Chapter 1.

Introduction (12th Edition)

2012

Surveying: Locating the horizontal and vertical position of points on, below, or above the Earth's surface. Famous Surveyors George Washington (Father of our Country) Thomas Jefferson (Declaration of Independence) Abraham Lincoln (Great Emancipator) Charles Mason & Jeremiah Dixon (Civil War) William Clark (Lewis & Clark) Andrew Ellicott (surveyed state boundaries) David Rittenhouse (surveying instrument maker) General Rufus Putman (first Surveyor General of U.S.) Henry David Thoreau (Waldens Pond) Sir George Everest (Surveyor General of India) Clarke & Hayford (shaped our planet) Surveying History As old as civilization & property ownership Biblical references Babylonians used surveying around 2500 B.C. Egyptians used surveying around 1400 B.C. Romans surveyed cities, military campaigns, aqueducts & transportation routes. Early Surveying Instruments: libella, groma and chorobate
libella

groma
1

chorobate

Layout measurements are used to locate; construction lines for buildings, bridges, waterways, pipelines, and other engineering works, and to establish the positions of boundary lines on the ground. Data gathering measurements are used to determine; horizontal positions of arbitrary points on the earths surface, elevations of arbitrary points above or below a reference surface, such as mean sea level (msl), the configuration of the ground, the direction of lines, the lengths of lines, the position of boundary lines, and the areas of tracts bounded by given lines. Branches of Surveying Plane Surveying: surveying where all distances and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected onto a horizontal plane. Geodetic Surveying: surveying where all distances and horizontal angles are projected onto the surface of the reference spheroid that represents mean sea level (msl) on the earth.
2

Discussion Topics Modern Surveying Equipment Old Surveying Equipment Equipment Maintenance Importance of Surveying Surveying Safety Opportunities in Surveying Surveying Profession

Specialized Types of Surveys, text p. 11. 1. Control Surveys

2. Topographic Surveys

3. Land, Boundary and Cadastral Surveys

4. Hydrographic Surveys

5. Route Surveys

6. Construction Surveys

7. As-built Surveys

8. Mine Surveys

9. Solar Surveys
3

10. Optical Tooling

11. Ground, Aerial and Satellite Surveys Federal Surveying Agencies, text p. 14.

1. National Geodetic Survey (NGS)

2. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)

3. Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

Web sites for surveying information Time: http://www.time.gov/

Uniform Resource Locator Addresses (URL's), text p. 18

Chapter 2. Units, Significant Figures, and Field Notes Surveying involves measuring distances and angles. Units of Measurement, text p. 22. Metric - English Conversion Older Definition (1893): 12 inches /foot 39.37 inches /meter Therefore U.S. Survey Foot = 0.3048006 m ---------------New Definition (adopted in 1959):

1 inch = 2.54 cm

12 inches = 1 foot = 12 in x 2.54 cm/in = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m

Referred to as the International Foot. ---------------Other Measurement Units

Mile = 5280 feet

Gunter Chain = 66.00 feet or 1/80 mile

One link = 1/100 Gunter Chain = 0.66 ft = 7.92 inches An acre = 43,560 ft2 One square chain (66 ft x 66 ft) = 4,356 ft2 = 0.1 acre One hectare = 10,000 m2 ---------------Angles Degrees, Minutes, Seconds

For example, 46 18' 31" = 46.3086111 then take the sine or cosine.

Radians 360 = 2 radians ---------------Significant Figures, text p. 26. Includes the certain digits plus one digit that is estimated.

For example, a distance of 73.52 feet is measured with a tape having 0.01-ft graduations. There are four significant digits: three are certain and one is estimated.

Adding or subtracting: Round off to the column with the digits furthest to the right. 46.7518 + 1.02

+ 375.0 422.7718 422.8 <<<<<< Answer

Multiplying or dividing: Round off to the least number of digits in any of the factors.

362.56 x 2.13 = 772.2528 772. <<<<<< Answer

Rounding off: 1. When digit to be dropped is lower than five, drop the digit 78.374 becomes 78.37

2. When the digit to be dropped is 5, round to nearest even digit 78.375 61.265 becomes 78.38 becomes 61.26

3. When digit to be dropped is greater than five, increase one digit 78.376 becomes 78.38

Hand Written Field Notes [ To be covered during lab.] Suggestions, text p. 35.
7

Chapter 3. Theory of Errors in Observations

Mistakes -

Types of errors Systematic errors -

Random errors -

Precision and Accuracy

Precise Not accurate

Neither Precise Nor accurate

Both Precise And Accurate

Chapter 4. Leveling - Theory, Methods, and Equipment Leveling: The process by which elevations are determined. p. 73. Elevations are relative to some datum -

Curvature and Refraction, p. 76.

Equations for combined curvature and refraction, p 77. The combined effect is referred to as h. hf = 0.574 M2 = 0.0206 F2

where: M is in miles

(4.3a)

F is in 1000's of feet hm = 0.0675 K2

where: K is in kilometers

(4.3b)

Example Problem: With the observer's eye at lake level, how far away could a 200-ft tall object be seen?

Differential Leveling, p. 78

HI = Height of Instrument = elevA + BS elevB = HI - FS Barometer or Altimeter - based on barometric pressure change.

Trigonometric Leveling, short lines, p. 81.

10

V = S cos Z or V = S sin elev = hi + V - r

Trigonometric Leveling, lines longer than 1000 ft, p. 83. elev = hi + V + (C - R) - r

Equipment for Differential Leveling Level Types 1. Wye level -

2. Dumpy level, Appendix A -

3. Tilting Level, p. 89 -

4. Automatic Level, p. 90 -

11

5. Electronic Digital Level, p. 91 -

6. Laser Level, p. 674 -

7. Hand Level, p. 93 -

Tripod Wood or Aluminum

Level Rods, p. 94 Most common - Philadelphia Rod

1. Direct reading -

2. Target Rod

3. Terms

12

"High Rod" -

"Raise for Red

"Booting the Rod"

"Wave the Rod"

Error Prevention 1. Keep shots less than 300 feet

2. Check instrument for proper adjustment

3. Keep backsight and foresight distances equal

13

Chapter 5. Leveling - Field Procedures and Computations

Set up and adjustment -

Older instruments (4 screws)

Newer instruments (3 screws)

Differential leveling procedure: Terms Benchmarks (BM) Turning points - (TP) Height of instrument (HI)

14

Note taking: (p. 108) (left-hand page in notebook)

15

Chapter 6. Distance Measuring

Part I - Methods for Measuring Distances, p. 127 1. Pacing 2. Odometer readings, footmeters 3. Optical rangefinders 4. Tacheometry (Stadia) 5. Subtense bars 6. Taping 7. Electronic distance measurement (EDM) 8. Satellite systems - Global Positioning - GPS

Part II - Distance Measurements by Taping, p. 129 1. Gunter's chain - 66 feet long. Made of links connected with metal loops. 2. Steel or metal alloy tapes. 100, 200, or 300 ft.; 30, 60 or 100 m 3. Cloth tapes with wire reinforcement and fiberglass tapes. 4. Other accessories - Range poles, chaining pins (11 per set), plumb bob, hand level, tension handles, pocket thermometer.

Two types of tapes "Add" tapes and "Cut" tapes.

16

Add tape. Tape is 100 feet from Zero to 100 plus one extra foot marked in 0.01 feet.

87

Advantage: Easier to add than subtract. Fewer math mistakes. Disadvantage: Going 101 feet instead of 100 feet.

Cut tape. Tape is 100 feet from Zero to 100 and the 0.01 marks are between the Zero and the One foot mark.

88

Advantage: Entire length from one end to the other is 100 feet. Disadvantage: Math mistakes when subtracting.

Taping on Level Ground 1. Rear chainer holds tape at full foot or meter mark over point.
17

2. Forward chainer pulls tape to given tension and either sets point at full tape length such as 100 feet or takes final reading such as 0.46 feet.

Taping on Sloping Ground, p. 134. "Breaking tape" 1. Hold tape level 2. Lower plumb bob to second point

Slope Measurements, p. 136 1. Measure slope distance (L) and angle ()

H L cos

B
L d

2. Measure slope distance (L) and (d).

L2
H

H2
L2

d2
d2

18

Taping Corrections, p. 137 1. Incorrect Length of Tape

C l l l' L l'

2. Temperature
C t kT TL 1

3. Inconsistent Pull
Cp L P P 1 AE

4. Sag
C s w 2L3 s 2 24P 1

19

Part III - Electronic Distance Measurement, p. 145. A. Types - Electro optical (light waves) Electro magnetic (microwaves)

B. Trends 1950's Currently -

C. Principles of Operation

Va f

where: = wavelength Va = velocity of light F = frequency

Light is sent out by EDM device and is returned by the reflector (prism).

Light wave
EDM Ref

p L Total Distance = T = (n + p) L = 1/2 T = 1/2 (n +p)

20

D. Corrections Velocity of light is effected by -

Only Temp & Elev are significant

Can apply correction or dial in a factor

Offset in prism, p. 158 -

from EDM

to EDM

E. Current technology

1. At first, EDM & transit -

2. EDM on top of transit -

3. Total station -

4. Now, total station with data collector 21

Chapter 8. Total Station Instruments; Angle Measurements Used primarily to measure horizontal and vertical (zenith) angles.

Transit - Appendix A.

Theodolite - Appendix A.

Total Station -

Parts of the transit, p. 862. Alidade -

Horizontal limb -

Leveling head assembly -

Circle scales Degree circle Vernier -

22

Measuring angles without a transit 1. Tape chord method, if AB = AC. B

2. Cosine Law, if all sides are known, but different. b2 + c 2 - a2 cos A = 2bc B

23

Advantages of newer transits: Glass plates or electronic circle Three screws Optical plummet -

Double Centering with a Transit Reduces eccentricity error Provides check on instrument readings Procedure: 1. With the plates set at Zero turn from A to B. 2. Record the angle 3. Invert or transit the telescope "flop the scope" 4. With the reading from Step 1 still on the plates, re-sight on A. 5. Turn from A to B again 6. Record the reading (it should be about twice the reading in Step 2.) 7. Subtract to get the second angle. 8. If the two angles are about the same, average the two.

Example:

Initial Reading First Reading Last Reading

0 00' 00" 32 22' 20" 64 45' 00"

24

Another Example:

Initial Reading First Reading Last Reading

0 00' 00" 249 16' 30" 138 33' 40"

Angles by repetition - Total Stations, p. 199. 1. Enter REP mode in total station 2. Sight first point and press BS 3. Sight second point press FS 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3. Instrument shows total and average angle

Other procedures with a transit or total station 1. Prolonging a straight line, p. 207.

25

2. Prolonging a line past an obstacle -

3. Balancing in, p. 209.

26

Chapter 17 Mapping Surveys Used to show: Relief Natural features Cultural features -

Map Scales - p. 458. Ratio or representative fraction Equivalence Graphic -

Contour lines - p. 461 Characteristics Must close Perpendicular to slope Cannot cross Closer lines equal steeper slope

27

28

1. From aerial photography (Ch. 27)

2. By ground methods - Contour lines, p. 469 Cross-sectioning 1. Establish a base line. 2. Run a reference line or centerline perpendicular to base line. 3. Perform levels at given intervals left and right of reference line. 4. Cross section notes start from the bottom of the page. See Plate B.5, p. 880.

Plotting contours Coordinate squares or "grid" method, p. 475.

29

Methods for locating topographic details Radiation by total station - p. 469. By data recorder, or By recording angle and distance

Radiation by stadia An optical estimate of distance Also referred to as tacheometry - "rapid measurement" Stadia replaced by -

Principles of stadia (p. 472)

30

For internally focusing instruments, K = 100, C = 0.0

D=

31

Inclined Stadia p. 474

H = L cos V = L sin

32

Chapter 18 Mapping National Mapping Program, p. 497. A service of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Maps are 1:24,000 scale Quadrangles of 7 1/2 minutes of longitude and latitude

Other Mapping Sources Satellite photos and quadrangle maps can be viewed electronically at: http://msrmaps.com/

Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures, p. 499 Map layout, p. 502 Basic plotting procedures, p. 504 Cartographic map elements, p. 508 Notes and legends, p. 508 Meridian (North) arrow, p. 510 Title block, p. 511 -

33

Chapter 7 Angles, Azimuths and Bearings Angles Horizontal or vertical Measured directly Measured indirectly An angles must have

Kinds of Horizontal Angles Types of angles:

1. Interior angles -

2. Angles to the right

34

3. Deflection angles

Direction of a line A horizontal line relative to a meridian

Meridians, p. 167. Astronomic Magnetic Assumed -

Relationship of Meridians -

AZIMUTHS, p. 168.

Measured from only North or South in one survey Angle is always clockwise starting at North Angle is < 360

35

Example of Azimuths:

211 18' W E

36

Example of a Back Azimuth:

N 180

W N

S E

37

BEARINGS, p. 169.

Measured from North and South Must give direction (East or West) from North or South Angle is < 90 N 68 44'

Examples of Bearings:

S Back bearings: N W

W 68 44' S

38

Comparison of Bearings and Azimuths

Azimuths Measured from Direction Largest value Advantage

Bearings

Converting bearings to azimuths:

Converting azimuths to bearings:

39

Computing azimuths from interior angles, p. 171. (Drawing is on p. 166.) D

132 30' 88 35'

AZAB = 41 35' +180 00' AZBA = 221 35' +B 129 11'

E
135 42'

AZBC = 350 46'

129 11'
118 52'

132 30'

F
115 10'

N 41 35'E

40

The Compass and the Earth's Magnetic Field Based on attraction to Magnetic North Not used as much as in the past Magnetic declination -

Isogonic chart, p. 177. Eastern States Western States Agonic line Limitations: Variation in declination Local attractions Limited precision -

The compass box

N E E W N

68 44'
S

68 44'
S

68 44'

41

Example Problems

Magnetic Bearing in 1862 was S 43 30' E. The magnetic declination was 3 15' W. Find the true bearing.

MN

42

Example problem

In 1890 the magnetic azimuth of a line was 285 44' when the magnetic declination was 4 53' W. Now in 2005 the magnetic declination is 2 12' E. What is the current magnetic azimuth of the line? What is the true bearing of the line?

MN 1890 MN 1890

MN 2005

W 28544'

?
S

43

Chapter 9 Traversing Closed Traverse Polygon type Link type Open Traverse

Measurement methods Compass bearings Interior angles Angles to the right Deflection angles Azimuths

Angle misclosure, p. 232.

(n 2) 180 c K N

44

Chapter 10 Traverse Computations

Step 1. Balancing Angles

(n 2) 180

All angles receive the same amount of correction if source of error is not known.

An example of the Loftsgard Traverse: Let's say you are off 0002'30". 2' = 120" + 30" 150"

150"/11 angles = 13.6363636"/angle but the angles were only measured to the nearest 5", therefore put 10 seconds on each angle and 5 more seconds on 8 angles. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 10 15 15 10 15 15 10 15 15 150 seconds
45

Step 2. Calculate the preliminary Azimuth of each side (Refer to p. 242) Step 3. Calculate the Departure and Latitude of each line Latitude -

Departure N (Y)

Latitude Y

Departure X Equations: Departure (X) = L sin Latitude (Y) = L cos

46

E (X)

Sign convention: East departures are plus North latitudes are plus

Step 4. Calculate the Departure and Latitude misclosure Theoretically, the algebraic sum of the departures (latitudes) should equal zero. The algebraic sum of the Departures equals the Departure misclosure. The algebraic sum of the Latitudes equals the Latitude misclosure.
Linear misclosure (departure misclosure )2 (latitude misclosure )2

Relative precision -

relative precision

linear misclosure traverse length

Usually expressed as the reciprocal -

Which is better? 1:2000 or 1:10,000

47

Traverse Calculations

Example, Problem 10.20, p. 266

(See Excel spreadsheet distributed separately)

48

Chapter 11. Coordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations

Use of X, Y coordinates Inversing a line -

(Y)

Y L

(X)

49

L sin

Y L cos
L
X Y

( X)2 ( Y)2
X2 Y2 X1 Y1 L sin L cos tan

eq. (11.4) eq. (11.5)

From previous example, Problem 10-20. PT A B C D X 10,000.00 10,359.54 10,790.14 10,493.69 Y 5,000.00 4,859.80 5,780.93 6,054.65

Determine the length and direction of line BD

(10,493 .69 10,359 .54)2 (6,054 .65 4,859 .80)2

tan

XD YD

XB YB

10,493 .69 10,359 .54 6,054 .65 4,859 .80

50

Chapter 12. Area Field measurements Division into simple figures Offsets from a straight line Coordinates Double-meridian distances

1. Simple figures - triangles

area

s(s a)(s b)(s c )

eq. (12.1)

where: s = 1/2 (a + b + c)

For example, A triangle with sides 3, 4, 5

If one angle is known,

area = 1/2 a b sin C

a = 5, b = 4, C = 36 52' 12"

eq. (12.2)

51

2. Offsets from a straight line Trapezoidal rule:

area

h1 2

h2

h3

....

hn 2

eq. 12.3 (modified)

Example problem, p. 303. h1 0 h2 5.2 h3 8.7 h4 9.2 h5 4.9 h6 10.4 h7 5.2 h8 12.2 h9 2.8

50 ft

Simpson's 1/3 Rule

area

b / 3 h1

hn

2 hodd

4 h ev en

Note: equation only works from odd "h" to odd "h".

52

3. Areas by coordinates -

2 x Area = X1 (Y2 - YN) + X2 (Y3 - Y1) + X3 (Y4 - Y2) + X4 (Y5 - Y3) . . + XN (Y1 - YN-1)

For example, with four sides,

2 x Area = XA (YB - YD) + XB (YC - YA) + XC (YD - YB) + XD (YA - YC)

Example problem using data from Problem 10-20 2A = 10,000.00 + 10,359.54 + 10,790.14 + 10,493.69 X (4,859.80 - 6,054.65) =

X (5,780.93 - 5,000.00) = X (6,054.65 - 4,859.80) = X (5,000.00 - 5,780.93) =

53

4. Areas by counting squares on graph paper.

5. Areas by planimeter- an electronic or mechanical device. p. 318.

Electronic planimeter, p. 319.

Mechanical planimeter.

54

Chapter 13 The Global Positioning System (GPS) Built by the military. Adapted for civilian use. Advantage: Independent location of points.

Three parts: 1. Space segment - 24 satellites in orbit

2. Control segment - five monitoring stations

3. User segment - receivers on Earth Standard Position Service (SPS) -

Precise Positioning Service (PPS) -

GPS Signals

A Pseudo random code generated by both satellite and receiver

55

Receiver Signal Time delay Delayed Satellite Signal

Range (distance)

r=cxt where: r = range c = speed of light t = time

Code Ranging The distance from one satellite is a sphere.

56

The distance from two satellites is the intersection of two spheres resulting in a circle.

Adding a third satellite results in two possible solutions.

57

Clock bias (error) results in slight errors.

Clock bias error eliminated by 4th satellite. This results in cheaper clocks in receivers.

This estimate of distance is called "pseudo-range" -

Carrier Phase Shift Measurements Better accuracy

Sort of like EDM except transmitter is moving.

58

Errors Clock biases Ionospheric and tropospheric refraction Ephemeris inexactness Multipathing Instrument mis-centering Antenna height mis-measurements Satellite Geometry - DOP Selective Availability (before May 1, 2000)

Differential GPS Place one receiver (Base Station) over a known point. Use a moving receiver (Rover) to take measurements. The Base Station receives errors from satellites, but the Base Station isn't moving, therefore we can calculate the error and pass it on to the Rover. This can be done by radio signals or cell phone in Real Time Differential GPS (RTDGPS) Accurate to within a few meters Real-Time Kinematic GPS Methods
59

 Similar to Differential GPS, but uses carrier phase-shift technology. Referred to as RTK GPS Accurate to within a few cm.

60

Chapter 19 Control Surveys and Geodetic Reductions Control surveys consist of Horizontal Vertical Horizontal surveys establish Geodetic latitudes Geodetic longitudes which can be translated into state plane or Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates. The Ellipsoid and Geoid, p. 522. Geoid - an equipotential gravitational surface. Ellipsoid - is a mathematical surface approximating the geoid.

The Clarke Ellipsoid of 1866 61

 Approximates the geoid in North American very well Used for NAD27 Since then, GRS80, WGS84 and ITRS have been developed, p. 530.

U.S. Reference Datums, p. 530. North American Horizontal Datum of 1927 (NAD27) Used station Meades Ranch in Kansas as initial point. Based on the Clarke ellipsoid of 1866. North American Horizontal Datum of 1983 (NAD83) Uses the earth's mass-center and other points. Based on the GRS80 ellipsoid. The result is that latitude and longitude for the same place on earth changes from NAD27 to NAD 83 The differences in meters are shown in Figure 19-6, p. 532.

Latitude

62

Longitude

Vertical Distances Geoid and Ellipsoid may vary by 100 m or more. Height of a point above the ellipsoid is the Geodetic Height Height of a point above the geoid is Orthometric Height or Elevation The difference between orthometric height (H) and geodetic height (h) is h=H+N where N is the geoidal undulation which is approx. -30 m for the U.S. (The geoid is below the ellipsoid.) National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29) "Mean sea level" - Best fit of 26 tidal stations North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88) Reference is a single tidal gage benchmark in Quebec.
63

Chapter 20 State Plane Coordinates Used to convert: ____________________ to ____________________

____________________ to ____________________

Two projection systems: Transverse Mercator used for -

Lambert Conformal used for -

Place a large cone over the Earth

64

65

Latitude:

Longitude:

66

X
R from Latitude ( ) Table value Mapping angle ( ) from Longitude ( ) Table or calculate

X=

Y=

67

Chapter 23. Construction Surveying Transfer information from design plans to the contractor.

Referred to as providing: Line -

Grade -

1. Staking Out a Pipeline, p. 678.

An offset line is usually staked along the pipeline, but out of the area of construction. (Fig. 23-5 and 23-6 in the text and Fig. 9-17 next page.)

Plan view:

Trench Pipe Centerline

The surveyor provides line and grade. The contractor is responsible for getting the pipe in the right place.

68

69

2. Staking out a Building, p. 681. Batter boards and string lines are used to show the building layout. (Fig. 23-7 and 23-8 in the text and Fig. 9-1 and 9-18 on following page.)

Measure the diagonals to see if building is square.

3. Staking out Highways, p. 685. a. Preliminary surveys done before design. Aerial photography is used mainly. b. Center line of the roadway is staked using deflection angles.

Plan view:

c. Right-of-way stakes are placed left and right of the centerline beyond the limits of construction. X X X X X

70

71

72

d. Slope stakes are placed where the cut or fill will intercept the existing ground, p. 687. Example: Fill section at Sta 23+00. Road width = 30 ft, 4:1 slopes. Elevation of centerline = 902.2 ft, Elevation at A = 899.6 ft.

A The horizontal distance from the centerline to A is: = 30 / 2 ft + 4 (902.2-899.6) = 15 + 4(2.6) = 25.4 ft.

The slope stake at A would look like: Front Back

F 2.6 25.4

STA 23+00

73

e. Blue tops are driven to the correct elevation at the center and edges of the roadway for the roadbed soil, base, and paving.

Blue tops are not considered "official" until they are colored blue or a blue flag is tacked to the top.

f. "As-built" surveys are done after construction to show how the project was actually built including any changes from the original plans.

74

Chapter 24. Horizontal Curves Straight lines (tangents) are connected by horizontal curves (arcs).

Some highways and most railroads use a spiral easement curve to transition from the straight line to the curve.

Radius, R, or Degree of Curvature, D, is used to define the sharpness of the curve.

Definitions of Degree of Curvature, p. 704. 1. Railroads used the Chord Definition 2. Highways use the Arc Definition

75

The relationship between Radius and Degree of Curvature: 100 ft. Arc Definition:

D 360

100 2 R
D R

Chord Definition:

50 ft

50 ft

100 2

50 R sin (D / 2)

D R

50 sin( D / 2)

76

Circular curve formulas, p. 706. PI I E

PC

LC

PT

_I_ 2

Length of curve, L:

I 100 D

Radius of curve, R:

5729 .58 (arc defn.) D

77

Tangent, T:

R tan

I 2

Long Chord, LC:

LC

I 2R sin 2

External Distance, E:

R cos( I / 2)

1 cos( I / 2)

Middle ordinate, M:

R R cos( I / 2)

R 1 cos( I / 2)

78

Chapter 25. Vertical Curves Straight lines (grades) are connected by curves (parabolas).

Parabolas provide a constant rate of change of grade.

Grades are expressed as percent, for example a 2.5% grade is: 2.5 ft 100 ft

Crest vertical curves: - g2 + g1

Sag vertical curves: - g1 + g2

79

Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve, THE MAGIC EQUATION, p. 746.

YBVC

g1 X

g2 2L

g1

X2

YBVC

g1 X

r 2 X 2

Eq. 25.3

where: Y = Elevation at distance X along the curve in feet YBVC = Elevation of the beginning of the curve in feet g1, g2 = Grades in percent L = Length of vertical curve in Stations X = Horizontal distance to the point in Stations r = rate of change of grade
80

Example problem: g1 = +2.5%, g2 = -1.5% L = 800.00 ft. V = Sta 16+81.90, ElevV = 903.00 feet. Find the elevation of the BVC, EVC and each full station.

STATION

X (Sta)

g1 X

r X2 2

Curve Elev

81

The high or low point occurs where the slope = zero. P. 749. The MAGIC EQUATION from before:

Y
dy dx

YBVC
0 g1

g1X
2

g2 g1 2 X 2L
g2 g1 X 2L

Find the location of the high point for the previous example: g1 = +2.5%, g2 = -1.5%, L = 800.00 ft. V = Sta 16+81.90, ElevV = 903.00 feet.

82

Forcing a curve through a point, p. 758. Given: g1 = - 4.0%, g2 = + 3.8%, V = Sta 52+00, ElevV = 1261.50 What length of curve will pass through Sta 53+50 at Elev = 1271.20 ?

83

Chapter 26 Volumes Earth is removed from one location and placed at another. Profile view of roadway cut fill

Typical forms of earthwork Cut section (removing soil)

Fill section (adding soil)

84

 Combination of cut and fill (side slope of a hill)

Borrow ditches

Determining end areas Case A - Level ground section

Area =

85

Case B - Three-level section

Area =

86

Case C - Irregular section 6.6 46.4 5.6 32.0

4.4 18.0

3.4 0

3.3 15.0

3.4 33.6

0 20

0 0

0 20

1. Write down cross sections in a figure 8

2. Multiply \ products and add

3. Multiply / products and add

4. Add \ products and subtract / products

5. This equals 2 x area

87

Formulas for earthwork 1. Average End Area formula

Ve Ve

A1 2 A1 2

A2 A2

L 27 L

( yd 3 ) (m3 )

eq. 26.1a

eq. 26.1b

2. Prismoidal formula

Vp

L ( A1

4A m 6 x 27

A2 )

( yd3 )

eq. 26.3

Shrinkage - Soil in its natural state is compacted during construction.

Swell - Rock may result in a larger volume

Haul - Contractor is expected to move dirt a certain distance.

88

Free haul - The maximum distance specified in the contract.

Overhaul - Paying the contractor extra to haul the dirt farther than free haul

For example, imagine the following profile of the roadway

There is a limit of economic haul -

c = cost of excavation b = cost of borrow h = cost of overhaul

$/yd3 $/yd3 sta

$/yd3

89

Chapter 22 Surveys of the Public Lands Also known as creation of GLO Boundaries A reference for locating property Based on Section-Township-Range-Principal Meridian Used in 30 states Minnesota Surveys began in 1840's North Dakota Territory surveys began in 1867 Surveys were based on a Principal Meridian

90

Tools of the trade.

Original Monuments Blazed trees Rocks Pits and mounds Charred stakes Principal Meridian and Baseline 24 mile x 24 mile blocks (checks) were established E-W lines were curved lines of equal latitude N-S lines were run in as true North lines Correction for convergence was made at Standard Parallels
91

Excess or Deficiency is placed on the West and North sides of a township. Sec. 5 for example has four government lots on the North Sec. 7 has four government lots on the West Sec. 6 has government lots on both the North and West

92

Property description Order is Section, Township (Tier), Range, Principal Meridian o 1/4 Sec (160 acres) are further divided into 1/4 (40) acres o Smaller tracts will be described as "A parcel of land in ." o Example of a legal description:
93

Subdivision of a section "East 1/2" of Sec. 7" means everything East of a line connecting N and S quarter corners "East 1/2" of Sec. 7" is not necessarily exactly 0.5 times the entire area of Sec. 7. Need to connect opposing quarter corners Can't just draw in the diagonals

94

Connect opposing quarter-corners

Cannot simply connect section corners diagonally

END OF NOTES

95