The ACA Open Knowledge Online Guide

Juliann C. Scholl, Ph.D. [Juliann.Scholl@ttu.edu] Associate Professor of Communication Studies Department of Communication Studies Texas Tech University

This module helps you understand: Explain the importance of public speaking in the workplace Construct four types of reports appropriate for the workplace Explain the main purpose of public relations speeches Identify, prepare, and present various types of public relations speeches Explain the main purpose of ceremonial speaking Identify, prepare, and present various types of ceremonial speeches Explain the purpose of after-dinner speaking Apply principles of appropriate and effective uses of humor in after-dinner speeches

Special Occasion Speaking: Public Speaking in the Workplace, Public Relations, After-dinner Speaking, and Ceremonial Speaking
Public Speaking in the Workplace
As mentioned several times throughout this text, learning the skills associated with public speaking will provide you with great benefits in your personal and professional life in the years to come. In terms of general benefits, public speaking helps you develop your confidence, presentation skills, and your influence on the world around you. More specifically, the skills associated with public speaking open up new professional and social opportunities. Public speaking helps you hone your organizational skills; critical thinking and listening capabilities; and the expression of your beliefs, opinions, and values; all of which are essential to success in most work environments. Whether it is in the small group, face-to-face, or large meeting context, you will be expected to express your ideas in an appropriate, effective, and clear way. Additionally, success with public speaking in the workplace means understanding the needs of your audiences and developing messages intended for them. Workplace Report Although most work environments and career tracks vary, most organizational settings require public speaking skills for the purpose of reports, all of which involve researching, organizing, and disseminating information. This information is often presented in the form of reports and public relations speeches. Regardless of the type of report, it is important that you make yourself understood and take responsibility for the information you are presenting (OHair et al., 2001). In particular, OHair et al. (2001) outline four types of reports commonly used in the workplace technical, staff, progress, and investigative. The technical report is one that provides information on a particular subject. More specifically, technical reports assist groups and organizations in decision-making (e.g., whether to approve a policy or product). These types of technical reports may be brief or more detailed. In either case, the technical report needs to be organized and provide an overview of the problem. In addition,
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brief technical reports should clearly state the recommendations as well as the facts motivating those recommendations. Lengthy technical reports should contain the elements of brief reports, as well as detailed explanations of data collected and interpretations of research findings. Along with a presentation, a written technical report should be prepared. The staff report is intended to inform the company or department of issues affecting them, such as the completion of a project or task. OHair et al. (2001) suggest the following organizational format for a staff report: (a) state the issue, (b) describe the facts and/or procedures related to the issue,

Knowledge acquired from personal experience is also more likely to affect our thinking and will be retained for a longer period of time.

and (c) state conclusions and offer recommendations. Again, a written staff report is recommended as a supplement to any formal presentation. The progress report is used to update key people, customers, and/or clients on the status of ongoing projects. It is helpful to provide progress reports at predetermined intervals to keep stakeholders and those involved up-to-date throughout the life of the project. The intervals may be daily, weekly, monthly, or at any length deemed appropriate. Most progress reports contain: (a) a review of the progress up to the previous report, (b) new advances since the last progress report, (c) a list of the people involved with the project and their developments, (d) time spent on each task, (e) supplies used and money spent, and (f) emergent problems and how they were solved. Finally, the investigative report is focused on solving a clients problem. This is especially the case if the client cannot solve the problem independently. Such problems may be improving the recruiting efforts of a volunteer organization or understanding the low morale currently experienced by a company. Some investigative reports employ an indirect method of organization, which means that the conclusions and recommendations are presented last, and follow (a) the background of the problem, (b) the problem as it is clearly stated, (c) how the investigation was conducted, and (d) the principle findings. Some clients may prefer a more direct method of organization as it is conducive to immediate decisions, and it is what some clients are most interested in hearing. In this format, the conclusions and recommendations are presented first. Reports are an important component of workplace communication and public speaking. Those who work in public relations (PR) have unique responsibilities that require specifically defined presentational and organizational skills. According to the U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Statistics (2006), individuals who work in the public relations sector use their communication skills to target and influence intended publics of their organizations. Speeches in public relations entail several objectives, one of which is educating and influencing the public (Hackman & Johnson, 2004). Many organizations have the purpose of educating and persuading the public on several issues and policies. For example, a local hospital may want to increase awareness of the epidemic of heart disease among women; therefore, its public relations mission is to inform the local community about this epidemic, as well as persuade the public to be more proactive in decreasing the incidence of heart disease among the female population. This may involve exercising public speaking skills during health classes offered to the community, as well as constructing messages to be broadcast through local TV and radio outlets. Another important function of public speaking in PR is to combat rumors or to correct misinformation spread about an organization or issue (Hackman & Johnson, 2004). For example, there may be a false story about the spread of bacterial disease affecting the products originating from a local meatpacking plant. Effective public speaking can combat such a rumor through a well-organized message, clearly articulated statements, and a credible delivery style, all of which can help an organization to invalidate the rumor and regain the public trust. Effective public speaking in PR also helps an organization prepare for and respond to crises (Hackman & Johnson, 2004). A crisis is an unexpected event that can have a tremendous impact on an organization and its image (Healthcare PR crisis communications, 2004). Many of these impacts

can be damagingterrorist attack, machine malfunction, product tampering. Once a crisis has occurred, PR experts have the challenge of restoring an organizations image, as well as the publics trust. Being able to inform the public and key stakeholders of the crisis events, as well as how affected people can respond, is one of the most important responsibilities of PR personnel. Developing or improving an organizational image (Hackman & Johnson, 2004) is yet another function of public speaking in PR. An organizational image is the perception of an organization held by its constituents and the public in general. PR specialists must rely heavily

Who is it that I am going to be talking to? What, exactly, makes them, as listeners, tick?

on their public speaking skills to project an image of an organization that is memorable and trustworthy. This type of work becomes especially crucial when an organization has suffered a crisis, as previously mentioned.

Ceremonial Speaking
A ceremonial speech, regardless of the level of formality, should have a purpose that is clear to the speaker and the audience members. A ceremonial speech can do a variety of things, such as celebrate an event, commemorate a person, entertain an audience, or inspire people (OHair, Stewart, & Rubenstein, 2001). Each type of ceremonial speaking occasion has its unique considerations, and each speech needs to be adapted to the audience, the honored person(s), the social context, and the event. This section covers several types of ceremonial speeches: speech of introduction, toast and roast, award presentation, acceptance speech, keynote address, commencement address, commemorative speech or tribute, and after-dinner speech. An important function of the speech of introduction is to introduce the main speaker and to inspire the audience to listen to that speaker (OHair & Stewart, 1999). Any speech of introduction needs to be brief. After all, the person making the introduction should not be the focus of attention. The introductory speech should accomplish two things: (a) provide a brief backdrop or background of the main speaker, and (b) introduce the speakers topic. Once these tasks are accomplished, the person doing the introduction should invite a warm welcome from the audience. Here is an example of a speech of introduction: The person giving our keynote address is someone we all know and admire. Not only is Dr. Brian Garcia an alum of our university and department, but he has gone on to make major contributions to our field. As one of our nations foremost experts in end-of-life care and communication, Dr. Moore has written over 50 journal articles and book chapters on this field. We are privileged today to hear him speak on hospice care and the Hispanic population. Please join me in welcoming Dr. Brian Garcia. A toast is a tribute to a person or event, usually brief (OHair & Stewart, 1999). Many people are nervous at the thought of giving a toast. Therefore, some preparation and practice can help make the event more enjoyable and memorable. Anyone called upon to give a toast should prepare ahead of time. Having in mind one or two things that set the person or event apart is an effective strategy, as well as keeping a positive tone and staying brief. It is advised that you practice in front of a mirror or in front of a friend to become more comfortable with the toast. We lift our glasses to Ms. Becky McPherson, who has devoted 20 years to our organization. Not only have we benefited from her tireless hours building this company, but there is no way to measure how much she has touched each of our lives. So, it is Becky McPherson that we humbly toast this evening. A variation on the toast is a roast, which is a toast that is humorous and pokes fun at the person in a friendly way. One should be aware of effective and appropriate uses of humor in such a context, and more about humor will be discussed later in this chapter.

The presenting of an award warrants a presentational speech, during which an individual awards another person with an award or prize. It is essential that the person presenting the award not only highlight the merits of the award recipient, but also point out the purpose and significance of the award being given (OHair & Stewart, 1999). When planning the verbal presentation, it may be appropriate to personalize the speech to make the award and event more meaningful for the recipient and the audience. Our next award is the Outstanding Graduate Research Award, which goes to the graduate

The presentation of an award is usually followed by an acceptance speech.

student who has made the most significant contribution to our department. The recipient of this award is certainly deserving because he does today what others do not in order to achieve tomorrow what others will not. Therefore, I proudly present this years Outstanding Graduate Research Award to Jeremiah Polk. To facilitate a smooth transfer of the award to the recipient, the presenter may want to hold the award in his or her left hand while using the right to shake the recipients hand. The presentation of an award is usually followed by an acceptance speech. This speech gives the recipient an opportunity to show appreciation for the award as well as humility and grace (OHair & Stewart, 1999). Such a speech should be prepared ahead of time, if possible. In the preparation process, the recipient will have a general idea of who to thank, which should not be overlooked during such an event. Thank you very much for presenting me with this prestigious award. I thank the faculty for their encouragement and support. I especially thank Dr. Jane Griffin for her mentorship and belief in my abilities as a graduate student and an aspiring researcher. Again, thank you for this incredible honor. The keynote address is a speech that represents the keynote of a larger idea or theme taking place. More specifically, a conference, exposition, or convention is usually organized around a central idea, and the keynote address is what summarizes the central message revolving around the general theme. Some well-known examples of keynote speeches are those at the Republican or Democratic national conventions. The person giving the keynote address is usually a person who has earned a national or international reputation within their professional field. The commencement speech, a type of keynote speech, is given to mark the occasion of a university or secondary school graduation ceremony during which diplomas are awarded to graduating students. This type of speech is usually given by a person who is well-known in the community, or by someone who has achieved national or international recognition for her or his contributions to society. The speaker may be a politician, an alumnus from the institution, a famous speaker, or other noteworthy figure. Many commencement audiences may appreciate a speech that is relatively brief and to the point, and many speakers provide practical, yet memorable, advice. For instance, Billie Jean King once said, Find a mentor and be a mentor. Give back. And when people tell you not to believe in your dreams, and they say, Why? say, Why not? (Wisdom Engine, 2006). The commencement speech is celebratory in nature in that it marks an important milestone in the graduates lives. At the same time it can be a call to action for its audience (Fly Little Bird, 2007). On one level, a commencement speech can bring attention to certain social or political issues of the day, such as HIV/AIDS, economic inequality, or education. Additionally, such speeches typically lay out paths the audience can take beyond their educational years (e.g., giving ones time, taking on important causes), as well as what specific tools for change are needed for an individual to make an impact (e.g., use of the Internet, acquiring and disseminating information). Finally, commencement speeches often touch on aspects that contribute to a good life; such examples might include finding ones passion, showing compassion to others, and appreciation of diversity. In general, the commencement speech emphasizes celebration and looking ahead toward the future.

Commemorative speeches and tributes are speeches that pay special accolades to an occasion, extraordinary person, event, idea, or monument. The speakers job is to reflect the emotions felt by the audience as well as underscore the reasons for the speaking event. Delivering a tribute and commemorative speech involves careful attention to language. These speeches are intended to inspire the audience, and the use of the richness of language should serve to evoke the appropriate emotions within the audience as well as the honored person(s). There are a few things to remember when formulating and delivering a tribute or commemorative

A well-prepared, rehearsed, and delivered after-dinner speech can make a significant mark on the audience and occasion, all the while using humor to make a serious point.

speech. First, make it short and eloquent (Letteri, 1997). In most cases, this speech should be one to five minutes long, which means the words should be chosen carefully and efficiently for impact. Second, anticipate the emotions and emotional needs of the audience, and do your best to fulfill those needs. There is a difference between the need to be festive and the need to grieve, and the speaker should use language to convey the appropriate feelings. Also, rather than focus on a great deal of information about the person, event, or thing being honored, emphasize the emotions of the audience and respect those emotions. When the speaking occasion is honoring a person, the speaker should work to balance the professional accomplishments of the honoree with his or her personal achievements. While the speech should emphasize the persons professional work, his or her personal activities (e.g., family life, community involvement) also warrant attention in the speech. The after-dinner speech is a unique kind of special occasion speech. Mark Twain made this type of speech very popular in his day, speaking at many dinner events. These dinners were very lengthy, and were followed by several hours of humorous speeches (Patout, 1978). Such events still occur today, and are often scheduled before, during, or after a professional or civic meeting (OHair et al., 2001) where a meal might be served. During these speeches, audiences generally expect to be entertained while at the same time be informed about particular issues. These dual roles can make the after-dinner speech a challenge, but with skill and practice, a well-received speech. A well-prepared, rehearsed, and delivered after-dinner speech can make a significant mark on the audience and occasion, all the while using humor to make a serious point. Due to the nature of this speech, there are several issues to keep in mind. First, the topic or theme of the speech should relate to the occasion of the event. It is obvious to the audience when a speech is cannedthat is, given repeatedly at different events to various audiences. The after-dinner speech should be tailored to the audience and specific occasion. Second, avoid being a stand-up comedian (Hamilton, 2002; OHair et al., 2001). A stand-up comedy routine is merely a string of jokes, whereas the after-dinner speech is a well-organized speech that has a polished delivery. Without a clear organizational pattern, the audience will have difficulty understanding the serious point made with the speech. Furthermore, after-dinner speakers should avoid styles and forms of delivery with which they do not feel comfortable. The audience is likely to be more comfortable with the speakers own style. In other words, the speech and humor used should be consistent with the speakers persona. Additionally, there is the possibility that the speech may touch on issues that are serious or controversial. After all, the after-dinner speech sets a social agenda (OHair et al., 2001). Skilled after-dinner speakers understand this, and they are observant of the audiences comfort levels. If the theme or occasion is a very somber one, such as commemorating the lost lives of the Civil Rights movement, the speaker should keep her or his humorous remarks modest so as not to seriously offend (Hamilton, 2002). Even when the purpose of the speech is more heavily weighted on agenda setting rather than entertainment, it should still be a celebration of the occasion.

The topic of humor itself warrants careful discussion. Humor is a good way to keep the audience interested in your speechwhen used effectively (Hamilton, 2002). Humor creates a sense of immediacy and psychological closeness. Humor also promotes a common bond between speaker and audience, which helps the audience identify even more with the topic and content of the speech. When learning to use humor, speakers should understand the importance of nonverbal delivery (Hamilton, 2002). For one thing, do not give off the impression that you expect laughter or smiling in response to any particular remark. For example, if you deliver a clever line and stand there with an expectant smile, you are going to feel and look foolish if no one responds.

Additional forms of verbal strategies include puns, hyperboles, anecdotes, and others that can tell a story or use language to convey humor images.

Nonverbal delivery also involves a sense of comic timing. Being able to deliver funny lines without having to adjust your overall delivery is a skill that is highly valued. Timing also means not having to step in and out of a humorous line. In other words, try not to show a difference in tone between the funny and not-so-funny segments of your speech. Of course, nonverbal humor should not stand alone in an after-dinner speech. Rather, an afterdinner speaker should have a good understanding and command of various verbal humor forms (Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007) and plays on words. The idea here is that the verbal and nonverbal cues supplement each other to convey the most appropriate humor, and using humor as a verbal strategy can convey what visual humor usually cannot. For instance, it may be difficult or impossible to convey irony or contradiction through nonverbal cues alone. Using language to point out ironies and contradictory situations in life can remind listeners of what makes us human (Eisenberg, Goodall, & Tretheway, 2007), as well as make a serious point in a subtle way. Additional forms of verbal strategies include puns, hyperboles, anecdotes, and others that can tell a story or use language to convey humor images. Some of the more popular forms can be found in Table 15.1. Conclusion Special occasion speaking encompasses a number of different speeches that require particular attention to an occasion, event, or person. This chapter covers two major areas of special occasion speaking: (a) reports and public relations speeches specific to the workplace, and (b) various types of ceremonial speeches. With regard to workplace and public relations, increased experience in these types of speeches helps one develop leadership, organizational, and presentational skills. There are various types of reportstechnical, staff, progress, and investigativeand each serves a unique purpose in conveying information. Reports are an important component to public relations, which is the occupational area that is concerned with the messages an organization conveys to its publics and stakeholders. Public relations experts must acquire particular skills in public speaking that include informing and influencing the public, combating misinformation, and handling organizational crises. Ceremonial speaking is intended to inspire audiences, celebrate an event, commemorate a person, and/or entertain. Ceremonial speechesregardless of the typeshould reflect the mood of the audience and the occasion that brings people together. Ceremonial speeches include speeches of introduction, toasts and roasts, presentational speeches, keynote addresses, commencement speeches, commemorative speeches and tributes, and after-dinner speeches. After-dinner speeches in particular are arguably the most challenging because they require planning, organization, and timing on the part of the speaker. But with effective uses of nonverbal and verbal forms of humor, the after-dinner speech will have a lasting impact on the audience and the occasion. Key Terms reports, public relations, technical report, staff report, progress report, investigative report, crisis, organizational image, ceremonial speech, speech of introduction, toast, roast, presentational speech, acceptance speech, keynote address, commencement speech, commemorative or tribute speech, after-dinner speech, humor

Table 15.1 Common Types of Verbal Humor Anecdote: Interesting stories told to help the speaker make a point Aside: A statement added as an after-thought, appearing as though the speaker said something that reminded him or her of the aside Banter: Good-natured teasing done back-and-forth with another person, sometimes with an audience member Blendword: The combination of two words to make a new word; e.g., murse for man and purse Blunder: Witty way of making a mistake or verbal faux paus Conundrum: A word puzzle that has a pun for an answer; e.g., cows wearing bells because their horns do not work Freudian slip: A humorous statements that appears to come spontaneously, but really reflects the speakers subconscious Hyperbole: Excessive exaggeration Irony: Words or statements used to reflect the complete opposite of their original meaning Joke: A short anecdote that has a funny twist at the end Parody: A humorous version of another writing or speech Recovery: The appearance of a blunder that the speaker quickly corrects, in an attempt to save himself or herself Repartee: Clever or witty retorts, often in the form of insults Satire: Humor that is critical, or makes fun of something Situational Humor: Humor that comes from the speakers own personal experiences Understatement: Intentionally down-sizing something to make it appear smaller or less severe Adapted from Audrieth, A. L. (1998). The art of using humor in public speaking. Retrieved May 2, 2007 from http://www.squaresail.com/auh.html.

References
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Fly Little Bird. (2007). An experiment in collective wisdom from hundreds of undergraduate commencement speeches. Retrieved May 1, 2007 from http://www.flylittlebird.org/. Gregory, H. (2002). Public speaking for college and career (6th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Hackman, M. Z., & Johnson, C. E. (2004). Leadership: A communication perspective (4th Ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. Letteri, R. (1997). A handbook of public speaking. (2nd. ed.). New York: Cummings Hathaway Publishers. Healthcare PR crisis communications. (2004). Medical news report. Retrieved May 16, 2007, from http://www.medicalnewsreport.com/medcrisi.htm OHair, D., & Stewart, R. (1999). Public speaking: Challenges and choices. New York: Bedford/St. Martins. OHair, D., Stewart, R., & Rubenstein, H. (2001). A speakers guidebook: Text and reference. New York: Bedford/St. Martins. Patout, P. (Ed.). (1978) Mark Twain speaks for himself. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Statistics (August 4, 2006). Public relations specialists. [Retrieved April 16, 2007] http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos086.htm. Wisdom Engine. (2006). The best commencement speeches quotes. Retrieved May 1, 2007 from http://www.graduationwisdom.com/ This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.