Purpose




Preset
C
in



Control ac voltage
Triggering the triac
Load







27





3.1.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM






3.1.4 DESCRIPTION

Triac is a three terminal bi directional device used to control ac voltage.
Diac is used to trigger the triac.
Diac is a two terminal bidirectional diode which can be switched on or off
with their polarity of the applied voltage.
The circuit requires only four components: variable resistor(p
2
) and
capacitor(c
2
) are single element phase-shift netwok.
28

The ac mains waveform is phase shifted by the RC circuit so that a reduced
amplitude, phase delayed version of the mains waveform appears across
C
3
.





3.1.5 PROCEDURE

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the potentiometer in the minimum position.
3. Switch on the 230v ac supply to the circuit.
4. Vary the potentiometer and observe the output waveform using power
scope.
5. Measure the voltage using multimeter and note down the firing angle from
the waveform.




















29










CHAPTER-4

30


EXPERIMENTAL RESULT


With the help of this circuit we are able to control the speed of the
induction motor by varying the voltage supplied to it using diac and triac.
The voltage supplied to the induction motor is controlled by controlling the
firing angle of the triac. Diac is used to control the gate pulse of the triac.

4.1WAVEFORM








31














CHAPTER-5

32

CONCLUSION


We built a basic AC voltage controller by using a TRIAC & DIAC. we had to
synchronize the trigger pulses to the electric mains.The controller allowed us to
change the voltage output ( speed of our induction motor).
We also noticed that the snubber network allowed us to reduce the surges caused
by the inertia of our rotating motor, by chang-ing the values of such capacitors we
can then also change the frequency of the dampened response caused by the RLC
net-work.
We also learned that to measure directly onto the motor with an equipment that
is also connected to the electrical mains. First we had to make sure which
terminal was the live, ground, and neutral by using a volt-meter, grabbing one
terminal and then connecting to each terminal in the connector. Then we proceed
to connect the common ground with the neutral wire.




















33


REFERENCES

www.google.com
www.wikipedia.org
M.H. Rashid,power electronics: circuits,devices and application.
P.S. Bhimbra,power electronics.