Unheroic Beginnings: Canada at Confederation 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Not in a war, revolution, exception in North America Much to do with financing of railways Lecture objectives: To define and map Canadian Confederation To explore some of the political and economic forces leading to this political compromise To question the meaning and outcomes of Confederation Defining and Mapping Canada: An administrative re-organization of the British North American colonies as a Dominion of provinces. o Political units under British imperialism did exist in the mid 18th century o Confederation an attempt to reorganize the relations between previously separate colonies Under federation (dominion) , while maintaining some autonomy as provinces Imperial authority recedes, but individual colonies retain some of their authority A distinctive federal model: aiming to? o Diff from that in USA, diff balances of authority between fed and regional governments Differences made deliberately due to perceived weaknesses in the American system, too much authority ceded to state level with too little to the centre (one of the causes of the American civil war, which is happening at the same time as the discussions around confederation and is a key event happening at the time British North America Act, 1867 outlines separation of powers o Made by British parliament, ceding greater authority to colonies to run some of their own affairs o Important in establishing how power functions in Canada

The original four, 1867: maps www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/confederation/023001-2101.8-e notably absent is PEI, who had participated in much of the negotiations, but would stay out at the beginning expansion into lands under control of HBC shortly after 1867 o contentious expansion Ontario and Quebec are slivers of their future selves, and they will expand north into what used to be Ruperts Land Late Joiners: 1870: Manitoba 1870: Northwest Territories 1871: British Columbia o problem: lack of connection between the territories, politicians need to go via San Francisco and trans-USA train o at first wanted a wagon road, became a railway 1873: Prince Edward Island o found it hard to go it alone outside confederation o huge debts amounted in constructing railways on the island 1880 Arctic Islands o ceded from British empire to the dominion of Canada Was Confederation the obvious course? - Improbable goal A relatively small population (3.5 million), distributed across a vast, unforgiving terrain. o Most located in the St. Lawrence low lands Still the most populated section of Canada Core of early Canadian settlement Quebec City in east to Sarnia in West along fertile land o Coastal ports of maritime provinces

o Peoples French in Qc Mtis and First Nations in prairies First Nations in BC 1/3 French speaking Aboriginal population dominant in prairies, north, BC, and Maritimes and Qubec (~120K) British o just over 60% of Canadian population o Majority in Maritimes and Ontario 25% of this Irish 40% of total pop English/Welsh 16% of total pop Scottish o often region of origin more important o Highly varied cultural geography. o Trade differences, sea faring, lumber, fishing, widely varied Few common transportation and communications linkages. o Rough road between NB and Qc o Railroad along St. Lawrence traveled through the USA to Portland main in USA pre-confederation, avoided NB and NS Key transportation lines fro Qc and Ont through USA o Most letters traveled on railways and steam ships, so also affected by lack of transportation infrastructure than national ones Small Asian population in BC Small German minority in Ontario Considerable variety at confederation

o Telegraphs Emerging technology Without railroad lines, hard to build, so there werent any to the west All needed to travel through American networks o Infrastructure for trade, commerce, distribution of news, didnt exist BNA colonies had diverse and sometimes divergent interests. o Maritimes trade connections out of Boston and other east coast ports o Ont/Qc debate on the issue of westward expansion to allow for growing populations What shared associations and interests existed? What geographical patterns and processes united this vast space? o Many important issues forced by external events o Connection with Britain and the empire. British instructions implanted as part of colonial authority, parallel systems of government Respect for the British crown Reference to British metropolitan power and its influence in the world

External factors: Imperial Policy favours Confederation o Changing views of imperialism, burden of military and admin. expenditures, business influence o Debates in Britain on the role of the empire for Britain Previous mercantilist policy Site to sell industrial output Provided a market to sell colonial output (resources, agricultural goods) at a preferred rate

Emerging idea of free trade threatens mercantilism o Repeal of the Corn Laws Regulated the market of gains, introduced free trade in grain sails in British market Theory: food prices down, ensure labout peace, good for working class Effects: increased competition for colonial farmers in the British market o Reorientation towards India as cornerstone of British Empire Want to pull back on $$$ to North American defense expenditures, want colonies to take more financial responsibility Willing to exchange for greater autonomy Response to rebellions in 1830s in upper and lower Canada and shift in imperial policy to download the costs of imperialism to the colonies o Pressure on Colonial office to facilitate confederation in face of threat of increased military $$$ in face of American civil war, Business pressure to facilitate railway construction, interest in investment opportunities The US Civil War (1861-1865) o Tear appart USA along lines of state powers and slavery etc. long and very bloody war o Range of issues potentially relevant British Originally sympathetic to the Confederacy, so the North is quite hostile to the British, and series of small conflicts between north and British British trade relations with US south around cotton, and British textile industry in their British North, and supplies of cotton came primarily from the US south Interruptions in supply lead to a reorientation of production of textiles on a global scale o Military threat/ expansionism What will happen to the troops at the end of the conflict

Demobilization? Turn north to attack British colonies to expand powers? British are counseling colonies to raise more of the $$$ for their own defense How unification may strengthen their positions vs. the united states at the end of the civil war o End of Reciprocity Agreement (1866) American attitude not friendly at the end of the civil war End to trade agreement established in 1854 allowing for relatively free trade of goods Esp. relevant in the face of the repeal of the Corn Laws Incentives to increased internal trade between British North American colonies

Internal factors: Deadlock in the Canadas o United in 1840s from Upper and Lower Canada In response to 1830s rebellions Canada West Ontario Canada East Quebec Hoped French would be assimilated into the English speaking population o Canada West Wanted rep by pop., as it was growing much more quickly, as opposed to French Domination in the shared legislature o Fractious legislatures Had a hard time getting work done Colonial politicians coming to the view that the system didnt work, and could not function Began to explore the idea of federal system of government, even by themselves, if they couldnt convince other colonies to join Maritime Union

o NB, NS, PEI o 1864 Charlottetown Conference initially to explore union of Maritimes, the Canadian politicians suggested they should also join the discussions too Railway ambitions o Vanguard of technology o Sewn into fabric of agreements o Discussed at every conference Expansionism o Claiming territories to the west, esp for Canada West Growing population Lack of farmland o Areas formerly promoted as barren wasteland (esp by HBC) Idea that it could be annexed and settled by the Canadian population moving westward

Some outcomes of Confederation: An expansionist, confederated state set in motion Elements of a transportation policy established o Plan for railway development A de-coupling of power and interests within the British Empire o Not outright independence (foreign policy, power of crown) A more integrated political unit to face the American threat (economic and military) Not popular at first, essentially foisted upon the populations Meanings of Confederation? Canada created as a Dominion. Psalm 72 of the Bible: "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth." o Invented for the purpose, but not first choice, which was Kingdom of Canada o Queen Victoria said she like Dominion so it stuck o Speaks to issues of expansionism

Contemporary claims: A nascent political community? A British plot? An act of political treachery? A waste of money? A convenient but imperfect bargain? Pointing towards independence while at same time staying in touch with the British Empire, gradual independence.

A Dissenting View Jean-Baptist Cts cartoon published in a French-Canadian literary journal derides Confederation with bathroom humour Marine Hospitals Gross Iles often used for quarantine of immigrants after ship voyages before being giving entry into Canada Generic particularly oriented to peoples coming from sea (sailors etc.)

Canadas position re. US civil war, and British support for the confederacy Diff between general empire sympathy and those that existed in an individual colonial context The north US was PERCEIVING sympathies from various actions as ACTIVE sympathy, even if the British didnt see it that way o Ex. Confederate war ships being outfitted in British ports o Ex. Other small events, that lead to a PERCEPTION of sympathy Perception may have been dfifferent form active support Volunteers from British colonies on BOTH sides of the civil war, many more on the north than on the side of the south. Many many volunteers

ANNEXING THE NORTHWEST

10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives: To analyze the imagination of the western Interior before Confederation To understand how expansion into this region was organized and executed To consider what expansion involved for Mtis and indigenous peoples in the region (plains) Imagined geographies of the west Pre-1850: fur trade hinterland o Barren waste and wilderness, unsuitable for agriculture little interest in expansion, thanks to this self-interested positioning by the HBC of the area as a fur-trapping region dominant image as circulated in press and in books about geography of north American could not be successfully farmed o none of the politicians had actually visited this region but were responding to an imagined geography Post-1850: settlement frontier o Blodgett challenges assumptions about latitude/climate association In sphere of wider scientific discussions Revision of common understanding of latitude relative to climate Not strictly governed by latitude position, but that there could be variations, breaking of latitude assumption Opened up new scientific consideration of the nature of the northwest territory o Re-assessments of land occur in 1850s range of expedition to visit region and conduct resource assessments Henry Youle Hind Chemist at UofT

 John

Esp. eastern edges, modern day Manitoba, not much further west Most optimistic appraisal that prior opinions, qualified, cautious endorsement of farming land Palliser British Geographic Survey Across western Canada, investigating Land Resources Growing conditions IF A RAILROAD COULD BE BUILT across the

territory and through the rocky mountains o Names for many of the lakes in the Banff area Thought some areas would work, others should be avoided, and very skeptical of railroad possibilities o Re-assessments publicized Imagines geographies in rapid transition in this time from barren waste to ripe for settlement Hime, The Prairie, on the Banks of Red River, Looking South, 1858. think about context and how they were perceived, received, circulated and talked about. Vast fertile plain or waste land Was Pallisers Triangle land unfarmable? Did technology change the nature of the possibilities? o Yes misinformed to an extent particularly dry climate cycle o Yes technology advancements made some areas conceivable Massive irrigation operation, aqueducts etc. A new vision of fertile land

Northwest as Homeland not entering an empty land Palliser went to Ft. Edmonton for permission from Blackfoot to entre rocky mountain area, entered into aboriginal environment, was political consideration, though much left out in final report

Western interior experiencing extensive change through contact and trade and social change, major population shifts Ashinabe moved into Manitoba, other groups moved north-south based on disease and political alliances o Effect to realign groups and impact relations between different culture groups in the region o Fur trade, internal changes, outside changes, arms trade Indigenous peoples held complex territoriality o Blackfoot map rivers in straight lines, bends of rives not very important because they were plains peoples. Important in where they could be crossed and travel times to re-supply people and horses mountains landmarks only make sense if you have the view of standing on the prairies, not if you have a birds eye view o Names world that was understood spatially that was being renamed by western concepts as if they didnt have names already Recent challenges: extension of fur trade, warfare, epidemic disease, decline of bison o Bison hunt central to many first nations economy American settlement westward changed bison market Industrial demand to make belts for machines Impact on bison herds moving north and sout o Rapid decline in 1850s, extinguished by 1870s

Mtis Homeland Mtis ethnogenesis: a self-consciously new cultural group emerged from fur trade society o Michif, a hybrid language of French, English and Cree Linguistic difference, grammar and vocab from all three o Homeland around Red River settlement o Land divided in long lots and commons Riverine access and high points of land to escape flooding, and varied resources as moved back from river

Access to a range of resources, as opposed to square parcel of farm land in southern ontario Commons accessible on basis of community consent as they needed resources o Mixed economy: farming, carting, hunting Agricultural settlements, not all Mtis livelihoods from agriculture, mixed economy tied to fur trade, hunting and agriculture Hunting Labour carters for HBC Sell bison meet to feed forts o Not small settlement 12000 Mtis o 33000 indigenous peoples more widely dispersed across the prairies Northwest and settler colonialism The Canadian Party, forming in 1850s o Goal to take over land in the area and promote it for settlement of people from Canada west o Expansionists in Red River who favour annexation to Canada o Promote settlement through press and correspondence Describing wonderful farming conditions o View themselves as vanguard of settlement Small group (600) Imposing their brand of colonialism into the area and beyond Annexation/Transfer Involves three parties: HBC, Great Britain and Canada (but not residents) o Shifting political authority over the vast western area from the trade monopoly of HBC (granted by the crown). HBC didnt have control over the area o Canadian government considering control over the area, farming the area and changing the property regime in the are o No consultation with settlers or indigenous groups

Concerns about US expansionism/ difficulties of governing area Canada assumes control of Ruperts Land, March 1869 HBC receives cash payment ($1.5 million) 1/20th land in fertile belt, and rights to continue trade o Relatively small payout (1/4 cost of Alaska in 1867) o HBC could sell land, given real estate in kind gift, to be quite lucrative for HBC in the future

Establishing Authority Canadian government initiates new structure of authority under Lieutenant Governor, William McDougall o Not well briefed on the local opinion of Canadian authority Contrasts previous Council system o Impose system of government on the area Goes against the pre-existing council system, while not elected, did have some responsive aspect to it from hisotry and region Shift viewed form local authority to that from afar in Ottawa Canada initiates surveys for roads and land o Many surveys being done o Concerned that it would annihilate existing property distribution, that Canada would change how property distributed This provokes residents who perceive (correctly) a challenge to the established order of things. o Immediate threat of loss of farms

Challenging Authority: Le Comit National des Mtis forms, led by Louis Riel o Response to view of authority from afar o Able to bridge the different worlds in the settlement, interacted with catholic church (sympathetic), write well to government o Placed in leadership roll When Canadian authority declared, confrontation ensues

o Mtis committee counter reaction who did not support the Canadian government, and wanted to control Canadian party. One arrested and executed Provisional government established Prepares a Bill of Rights o Discourse of liberal individualism and group rights of the time o Lays out range of demands that a new Canadian government must do to recognized the existing settlements and community before the Canadian authority can be recognized in the Red River

Colony or Province? Key aspects of the Bill of Rights Makes demands re: rights to land, system of survey and tenure Calls for self-determination: responsible government o Like there is in the provinces and federal government o Calling for provincial status, rather than being treated like a colony Canadian government needs to negotiate to get any type of authority, and it does with reps from Red River who go to Ottawa o Accepts some terms of Mtis bill of rights and enters some into Manitoba Act of 1870 Manitoba Act, 1870 An elected legislature English and French recognized as languages of government o Would not have been supported by the Canadian party who were pro-anglo supremacy Protestant and Catholic denominational schools maintained o Not popular with Canadian Party (english, protestant) Manitoba would NOT hold control over land and resources o Major diff between Manitoba and the other provinces o Didnt change in prairies until 1930s o Continues in territories today Guarantee of land currently farmed as well as 1.4 million acres for descendants not successful in the long term Key elements of this Act would erode in practice

o French in schools, catholic schools would be actively challenged by Manitoba politicians over time Stripped of some of the jurisdictions prescribed in the BNA Act

Key elements of this compromise erode in future years New city Winnipeg, would be the key metropolis in the west

Discussion Questions Bower Great Transformation o Community based, moral economy to a more individual, private property, less community focus o Environmental changes from wetlands to the super-drainage, agriculture - Shift driven by changes in environment o Shift in the property regime from common to private property and in conventions of control. From community control to capitalist property system Commons? Moral economy? o Everyone has access, and moral economy changes depending on what is best for the entire group, more equal, measuring actions in how they treat each other, making sure it was mutually beneficial o Not rigid, flexible to the need and environment and the situation o Commons: area that is accessible to all form which resources can be taken Are in fact unceded territories o Moral economy: local conventions set the boundaries of proper and improper activity, which may not be codified in law Haymaking important: feeds animals on the farms, and wild grasses dont use up arable land, access hay close at hand with very little work Hay priviledge: 2 miles beyond the first two river front miles Extent: culturally based, english hay, french - woodlot o Depended on local environmental conditions

o Varriation on how hay priviledge opperates practically along the river After confederation o Hay privilege ambiguous position as it is not something properly owned. Lack of codification becomes problematic o Try to simplify preexisting arrangements so they can be recognized by the Canadian authorities o Those who know how it works need to adapt to the new control, authority and property regime, leads to confusion and conflict in some areas

CONSTRUCTING POLITICAL & ECONOMIC SPACE 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives: What federal policies sought to consolidate the political geography outlined by Confederation? Internal trade? Build up industry and infrastructure? How did the so-called national policy recast o 1) railroad development o 2) trade and tariffs fed area, key federal instruments to create coherent national economy and build a domestic industry o 3) Immigration With what effects? National Policy Late19th century tariff policies of the national government to benefit the national policy - at the time Has be reclassified/bundled by scholars - current o A whole group of policies working to build a coherent national economy and development Railroads and Confederation: Confederation politics shaped by railroad ambitions o Inter-colonial link to Maritime provinces (completed in 1876) Should confederation happen it needs to build a manageable infrastructure to join the colonies together Private sector doesnt look at like very profitable, so is government infrastructure built not for profit, but for political reasons o Transcontinental link to BC (completed in 1885) Started as request for wagon road Was supposed to end up in Victoria, instead in unknown small mill town of Vancouver o PEI enters Confederation in part because of railroad debts Railroad map

Western lines at tail end of building period in the late 19th century Density in southern Ontario with rich agricultural land and market towns lead to lots of railroad construction in the region Going through northern NB as opposed to Portland would be way longer across relatively uninhabited lands, Portland Maine makes better business sense Connections deepened after confederation with new railroad between provinces to allow for increase in trade Mostly linear connections running along the most inhabited sections of urban and agricultural land in Canada

The idea and significance of a transcontinental railroad Predates Confederation Comparative significance with US o Population in US 10x larger than that of Canada, and would connect substantial areas, less so the case in Canada, following rather than leading settlement o Very different situation in the USA than in Canada when looking at economy, infrastructure, population etc. o Aspirational in Canada Some argument that it was waster of resources, overbuilt and illadvised (White) Politics of development o Business interests, CPR and federal Conservatives Those who wanted contracts saught to influence politicians in their awarding o Pacific Scandal (1873) derails railroad Sir John A. Macdonald reelected with substantial funding from business interests who wanted to obtain the CPR contract Broke out in the house when letters were published in the press Sir John A. Macdonald telegram to businessman in Montral we are out of money, send it now, do not disappoint me American investors

Scandal undermined government and it fell Undermined plans for transcontinental railroad and shelved Towards completion Transcontinental line re-negotiated in 1880 o Return of Macdonald and cons. into government o Established base in Montreal to pursue major construction project o Will take a long time to realize any sort of profit Terms with CPR: o Financial grant Demands subsidies to pursue the project at the start and along the way Private contract subsidized by the federal government o Land grant Allow the CPR to acquire land along the line and have some choice in the acquisition of those lands that is fairly fit for settlement Has the right to reject the land that it wants to in some places, and take it in other places Contract written to benefit CPR in real estate ownership o Exemption from tariffs for materials o 25 yr exemption from taxes incl no land taxes on their buildings o 20 yr monopoly clause no competing branch lines SOUTH of the CPR line across the prairies Politics of Routes some surprises in construction choices Leaving aside question about title to land A northern route is chosen first o Through Edmonton and various market towns But the CPR ultimately builds across the southern prairies. Why?

o Allow for more interconnection with American branch lines o Avoids the problem of potential competition from Americans who have hubs near the border that might draw settlers o How to get through the Rockies o Northern route for have substantial costs for building branch lines to the south o Revision of geographical imagination of the region, Pallisers triangle re-surveyed in wet year when it is full of grasses etc. o The south would allow them to invent towns along the way, allowing for greater profit realization from real estate Railroads: space-time compression (peoples perceptions and interactions) Trade and expansion of markets o Production and consumption dont need to be in the same area Communications: telegraph, press circulation o Market information, personal messages RAPIDLY o Understanding news events at national level and internationally Newspaper shift from local orientation, to expand market information, international events o Changes understanding of political events due to speed o News stories can be shared between papers Passenger travel o Conquered obstacle of seasonality and nighttime as travel limitations, of horses bodies and their needs o Shift form organic use of energy and transportation to an industrial one Conceptions of time and space (less local) o Time keeping used to be locally based (noon whenever the sun was at the highest point) o Hard when trying to plan a railroad schedule Standard time (1883); Sandford Fleming to facilitate railroads o All settlements in a certain band will have the same time

o Zones where the time changes

Railroads and settlement Metropolis-hinterland effects o Relationship between urban-rural areas o Cities become more important as economic centres/trade, political importance increases Development roads/ Corridors of settlement o Many early railroads in north america were not between major centres, but rather pursued development/pioneer routes o Ambitions of resettling areas to build up a market for railroad activity o Building a plan for the economic development associated with the railroad Industrialization capacity to build the railroads o Construction o Maintenance Of railroads boilers, cars, bridges needed a knowledgeable workforce o Backward linkages: rolling mills, coal, tools Inputs that are required to build railroads o Core foundation for industrialization in Canada o Central to the design of urban space, lots in a grid pattern oriented towards the railroads and its yards City build around the railroad by the railroad Grain elevators o Farmers brought grain to central point where it was sorted before sale

o Receive a receipt from the elevator from the grain o Building of a grain exchange, in a wider international grain market National trade policies: Shifting trade regimes shape context of Confederation o End of imperial preferences (1840s) End of corn laws, empire wide free trade, forced to explore closer links with the US o Reciprocity with US ends (1865) End of the civil war o Canada created to facilitate internal trade Tariffs: revenue and protection instruments o Tax charged at the border to import goods into Canada o Protect domestic industry, if imported goods cost more than Canadian goods o Main source of revenue for governments (75% of federal funds) There was no sales tax or income tax, didnt have the infrastructure or general numeracy in the population The Long Depression (1870s) o Domestic manufacturers appealed to government to help them, because difficult economy, esp to deal with dumping Manufacturers complain of slaughter selling by US competitors o Dumping, sold at or below costs to undercut Canadian competitors Deal with issues of over production Ensure that Canadian competitors didnt grow

The National Policy Protective tariff idea gains traction in late 1870s

o Montreal manufacturers lobby o Conservatives link notions of protection and loyalty (1878) o Liberals object as free traders National Policy (1879) o Conservative tariff policy o Tariffs on manufactured goods (20-25%) Low to no tariffs on raw goods High on manufactured goods

Effects of trade policy? The jury remains out on the issue Benefits are urban in orientation, not spread out across the entire map Tariff will only be one factor amongst many Who paid for the tariff? Regional and class implications Redistribution of income from periphery to core Industrial concentration in the St Lawrence corridor Critics point to: branch plant economy, inefficient industry Immigration: Promoting Canada Receiving Immigrants (over 900,000, 1880s) Exporting Emigrants (Over 1 million, 1880s)

DOMINION CHALLENGED: REBELLION & CONFLICT 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives: To consider how the Canadian state reorganized space and dispossessed aboriginal peoples of the western interior. To understand the factors shaping conflict in the Northwest Rebellion of 1885. The western interior in transition New agents on the plains: whiskey traders, police o There were no boundaries markers between Canada and the US during this time, usually a notional line for those living in the area, and didnt mean much re. their travel, hunting and trade routes o Liquor was being introduced into the fur trade more extensively than had been during the HBC era Creating problems in the area that had not existed before (shootouts etc) o Cdn government established the northwest mounted police from Winnipeg Wisky traders and protect settlers (rhetoric) and indigenous peoples (reality) New institutions of law and order and authority part of bringing into Canada, many markers of imperial police forces (red surge etc) The decline of the bison o Too few bison to hunt, indigenous economies that worked around the bison hunt were facing a moment of crisis, reworking and shift in hunting effort, territorial locations shift in response to resource crisis, undermined position of strength at crucial moment when Canadian government was trying to exert control over the area Conditions of indigenous peoples Making treaty: background

o Wanted to ensure that railroad building could be conducted in a more peaceful manner, compared to very expensive military approach in the USA The Numbered Treaties Treaties 1-10 unfolded the way they did along where the railroads would go. Followed path of settlements Treaty Provisions Cede, release, surrender, and yield up to the Government of Canada o strong language to ensure Canadian government power over land Right to hunt except where land was granted from time to time for settlement. o Vague enough to give much power to government and can cause confusion in the future, and government plan was to substantially settle in the future Reserves. Land provisions per family varied. Reserves to be administered by the government. Annual payments and provisions. Some treaties contained arrangements for on reserve schools.

Making Treaty The governments aims o Clear control over land o Settle matters Indigenous perspectives o Some groups were in severe food crisis, and were essentially held for ransom, where the government promised them rations once they took treaty o Arbitrary, misunderstood, not along oral traditions o Unknown exactly how treaty was understood and what was said during the process How words translate? Land, settlement Making reserves o Varied from place to place

o Different concerns re. resource distribution and access o Suspicious of Canadian government intentions Resisting Treaty o Big Bear treaty 6 None of the queens presence Saw the treaty as an enticement that would not be fulfilled Treaty 7 o Made between many different language and culture groups, with different goals and different translators Reserves: pliable spaces Mtis concerns: Migrations o Changing economic conditions o Moved to both branches of the Sask. River By 1885, Mtis made up only 7 per cent of Manitobas population o Falling in relative terms to new incoming settlers, and migration out, and shere volumes of settlers coming into Manitoba The problem of land o Many land title certificates sold to speculators in the time after Manitobas creation Dissatisfaction with government support o Similar to when surveys happened, and werent getting as much support as new settlers, and felt their livelihoods, farms and lifestyle was at risk o Land being occupied and used by Mtis families, that Canadian legal saw as squatting in crown land, and crossed over into land grants made to colonization companies Towards conflict Mtis organization o Approached LR due to his ability to negotiate and knowledge The role of Louis Riel o Elected several times to Canadian government, but was never able to take up his seat

Indigenous perspectives o Diff from those of the mtis and lr was unable to reach out and come to some sort of consensus with them o When violent conflict happened between Mtis and CDn governement, some grousp were very clear in wiring ottawa in stating they were not part of this, and they offered suuportt if the fighting becamme more widespread

Workshop questions Carter: o Explain chapter title Turning Point Critical time for feelings re. relations between aboriginal peoples and the Canadian government Perceptions of the relationships and the threats of aboriginal peoples, views of IP and M as threats to white Canadians How Canadians perceived the IP and M, and how they would be encountered in the west Amount of control the government exercised over the IP and the M, institutions of governance The two processes are linked together, how perceptions effected the willingness, drive to change administration o IP and M share same/similar goals in 1885 Overlapped in terms of land rights M had more western state model Diff situations on the ground with the representatives o How to cdn government respond to 1885 events in the west Move from ignoring, to negotiation to uneven power Some military action, used propaganda, created NWMP Insituted the pass system for controls of people on reserve More aggressive assimilation attempts o How did IP admin change after 1885 IP administration changed to Indian Act to start outlawing dances, potlaches, traditional ceremonies etc. Became much more paternalistic, and controlling

Osborne o How was Riel resurrected in post war Canada Shift from bad to many things to many people to folk hero o What should we make of the shifting understanding/feeling of Riel? Symbol of Riel is used for different purposes at different times depending on what policies/goals existed on the political/social landscape Used in a cultural economy of symbols Western alienation Heroic figure for wider constituency New social movement in 1970s Embrace of the ideal of a multicultural society Wider discussion about social and cultural difference Statue debate Produce conlift re. public expectations, artistic styles, official sponsors interests in producing figures of a certain mind

THICKENING CITIES:PATTERSNS AND CONSEQUENCS OF URBAN GROWTH 16:36:00

10/01/2012

Lecture objectives: To consider the scale and scope of urban growth in Canada in the late nineteenth century. To relate urbanization, economic change and social issues. The Canadian Population, 1891 Best estimate: 4.8 million 3/4s of the population lived in southern Ont and Quebec Majority of people lived in rural areas, but cities (with at least 1,000 people) growing rapidly. o 1/3 of population o shifts in population and in economic concentration, not just in Canada, but in much of the western world associated with increased industrialization Map of populations Close connection between rivers, lakes and the us border Not a map dominated by one larger urban centre, many smaller settlements (3-7000) o Importance of agriculture and being close to land? o Hierarchy emerging some areas (Toronto, Montral) due to their ability to serve as transportation hubs Which is first pattern from Ontario because of railroads, or did railroads connect areas to network? o Agricultural settlement in SW Ontario preceded railroad development Canadian shield not great agricultural land, so the railroads had no reason to go there Small ribbon of fertile land along St. Laurence river, then move quickly into unsuitable areas for agricultural settlement Maritimes o Much more small costal settlements (300) fishing villages etc.

o New Brunswick has more settlements along the rivers and the economies associated with the forest industry o Settlement maps can explain key sectors of the economy Contrasts between Ontario, Quebec and Maritimes and BC West o Vancouver, Victoria larger admin centres and terminus of railroad in Vancouver o Settlement patterns moving into the prairies/western Canada from Winnipeg (where the railroads begin travels west) Dont see settlements with fewer than 300 people in the maps Aboriginal populations counted, but 19th century census are

notoriously flawed, language barriers, coverage etc. o Still useful tools Lower Mainland map New settlements around new west and the Fraser river o Controlled entry point to Fraser river defensive point Granville settlement for terminus to help increase profits from real estate for railroad o Restructures Vancouver away from the Fraser river towards Burrard inlet Calgary Map Modest ranching centre Railroad would be transformative for economic foundation of settlement Ford at Calgary across the Bow River, initial rational for settlement (Fort Calgary) Land-police force-railroad What cities were dominant and why? Montreal and Toronto establish pre-eminence in urban system

o Montreal key jumping off point in early settlement during the fur trade, well located for river transport island where the st. lawrence and the Ottawa river join together, important access point into the interior, good location for connecting with Atlantic economy, water transportation network in the prerailroad period. During railroad time, montreal again has a central position, line to Toronto and to Portland, Maine. Helps continue to build its position o Toronto northern on Lake Ontario, not exposed along the Niagara frontier (better defense from US invasion), central trade hub in western Ontario trade, key point of railroad connection between Montreal and all the lines going west around the great lakes and towards the west o Became important hubs where goods came off ships, stored, moved to trains, investors and industrialists saw advantages in setting up their centres in these cities Contributing factors: o Geographical position, economic foundations o Trading hubs o Rise of financial institutions Capital, organizing credit o Growth of manufacturing Clustered around the same urban areas o Once the preeminence of these situations established, other areas had a harder time competing What evidence might express the spatial consequences of this preeminence? o Look at how more regional newspapers carried the big city news in their stories, measures how important the cities were Montreal had a wider readership through the st. Lawrence lowlands, maritime centres and into Ontario Toronto much more concentrated in agricultural lands around Toronto and west of London

Cities as social spaces: some lines of contrast and differentiation Migration and natural increase

o Areas directly around urban centres are losing population most directly o May also be migrating south into the US or further west o Also moving away from smaller market centres o Small communities north along the st. lawrence and lac st. jean, light settlement, but a significant change. Male-female ratios different in urban centers o Quebec City & Montreal 1891 More women than men why? Under the age of 10, more men born than females High numbers of widows from smaller farming communities, where she could find work Resource based economy means men often work in resource areas, small fraction Maids and service in the home a primarily female industry, young women brought into homes to cook, clean, look after children, many young women hired out of rural areas into urban Montral By 1901, wealthiest part of the city is English speaking professionals, while laborers around the Lachine canal etc are predominantly French speaking Shift to smokestacks dominating over church spires Young population Patterns of sexual division of labour change Class, profession and craft Ethno-linguistic boundaries Race and space

Developing social contrasts (Montreal) The City Above and Below the Hill (Ames, 1896) o Social survey of Montreal in 1896 The look of the city: o Above: Tall and handsome houses, stately churches and well built schools.

o Below: The tenement house replaces the single residence, and the factory with its smoking chimney is in evidence on every side. Health conditions above and below o Below, 1/2 the houses lacked running water and used pit-inground privies. Transmission of communicable disease and the effect on children o Below the hill population densities twice the city average. Way higher that merchant areas o Below one of the highest infant mortality rates in the Western

World & British Empire Conditions of milk delivery in Montreal and existing sanitary conditions, difficulty in getting fresh water, prevalence of open sewers Many divisions with the city socially What were Montreals geographic advantages? Trades and manufacturing enterprises? Dramatic variations, shoe making, textiles, dress making, tobacco, clustering point of manufacturing in Canada during the period, food processing, heavy industry Industrialization and sexual division of labour? Some jobs identified socially as female/male employment Huge differential in wage earners, womens considered secondary contributions to the economy, so wages lower Wages followed how employment was defined socially Women started working in offices (clerical work), some new jobs with little precedent, so to the identification of the sexual division of labour over time Wage labour transform daily rhythms? Not working where you lived, had to leave home at a certain time and start shift at certain, very different from artisinal economy where employeres housed employees, small shop owners, distancing between employer and employee

Linguistic divisions in the cut harden in the latter half of the nineteenth century? French canadians become the working class, and anglophones became owners

Breaking prairie sod: colonization, environment and social change 10/01/2012 16:36:00
Lecture objectives: To describe and explain Dominion Lands Policy o What were the rules and regulations of federal government to organize channeling-in of all the immigrants be sent it, who benefited and in what way To consider why settlement in the west occurred relatively slowly after Confederation o Many fed politicians felt this was too slow and they looked for how to speed up the filling in. What were the factors slowing it down, and look in relation to what was happening in the USA at the same time To examine the policies adopted in the 1890s to boost settlement o Turning tide of settlement. Changing federal policies and context

Establishing a new property regime- radical shift in property regimes extending further west and in a much grander scale, competitive situation, with American influcences Dominions Land Act, 1872 o Influences Chose not to use existing policies from the eastern provinces Mimicked what USA doing survey land, and lay in out in a township and range system Cut prairies into massive blocks of territory that could be cut up and assigned to homesteaders coming in Very efficient system for prairie environment quickly Cdn government competing with USA for immigrants so needed to look at what USA policies were for transfering land, so looked to meet and improve upon the American plan

Competitiv activity deeply influenced by previous American experience o Terms Single Man (+18) or head of household could acquire land of 160 acres (a quarter section) Cost: $10.00 filing fee, and aquire access from an office No outright cost, very cheap Not free and done, but terms that needed to be met Proving up

Build strucutre Clear land Plant crop Stay for 3 years (3 months of the year) If you could go all this you would get clear title for the land Enterprising people found wiggle room USA needed 5 years, for 3 year term meant to attract people Pre-empting Land After 3 year term, you could acquire an adjacent

quarter section next door assuming it wasnt already settled Could add to it substantially Could sell land after 3 years on the open market, and keep doing that over and over again Some families specialized in property flipping o Get people on to the land ASPA (government) o Opportunities and difficulties of getting and settling land (settlers) o So comp. with USA, tried to be flexible to policies to attract groups An important exception: the hamlet clause o Group settlements Mennonite settlers etc. to settle in block units in Manitoba outside individual property grid Icelandic settlers on lake Winnipeg Dukover settlers, werent granted same exceptions o As became more popular, government became less and less flexible to group exceptions o No comparable exceptions in the USA Amended, 1881 o Ranching lease policy (diff from the USA)

In USA, using open range, federal lands, grazing where they will Canada: tries to structure this process by assigned particular leases of land (VAST) to different operations so they have control of a territory where they can graze their animals, not moving openly across the prairies where they will 21 years long 100,000 Acres $0.01/per acre/per year (for 100,000 acres would be $1000/year) not a money making endeavour for federal

government help establish an emerging industry by giving essentially free grass Wanted capital to move from American west to the Canadian west instead

The township survey system HBC land seeded within settlement land and survey grid filled in School land allocated within settlement grid o Sold to incoming settlers who will pay price to be close to neighbors, facilities etc, and the revenue would pay to build schools Railways land grants o Very resistant to committing early, didnt end acquisition until 1907 o 1890s huge political pressure on CPR to hurry up and acquire lands, because fear of slowing down settlement Crown hold back some to allow for pre-emption, and if that didnt happen, they could then allocate it under normal homesteading Factors o Environment Close to water Ranching v. farming land (hills etc)

No view to topographical differences, availability of local resources, too much water/flooding Large areas were just removed from potential settlement because it was too arid, and felt it would be a social disaster, tried to protect under ranching leases o Very dispersed settlement re. social context Towns usually developed along railway depots Proving up a homestead Very hard work Access to local materials, very expensive to ship in wood and windows etc. o As wealth acquired through farming, could move on to build more typical farm settlers Huge range of house types Farm, market, spatial hierarchies Connecting farms to grain elevators to markets Urban systems emerging on lands the CPR system acquired on a different urban grid Re-establishing cultural communities Large blocks of land o B4 railroads, so came up Red River from USA (mennonite) o Iceland Established own constitution and elected officials Originally outside boundaries of Manitoba Push factors o Canadian govt assisted passage to Mennonites o Canadian govt promised to respect religious beliefs, granted leave NOT to serve in the military, Tzarist Russia was starting to pressure this o Icelanders seeking better economic opportunities Marginal agriculture and limited fishery and rapid population growth Mennonite cultural landscapes Village cluster at centre with school and church Adjacent fields in a rotating system o Pasture, arable, hay

Houses and barns closely connected o Easy access to animals and separations of space from domestic o Heat retention, saving time The ranching frontier Leases rolling foothills and protected valleys (key for protection from winter winds) Toolkit for operating ranching similar to USA Social structure different o Well connected eastern people with ties to conservative government o Younger sons of British gentry Massive leasing of territory in a very short period of time in the early 1880s o Essentially blocked homestead settlement in the area o Access to water hand for settlements beyond o Disparity between ranching leases and Indian reserves

The result: Canada-US comparisons Canadian census, the Non-Indian population Manitoba and the Northwest o 1881 118,000 o 1891 251,000 Montana and North Dakota o 1880 100,000 (or slightly under) o 1890 334,000 1/10 enumerated in these states (or 32, 085) were Canadian-born. Relatively slower pace of development in Canada than in the USA

o CPR Monopoly Monopoly and charged high costs for shipping goods out and implements in Addressing the slow pace: the 1890s Changing immigration promotion and policy o Liberal government, more aggressive immigration policy o Target peasant households in eastern and central Europe v. old targets of urban people form the UK Opening CPR lands o pressure by federal government to fulfill terms and acquire their lands that had been set aside Settling the semi-arid south o The Northwest Irrigation Act, 1894

Changing Contextual Factors Railroad policies: lower freight Decrease in cheap available land in US Expanding communication and transportation infrastructure Improvements to wheat varieties and rise in wheat prices Assignment Discussion Do more than describe the photographs, or general history about the subject proposal Make sense of the photography o Analyze its production of a scene, Who took it, what circumstances of taking it

o person or place what larger issues does the subject matter raise for then and now o You should also seek to explain hose contemporary viewers might have understood it. What you see, and what you cant see in the photo

Step 1 Choose image to study Read and analyses the image carefully (Rose and Schwartz provide a model) Step 2 Look for sources to inform reading and viewing of photograph Learn about period, place, context and convention Step 3 Focus for paper and your argument Rose & Schwartz for examples and advice Step 4 Meet with prof/TA

Thinning hinterlands: patterns and consequences of rural out-migration 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture Objectives: To analyze the patterns and processes of out-migration from rural regions in central and eastern Canada in the late 19th C To consider how and why Canadians made new lives in the United States To consider the significance of these trends The big picture: In late 19th C eastern Canada, rural regions were losing settlers In the second half of the 19th C the OUTFLOW of migrants was greater than the INFLOW o Native born Canadians moving to US o Canada as train station in cross-Atlantic migration en route to the USA Over-arching changes in a continental and industrializing economy shaped the emerging settlement geography of Canada Migration estimation graphs o after 1900s more leaving then coming in, then switched o more leaving after confederation than coming in o 1890s depression - less migration in both directions Eastern Canada: thinning rural regions Massive out migration except in cities, significant industrial areas or new frontier lands Rate of migration o Larger into urban areas o Similar long-term process over decades What factors shaped this emerging map of population geography? Employment, bounded space for agriculture combined with large families and maybe soil degradation after 200 years of farming in Quebec Environmental factors? Less of an issue with this particular situation, but will return to this in the future (ie dustbowl in 1930s)

Market factors? Connections more of a concern for farmers on the north shore of the st. lawrence where there was lower access to railway economics Cheap farmland drawing outwards to unsettled areas Ontario: o less frontier agricultural land o it had mostly been taken up by then 1860s one of the motives for expansion into western canada during confederation discussions o many moved into Michigan (closer)

Quebec: o high birth rate o limited agricultural opportunities bounded space of st lawrence lowlands Maritime Provinces: o declining agricultural economy it became less viable when products could be purchased way more cheaply from new lands west of Chicago (inflows if cheap American wheat) changes emphasis of crops, but threatens the traditional family mixed farm o challenges to traditional coastal craft economy industrialization in north Atlantic comes with shift towards steam and iron-hulled boats wood sailing ships extensive training and labour, no longer viable Where did people go? NE USA - +50% foreign born are Canadian o Significant proportion from Quebec North USA many are +15% in border states Ontario sending more people south and west into new farming in what is now the mid-west

Work in destination regions New England textiles o From Quebec, transferable skills from craft skills in textiles which many rural industry had o Companies could hire entire families and villages o Men, women and children can work in textile mills Perspective from family economy, wage labour opportunities in textile mill town were much better o Company town features as integrated wholes o Missing: catholic parish Farmers in Michigan, and west Maritimes into large homes in Boston you women servants What was attractive about New England (for Quebecers in particular)? Transferable skill set for rural peoples with experience in home clothing production; Employment opportunities for all members of the family; Closer to homeeasier to return to Quebec than from western Canada and US Midwest.

Emigration at the county scale Berthier Gazette (1892): If our population keeps on abandoning the land for a few more years, the French Canadian nationality will be transported to the US. Places of residence in the US of migrants from Berthier County, 1875-1905 Rhode Island 40.5% o Existing connections Mass 35.3

Michigan Connecticut New York

5.8 4.7 4.2

Reading questions: when did migration cross-border come to be controlled? Why?? What constrained it more at later date/time? o Late in 1890s to late 1900s more apparent o Immigrating act 1891, more intense in the 1920s What American groups wanted to restrict Canadian immigration? o People along border and unions members were against migration, thinking they would be taking away jobs, or being brought in by companies as strike-breakers o Arbitrary rule so that people from Canada wouldnt move to USA until theyd been there for 5 years o Mostly the significance of organized labour in driving the debate and comanding attention, filters through a whole other range of instutions, including congressional politics (esp around issues of race and cultural dominance) Why did emigration from Canada cause alarm amongst Canadian elites? What the problem of emigration discussed differently in Quebec than elsewhere? Change from a fairly open border to that is observed and managed by the US federal government o 1891 immigration act (and 1893) Canadian agreement 1894 5 year time limit before being able to move Why? o Changing interpretation of immigration in the US, barriers being set up o Fear: immigrants would push down wages

Rivers, Salmon and Resettlement in British Columbia 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives: To analyze the centrality of one resource to the colonial process and resettlement after Confederation. To consider the complex interactions between social change, race and fishing. To consider the international dimensions of the salmon fishery. Fraser River One of 4-5 similar rivers that havent been dammed in the world One of the largest salmon producers in the world (number 1 or 2) The long view Salmon and indigenous societies of the Northwest Pacific region Coastal versus riverine fisheries Technologies and their implications in terms of access o Wiers o Hoop o Net From fur trade to gold rush Fur trade demands (and their limits) o Connections made between this part of the world and global markets and empires o Limited to the coastal zone (sea otters) o Connections to the interior were hard, because if was difficult to travel etc. Fraser river much harder to navigate, and rivers were the traditional way for fur traders to transport their goods o Made connections with indigenous societies, including the introduction of communicable diseases

The 1858 gold rush: implications for the fishery?? o Short lived, mainly people coming from California after 1840s gold rush o Brought many people in a short amount of time seeking access to the river o Created immediate tensions along the Fraser river Placer mining bad for salmon life cycle Mercury used in panning for gold Territory grabs, reserves set up

The arrival of a coastal immigrant fishery The northward flow of capital groups funded by US fisheries capital setting up canneries around the Vancouver area, employing a whole range of people, (immigrant Chinese, Japanese, Indigenous peoples) o divisions in the canaries o complex race, gender and class structure The importance of canning technology important industrial technology that allows for the preservation and shipping of food over long distances (part of the compression of space) Engaging labour: race, gender and class

Confederation and fisheries The reception of fisheries law from Canada o How and when people could fish Received in British Columbia Revised in many many ways o Origins and Implications o The Fisheries Act, 1878

Limits on how indigenous peoples sell fish into wider markets, should be for their food and their consumption Limit movement upstream to keep near coast, keep upstream areas for indigenous fisheries o Extensions: inventing the food fishery, 1888 Reserve policy o Fishing reserves (Doug Harris)? o The parallels between reserve and fisheries policies Very few treaties signed in BC, diff from the rest of Canada Closely linked to the significance of the salmon resources Tiny reserves along river locations on in coastal areas Fishing stations as particular reserves to protect indigenous fisheries

The international problem: boundaries Fish migration routes o Regulatory nightmare fish move o Mobile resource, and points of exploitation are in 2 different nations Who do the fish belong to? Flexible borders o Labour flows Indigenous peoples would come from the central coast to work in canaries south of the boarder and north of the boarder o Smuggling o Pirates Conserving fish in a competitive environment o Incredibly large fisheries (millions of millions in good years)

Hells Gate Accidental outcomes of railroad policy starting in 1911 when crews were moving through the Fraser canyon, used dynamite to create flat land, and dumped material into canyon unintentional dam created in, 1913 year of largest salmon run ever, and none of them could get past, and they would drift down dead without reproducing 1914 another landslide happened, and they had to start again in 1917 (4 years later) run had cut down to only %25, and by the 1930s, only 1/25 size of original runs decimated the fisheries o commercial role in indigenous economy

Cyclonic development? Moiling for gold in the Yukon Territory 10/01/2012 16:36:00
Lecture objectives To analyze the background to the gold rush and the geographical context of the Klondike region To examine the social, political and environmental effects of the gold rush

Moiling for gold Earlier 19th C gold rushes in western North America and the Pacific The only gold rsh at the time in NA Rushes elsewhere link by people who would move from one rush to another Mining exploration precedes rush Male dominated gold rush societies Mining populations Some continuities Primarily homo-social and segregated compared to other metropolitan centres Camp life Custom and rough justice No leader, self-governed o Miners Meetings o Concept moved from California to BC due to the gold rushes Traditional territories before the rush Vast territory involved, from San Francisco to Alaska

Aboriginal groups had control over certain point of entre and acted as packers helping to move goods

Economy and society before the rush Fur trade and a limited mineral and commercial trade o Distances, time and lags were large in the pre-gold rush era Rivers as arteries of communications and transportation o HBC steamship on the Mackenzie starts in 1880s Missions Mining camps Striking gold Bonanza Creek and Eldorado o Klondike River renamed Bonanza Creek o First place were gold found Narratives of Discovery o 3 members (in the reading) argument of who discovered it o involved politics about who could stake a claim to first find and the nature of the respect that would be generated Over before it starts o People coming to the Klondike were going to be disappointed because of the permafrost, gold was in the form of nuggets mixed in the soil Great deal of work to thaw the soil to get to the gold

1898-99: why then? After the initial discovery, arrival of others, lots of people taking out large shipments of gold, generating interest when ship carrying the shipments arrived in US ports

Late 19th C depression Gold currency debate in the US o Should US paper currency be tied to gold? Gold shipments provided context Easy attainment of gold promoting the idea of gold for currency Spectacular news reporting follows initial gold strikes

Getting there 3 routes: o steamship from Seattle or Victoria up the Yukon River to Dawson City (Easiest way, took the most time) o Steamer to Skagway, Alaska and then overland via Chilkoot Pass or White Pass Most popular and most efficient, quick access Difficult taks to get through costal region to the gold fields o By land from Edmonton, across Mackenzie, then down Yukon tributaries to the gold fields Very difficult route, took over a year of travel

The White Pass railway, completed after the rush Infrastructure that was supposed to help people get to the gold fields, but it was completed in 1889 after the rush was over A Canadian problem? Gold rush passed through the US and Canada The administrative situation o Boundary dispute between Us and Canada o Needed administrative council and police to govern the Klondike area

Inventing the Yukon territory o Gold Rush led to the establishment of the Yukon territory Government control needed in the area Not unlike the formation of BC Policing the territory o 1895 a NWMP contingent arrives tried to establish themselves in point of entry to the Klondike monitor movement of goods across the border substantial establishment in Dawson City (gun control o Reinforced by Yukon field force of 200 (one third of Canadian army) Monitoring the border

Who comprised the rush? Based on records in points of entry and census of 1901 Origins o Majority of birth place in North European countries, USA and Canada o Mounted Police census Looked at citizenship rather than birthplace Seemed like more people from the USA than there actually were Ie. People from Norway could have migrated to the US and then moved to the gold rush after obtaining citizenship Gender ratios o 1898-1921 censuses 90-70% Male very skewed distribution

Occupational profile o Census only recorded certain kinds of occupations, only broad categories o Didnt include things like prostitution b/c illegal o Miners 1/3, followed by accountants or clerks Cyclonic settlements Instant town: Dawson City Bought area very cheaply, then resold lots of others at high prices From seasonal Han fishing station to settlement of about 30,000 in a couple of years The society behind the mining claims Population crashes to 10,000 by 1901 After peak claims were dealt out, ppl had little incentive to stay and moved on to other gold rushes in Alaska Begins decline

Environmental consequences Animal and mobility o Beast of burden killed in the Chilkoot pass because they suffered when carrying goods up the mountains to get to gold rush area o Hunted for food Placer mining in winter conditions Wood consumption o Building log cabins o Heat the fire to burn permafrost for mining Commodity trades o Goods brought in, resources used in order to trade for these commodities Carved out pathways along the slopes of hillsides Large piles of earth from excavated land Activity was occurring even in the winter o Due to permafrost, excavation in the summer could lead to mine shaft collapses

Immigration: national policies, prejudice and settlement 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives:

To consider how patterns of immigration changed after 1900 To outline the policies and ideas shaping immigration practice in the early twentieth century To analyze where and in what manner immigrants settled in Canada expands to Canada: 49, 000 146, 000 402, 000

Immigration Immigration 1901: 1905: 1913:

Total Canadian population: 1901: 5, 371, 315 1921: 8, 788, 949 (after WW1) From 1900 to 1920, 3 million+ immigrants to Canada Expansion in general, but not for all Between 1900-1920: 2/3rds of immigrants from British Isles and the US Remaining 1/3 varied in terms of origins (Eup. and Asia) Growth/contraction patterns specific to national or ethnic groups Laws set up to limit immigration from non white countries of origin Chart of changing immigration from different Asian countries

Changing Canadian immigration policies Changing circumstances in countries of origin

The paradox of immigration policy: expansive AND restrictive Race-based restrictions: o Wanted to attract more European immigrants because trying to produce a Canadian country and population imagined around a certain racial imagining of what makes an appropriate racial background for Canada Head taxes on Chinese immigrants: o 1885: $50; 1901: $100; 1904: $500more than a years wages. o 1885 the railroad was completed, so head taxes introduced immediately after its completion o During building of City of Vancouver, Government of BC included that companies that got infrastructure contracts could not employ Chinese labourers o Increases over time, and increases more quickly Informal agreements: Japan, 1907 o Same year as a sig. race riot in Vancouver targeting Asian immigrants o Canada establishes a gentlemans agreement with Japanese government along with the US Voluntary restriction on the part of the Japanese government restricting Japanese emigration to North America No changes to acts, all at diplomatic level, but reduced Japanese immigrants to Western Canada after 1907 Informal restrictions: India o More difficult b/c India also part of the British Empire, so how were other British subjects to be excluded o The continuous voyage clause, rev. Immig Act, 1910 Revision made to immigration act which called for the continuous voyage to Canada from point of origin

Didnt apply to most steamers from Europe etc, but did apply to ships coming from South Asia that would need to stop in Hong Kong or Hawaii o Komagata Maru incident, 1914 Challenge to Continuous Voyage clause, organized by a Sikh business man, Japanese ship originating from Hong Kong Denied entry in Vancouver on basis of Continuous Voyage clause, turned around and sent out of the port of Vancouver Face of difficult conditions strong protests on shore from anti-Asian immigrant protestors Prejudicial guidelines (1906) give wide scope for restrictions o Range of categories that didnt target anyone of a particular ethnic backgrounds, but those of particular physical backgrounds (disabled) and people of particular professional backgrounds o Feeble-minded, afflicted by a loathsome disease professional beggars prostitutes and pimps likely to become a public charge or become dangerous to public health o Boarder guards had significant scope to restrict people on these grounds without much need for strong proof o Allows for tightening of the reins of immigration and other controls at the border

Destinations: Any patterns from this diagram? Most immigrants in East went to Urban areas, and in the West went to Rural areas Language of origin in addition to country of origin Actual opportunities for rural settlement in Eastern Canada much more limited because land had already been taken up, and incentives of free land were all in western provinces Vast majority of immigrants from Eastern Asia were much more likely to settle in urban areas across the country (except Japanese in western Canada)

Other than those from the British Isles, more people seem to be going to Western Canada ~rarely the rural poor who were coming, but there was some attempt on the Canadian governments part to make it more affordable Why is it difficult to map patterns of settlement? Were all immigrants settlers? Not necessarily, many may have been single young men who were coming to make money with the plan to return home and set up there Sojourning 1896-1914 Immigration Map Alberta and BC Much more American into Alberta than BC or Vancouver More British Isles in BC than Alberta Asian to BC more than rest of Canada (24,000 to BC, 10000 to Rest of Canada) o Chain migration, like seeing from east but this time from Asia Who influenced immigration policy? Liberal campaign pamphlet 1904 o Stereotypes: no non-whites and no women, includes only voters, because at the time only white men could vote The greatest influence: o Large employers in transportation, industry and isolated resource centers o Needed workers, and didnt care about race or language, they just needed people, so they were large drivers of early immigration policies in Canada Governments nevertheless contended with (and helped to shape): o Pressures for Anglo-conformity (Howard Palmer) English Canada, ties closely to notion of British imperialism, and tried to impose this on Canadian society o Anxieties about a shrinking French-Canada

Quebec emigration concerns, loss of importance due to realitce decline in population of french canadians in relation to immigration that was not francophone Most immigrants into quebec settled in Montreal, created more urban/rural divide o Racism (expressed through legal, informal and violent means) Varied immigration Cultral, region, shapes human geography Contradictory government policy, both opening and restrictive in different areas National imagination of production of Canadian society plays out for much of the future

Wood Readings What extent did Italian immigrants consider themselves Italian? o Not originally, because they idientified with their region in what is now Italy - Italy was a development of late 19th nationalism o Context of settlement how many, regional backgrounds of those there etc. o How were they seen by other groups? Italian by others, but not by themselves o Not necessarily a pre-existing Italian identity to draw upon, Italian identity became stronger IN CANADA Arrive in Canada or America? What does it matter? o Didnt really see the difference between the two, the border was a less important, families on both sides o America idea of over there didnt really matter whether it was Canada or the US in actuality How did common language groups forge belonging in dispersed resource settlements o Depends about how many people there are from the group o Cultural lodge etc.

o When there were many Italians, they could associate with those from their region, as opposed to where fewer they linked by language group as a whole o Catholic churches holding services in Italian produced a notion of Italian identity at the same time that regional identities were maintained

Make-Believe Canada: Parades, celebrations and commemoration 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives: To consider the affective construction of nationality in early 20th C Canada To explore the dynamic tensions of empire, nation and identity embodied in the Tercentenary of Quebec, 1908

National belonging: National-states have long made use of many devices and agencies to create an emotional bonding with particular histories and geographies [through] the marking of time, the figuring of the landscape, and the ritualization of remembering. From: Brian Osborne, Constructing Landscapes of Power, 1998, p. 432, emphasis added. National belonging: Marking Time: o Narrative o Chronology Figuring landscape: o Encode with symbols o Landscape the past Ritualization of memory: o Memory as experience o Embodied performance

Landscapes of resistance Did commemorations simply impose landscapes of power? Or, did they allow for spaces of resistance?

Making memory in Canada From Imperial to National Memory o The stuff of memory: statuary, materials, memory o Place identification National Battlefields Commission, 1908 Historic Sites and Monuments Board, 1919 Fixed meanings? The commemorative moment Parallels and Precedents Why parade, commemorate, and involve citizens? Make-Believe Canada The Tercentenary of Qubec, 1908 o Instigators o Where? o Why? What was to be remembered? (1608) (1758-59)? o What should be preserved? o What should be performed? o A nation-formation event? Agendas The City The British Crown

The Catholic Church French-Canadian Nationalists The Dominion

The glorious days of July 1908 Parading Pageantry Observing and Participating Criticism Inclusions and exclusions The explorers, the church, the military The folk: habitants, men and women The aboriginal presence The problem of the conquest: all were winners! Fixing meanings Paintings, Souvenirs, Medallions and Books The historic site: landscape of memory

Pleasure grounds: Inventing national parks 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives To situate the invention of national parks within the broader history of conservation in Canada To explore why parks were founded and how they functioned Parks as an aspect of conservation? Conservation: definitions o Protection with a view to use or consumption at some point o View to consumption KEY to the idea, not with a view to preservation, using wisely different elements of the environment to ensure perpetual use over time o Not arguing for no use (preservation of landscapes) but means to set aside lands and institute practises to ensure use over the long term. Against waste, for thoughtful use. Late 19th C origins o American influences After Yale, UofT started own school of forestry with foresters from Germany Early 20th century Widespread concerns about loss of forests in Canada and USA o Timber companies and forestry Concerns: wastefulness of fires in the forests, that fires would be allowed to burn wasting fire Led to legislation to restrict fire near forests and limit activities that may trigger fires (including activities of railway companies) Fire thought to be unusual, not nature and wasteful and best thing to do was to limit colossal waste of capital and manage it strictly to ensure a reliable return from the forest We now know that fires play a key role in the lifecycle of forests

Gifford Pinchot, prominent American forester and conservationist, speaking to a Canadian conservation congress, 1906: o We must put every bit of land to its best use, no matter what they may beput it to the use that will make it contribute most to the general welfareForestry with us is a business proposition. Conservation moves government? o BNA and split jurisdictions, management occurened in a patchwork fashion across the Canada

o The federal government in the west Manitoba and NWT that hadnt yet been formed in provinces Retain control over land and resources in prairies at the time Exerted influence over conservation matters Control land base, managed settlement, promoting irrigation, manage timberlands of eastern rockies, wildlife control policies Not ecological in design and scope, but did draw from conservation docterine to sustain for exploitation in perpetuity o Provincial legislation (e.g., BC Forestry Act, 1912) Ontario late 19th century BC late joiner to these issues in 1912 Initiated by Lt. Governor from Quebec who lived on large forest estate in Quebec and had a private interest in forestry conservation In broad intent conservationist, drew from expertise elsewhere (usa) and inspiration from st. lawurence Very light management style, More formal system for distributing timber rights, no great burden on industry o Conservation moves government through officials, legistlation, but does not inforce a particularly high stansard as we would call when it comes to environmental wtandards o The Commission of Conservation (1909-1921) Set up by fed govet in 1909 inspired by usa conservation movement Attended major convention in usa in year before the commission was created and agreed that both countries should implement intisutions that would address conservation isues across different parts of governement

Commission established at federal lelevel staffed by scientit and those with extensive sresource experience Very little power and no formal status like other federal bodies, more ofan advisory body of experts that would study certain issues and publish reports on them Range of reports gernerated, but it is unclear what actually happened with those reports and the geds has limited ability to enforce some of the reporsta in areas that they did not have jurisdiction Limited practical impact, and shut down by feds in 1921 because seen to be redundant with nothing original or important to add Time of rapid resource extraction after WW1 WW1 shifts discussion around resources and conservation in Canada, during war when resource demands where high, conservation swept away in the face of the demands of war Became an issue of less interst in society and government Established National Research Council during the war, which in a way displaced it as an expert scientific body in government Est. to develop tech during war

Diplomacy of conservation o The usa was pressing Canada to come to an agreement on shared resource issues o Boundary Waters Treaty, 1909 Many rivers that start in Canada that move into the USA, USA saw it important enough that they wanted a treaty to limit what Canadians could do to these shared waters Developed as uses around waters grew up USA very diff approach with Mexico, where it was the upstream country, and was able to be much more forceful, upstream nation had the right to do what it wanted

o The Migratory Birds Treaty, 1916 Almost no public group interested in the issue BEFORE passage, done by bird conservationists in the USA History of hunting songbirds etc. for food, fashion etc. USA limit interstate trade on bird feathers (for fashion) very important piece of conservation activistim 2nd migratory birds usually cut north and south into Canada and central America lobby congress to initiate an international treaty process for an internation treaty on Canada, USA, Mexico, which would also force the USA to restrict hunting, bc it was hard to organize states elevated issue to federal level through an international treaty Canada happy to participate, and without consultation, many traditional uses of birds were then made illegal, esp for first nations and maritime Important conservation milestone and the distance between federal government action in the threaty process and the diff constituents would would be impacted by these treaties o The Pacific Halibut Commission, 1923 Model for later fisheries treaties (esp. salmon) Easy to focus upon because there were specific waters, fishers from both countries used the resource and both countries agreed to implement scientific study of halibut before recommending means of conservation and management Scientific study then legislation The demise of Conservation? o Commission axed in 1921 (as per above post WW1) o After 1920s, conservation weekend in public discussion and political attention o 1930s other priorities (great depression) that were more immediately concerning

o Park origins International influences o European parks Origin to protect game to be hunted by the aristocracy Urban space attached to social authority, closely goverened and controlled Over time, gradually opened up to other uses o American wilderness parks (Yosemite, Yellowstone) landscape became celebrated at the same time that the conservation docterin was also emerging wilderness space that needed to be protected, context of moment of concern of over exploitation and loss of resources defining features of early American parks The immediate Canadian context o Railroad development Rockies hard to build through, very expensive etc. What to do with land base in such an area how to make money like you would in the praries o The problem with mountains o Hot Springs! Park could be attached with a health spa in the mountains o Watersheds

What were parks for? What activities could continue? What activities could not? Idea that the wilderness was a place to experience, but not a place to live, so indigenous peoples were removed from Banff o Nakota groups transected rockies in seasonal movements and hunting practives o Asked to not continue, disposed of land

Timber birth at Castle Mountain and Silver City o Ceded to blackfoot, reserve on Bow river

The original parks legislation (1885) states that land is hereby reserved and set apart as a public park and pleasure ground for the benefit, advantage, and enjoyment of the people. Pleasure Grounds o Access Cars means more people can access, restrictions on cars within the park carriage or train and changes after 1911 when redesigned for use by cars Road planning, view scapes ets Used to be very genteel people who visited

o Use o Implications Dispossessions o What activities could continue? o What activities could not? Mining, lumbering and power generation

Discussion questions What does BUILDING a park mean? o Build an experience, less to enjoy nature for natures sake, but for ACCESS to nature that needs to be controlled and managed in various ways (hotels, beavers o Social constructions, fenced off what is nature, picking and choosing what should be in the park How did the development of parks correspond with the historical geography of settlement? Business builds up around park, after established, much like along the railroads

Redefining Canadian territory and citizenship: the North 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives: To examine the ways in which southern Canadians produced a geographical imagination of The North during the 1920s. To consider how prominent researchers sought to map the region and interrogate its human geographies. Beginning with Harold Innis (1894-1952) Soldier in WW1, injured, discharged, wrote thesis on psych impact of trench warfare at McMaster Grad school of University of Chicago o Here at end of war, shocked and alienated by the celebration o Found it to be distasteful o Study economic history, chose a Canadian topic for research Study of economic history of CPR New and relevant topic of the time Study of the CPR o Perhaps had began the study of Canadian economic history from the middle of the story, o CPR and construction like outcome of earlier, deeper processes o Decided to study the background of Canadian unity as the future of his career 1920s o began to study the background of Canadian unity, took position of UofT in dept of political economy o interesting choice due to personal history, now wanted to understand Canada on its own terms clear departure from previous interest in wider imperial issues, perhaps backlash against European experience, part of a wider agenda of asserting Canada on its own terms as a worthy subject The Fur Trade in Canada, 1930 (book)

Thought river patterns, and thus their influence on the fur trade, provided some fundamental economic background for Canadian development o Need to know about routes, conduct, interactions, understanding of space and travel of the fur trade o Agenda to study cross-Canada and examine historical basis in archives and contemporary manifestations in the Canadian north. o How it operated over distance and social characteristics o Boundaries of Canada and original political space not an accident, but rather product of the fur trade. Very significant statement A Canadian northern vision and a territorial nationalism The Fur Trade in Canada: context and significance Foundations of Canadian social science o Think through the development to think through territorial development, key figure in the restructuring of various fields and how people view Canadian space especially in the north

The North Where was the North as such? o North of 60? Lower density population? Northern prairies provinces? Boundaries keep changing during early 20th century. o Maps form 1915 atlas of canada West: showed Yukon territory, mineral deposites How maps are set out are very important o Range of visual cues from cultural corridors Group of 7 paintings, distinctive style of landscape painting, un-peopled landscapes from around Northern Ontario, imaginly constructed area for new generation of intellectual who were looking for something in the north that would define an essentially Canadian something Resource terms: range of economic interests for the resource development, esp re mineral development and pulp and paper development

New Ontario (north) from old Ontario, almost a colonial development, to exploit resources for betterment of province and the country Idea of north as the immediate environment through which to think about the issues of Canadian development Idea of wilderness, of unfolding frontier, cutting edge of civilization What ideas informed this imagined geography? o Imagined frontiers of civilization v. wilderness o Shaped Canadian ideas of the north, like a rolling frontier that needed to be mapped and understood in esthetic terms, captured and exploited in resources terms, traveled to and understood from Inniss perspective to inform a wider debate about expansion into the north.

New Ontario, frontier discourses and the idea of wilderness We are on the fringe of the great North and its living whiteness, its loneliness and replenishment, its resignations and release, its call and answer, its cleansing rhythms. It seems that the top of the continent is a source of spiritual flow that will ever shed clarity into the growing race of America. (Lawren S. Harris, 1926) new Canadian esthetic, critical race theory etc. The heroic arctic: Vilhjalmur Stefansson (1879-1962) Heroic tales of arctic exploration, mysterious arctic region, visited by few, given much media and literature coverage re exploration and imagination Key shaper of discourses and stories about arctic exploration Launched range of independent expeditions before ww1 Flamboyant character, gave lectures, generated lots of backing to his expeditions, explain promise of arctic to southern Canadians One lecture: promise of the arctic after end of WW1 o Massy hall Toronto

o Why was it packed to overflowing? What was going on at the end of WW1 that generated SO MUCH interest in northern Canada? Shift towards interest of Canada in and of itself A literary and cinematic North Jack London: the call of the wild o Impact on generation of readers, influenced conceptualization of north, influenced Innis when he was in hospital in England during the war Nanook of the North o Staged tale of Inuit life, key in developing ethnographic understanding and cultural representation of Inuit in southern popular culture Informing contexts for people like Innis when they were doing research Innis on the Peace River, 1924 Voyage north in 1924 Research problems: space, economy and polity Research investigations/inscriptions Where, when and how did Innis conduct his northern research? o Structured research in very systematic manner o Corresepondence with HBC fur traders and police who told him how to organize trip, where to go, where to buy things etc. o Shaped by established authorities, unlike anthropologist going to enmesh in local life and society Planning Fieldnotes: Presences, Absences o Always thinking through was he was seeing, observations, thoughts o When compare fieldnotes to later works some direct connections o Deeply informative trips for his conceptualization and understanding of the fur trade o Footnotes: marked by presences and absences

Presences Who he talked to, what he saw and chose to record as noteworthy Most informants were the same people in position of authority who he had corresponded with in advance Trader authorities, police, missionaries Almost all white men, a very few white women outside the field notes, didnt record womens views, only mens perspectives of economic activity A few mtis, but never the view of first nations, sometimes described them from a distance, but definite sense of a strong social boundary that he did not cross Perspective of first nations did not impact his scholarly understandings of the fur trade Book has still be celebrated for re-imagining Canadian economic development with first nations as central Means he saw some things and not others, concerned with certain social factors in the development of the fur trade and not others.

Innis Represents North after trips, formulated field notes into more digested thoughts with aim to inform about Canadian north and fur trade, spoke to audiences about a wide range of issues of Canadian northern development A Metropolitan Seeing Man? (Pratt) o Term for figures like Innis who construct their own authority based on their ability to inform groups about foreign/far away lands Public meetings/ popular publications o Looking for new sources of income, looking for lectures that would pay for speakers, visit a whole range of groups

o Would write up short papers on these talks about the Canadian north with canoe photograph, published in very accessible manner Didnt actually spend very much time in his canoe, though that was part of the image he projected and developed as the metropolitan seeing man Recurring themes: o North as frontier Speculator audiences, interested in resources development and investment, commercial pull Invoked military metaphors o North as site of national self-realization Broader implications for Canadian nationhood Where the real Canada lay, to understand country, to understand the north, myth of the Canadian north o North as site of preserved past Contradiction to the north as frontier Shown by going north to understand the 17th century fur trade, lack of consolidated industrial frontier charming and romantic Heroic figure of individual miner or trapper, masculine men o North as anti-modern enclave Preserved past, resistance to modernity and modern life Romantic due to distance and rejection and inability to grasp modern life o Range spoke to how audiences were beginning to understand north and important part in Canadian identity Assumed past, national yearning etc. Contradictions?

William Morrison Discussion: Quiet Years the Canadian North 1900-1940

Govt presence more real: extension of police force in post Klondike era, distance, limited access, difficulty asserting authority. Eg. of whalers on Hershel Island. Surveys and mapping, to understand cartographic nature. Development of basic institutions like the post office, lines of connection to the outside world. Range of ways, but generally quite limited. Demographic shift in the Yukon. International mineral prices. Sovereignty: rule of law, post offices, mapping, claims of terriotory on the international level, if they were unmapped, then fictional idea that the Canadian government of authority. Many activities used to defend idea of Canadian authority. Transportation: shipping cant go on year round due to ice. Very expensive, energy intensive, costs limited when minning could go on. Not much could be shipped out. High value of goods at low bulk levels (high end furs v. wood). International mineral values again important. How settlements could be connected with the outside world. Economic terms. Communication terms. Bush pilots radical change. Small planes that can access remote settlements. Radical change in terms of access. Shocking transformation, collapsing of distances. More routine and rapid communication.

The floor drops out: the geography of economic crisis 10/01/2012 16:36:00
Lecture objectives: To answer three related questions: o How did the international economic crisis in the 1930s affect Canada? o What were the national and regional effects? o What measures were introduced at the federal level to confront these problems? Canada and the international economic crisis: dimensions and effects Currency instabilities affect international trade Stock Market collapse: effects on confidence, investment and reinvestment Overproduction of primary resource commodities International responses: protectionism o US Hawley-Smoot tariff, 1930 Capacity and production Problems of an open export economy Dependence on exports The narrow range of export products o Small shifts in a single sector would have large, far reach repercussions across the manufacturing sector in Canada, where when plants closed, nothing was going to replace them The centrality of the US market o Canadian market bound up with the USA, so enough links that when something happened in the USA, it affected Canada, basic problem of economic recovery for Canada. The weak bonds of empire and commonwealth o Hope that post WW1 or the commonwealth would provide a useful institutional frame to cut through protectionism, an increasingly central problem in international trade with trade protectionism, and that didnt happen until at least the 1930s o DIdnt even/actually materialize in any way that was helpful to the Canadian economy during the production

Facing Unemployment National and regional patterns o National: 1 in 4 unemployed across the country, higher/lower in regions Occupational groups o All potentially affected, especially unskilled labourers and constructions workers o Workers whose jobs tied up in the expansion of the economy in the 1920s, hit first and hardest Self-employed farmers and the cost-price squeeze o Self-employed: depended on capacity to sell goods that they produced o Farmers payments still needed to be made to keep farming, and they didnt really go down, but the price for wheat (their earnings) were going way down. Followed by a series of drought years Unemployment and the crisis of capitalism o Larger fault line developing, thought it would force the way businesses and governments operated economically to establish a more fair society In 1932, 1 in 4 Canadians was unemployed o Limited consumer spending to help with economic recovery Regional employment numbers graphs Similar shapes across the Canada, but differences in the rates of unemployment Prairies have a slower recovery out of the 1930s, increase in demand through late 30s helps the manufacturing areas (Ont, Qc) and demand for wood products (BC) rebuild, but not as much for the prairies o Price of wheat doesnt climb radically during WWII like it did in WWI The limits of state response: constraints What should the federal government have done, has since been harshly criticized for lack of programs to help the unemployed etc.

o Federal government spending DECLINED during the depression, did not act to balance private sector decline, rather worried about debt in wider international crisis o Liberals and Conservatives both believed the proper role for the state in economic activity was relatively limited and that the government could do very little to reorient broader economic affairs The prevailing wisdom o It was only after the depression and during the depression that Keynesian economic became fully developed, but these theories and economic models didnt exist at the time in the depressions. o Futuristic thought not embraced nor encountered by Canadian government o Keynesian economic policy ASSUMED that governments had some way to impact the economy, not till lated in Canada The Constitution o BNA divided federal responsibilities in certain ways that dictated how the government could act, and many of the areas of rising costs were under provincial responsibilities, including employment relief o Very difficult to intervene under the framework of the BNA, didnt have the capacity to act or spend in areas without overstepping provincial jurisdiction, couldnt act without agreement of provinces A weak state o Limited application of personal income taxes, undeveloped system o Conditions required for strong federal response undeveloped in the Canadian context o No central bank for federal monetary policy independent from federal government intervention more to come next class

The range and limits of federal activity what the government did Spending programs:

o Bennett conservative government in mid 1930s, felt unlikely government could do much Background context of USA New Deal, announced mirror programs in run-up to 1935 election o Relief and work camps Not really to drive economic recovery, rather a holding pattern for men who would otherwise be homeless, living under bridges etc. o Responses to the drought: the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act, 1935 In the context of the dramatic response in the USA with dam development and water project and family relocations Canadian institution set up to respond for 5 years, staffed from agri experiment stations, Tried to advise farmers on practices that could limit effects of drought conditions Contour ploughing Water development projects Diggng out holes to provide stock watering holes to help keep cattle alive Dam development projects to set up irrigation projects and peopling these projects with farmers whose land had been blown out in dust bowl conditions Relocated from land that was unusable to new irrigated land Land left behind was fenced and attempts made to re-grass the areas to turn them into community pastures for farmers in the region Reshuffling of homesteading model in favours of new practices and terms of state support Intervened into provincial jurisdiction, but provinces (Alt, Sask, Mtb) accepted willingly because they were so desperate for support Doesnt mean there were no jurisdictional conflicts

Provinces only created in 1905 and only got right to govern natural resources in 1930 o Towards an unemployment program? Not introduced until 1941 when the Canadian employment levels were back to healthy levels, missed problems of depressions (perhaps the only time it could have been implemented) Beginning of Canadian welfare state Trade and Manufacturing policy o Protectionism and export promotion o Trade Agreements Monetary policy o Creating a Central Bank (1934) o Limited role in addressing international trade protectionism

Provincial responses to the depression Provinces tried to respond in sometimes flamboyant measures including both the more innovative and sometime least productive BC o Pettulo tried to do a new deal style program (claimed credit for US idea), through road building etc. Douglas Social Credit and Aberharts Social Credit o Economic crisis not overcome until consumers had purchasing powers, could be addressed by government distributing purchasing power Distribute certificates that could stand in for money and could be used to kickstart purchasing Also included lots of anti-Semitic diatribe Major Albertan take away: intervening in economy and distributing income o Aberhart Principle with weekend radio show, talked about social credit on his show with huge following, key in disseminating the idea Lead to new political party contested provincial elections based on Douglas ideas

o When Social Credit tried to implement, wanted to make money, totally outside provincial jurisdiction, but issue not raised during election Address debt, but rolling it back, also outside jurisdiction When tried to do so, simply disallowed by the federal government Press coverage was very critical and unflattering, and Aberhart tried to intervene in press and limit what they could say about his government o not all parts of social credit idea ridiculous (like increasing spending) but provincial level didnt have ability to implement Experimental reform measures: credit, debt, and press regulation o All provinces trying desperately to do something within the constraints of spending power and jurisdiction to do so Constitutional barriers to provincial activism How unusual was the Alberta case?

On to somewhere: How to eke out an existence in the Great Depression10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives: To consider the response of municipal governments o Much of the relief systems as it was established from confederation centred at the local, municipal level o What were the limits of municipal response re. this HUGE new pressure? How did ordinary people try to negotiate the municipal role? To analyze the strategies used by individuals, families and groups to cope with unemployment Canada was an increasingly urban country at the time Relative increase from 1911 to 1931 (shows shift) and 1941 (shows urbanization continues over depression and the role of municipalities in managing and responding to the depressions o 1931: Ontario 63.1, BC 62.3, Quebec 59 The social experience of unemployment Unemployment, stigma and changing meanings o Social notions of meaning of unemployment were under real pressure given sharp increase in unemployment New high levels that didnt follow traditional (seasonal) patterns From seasonal to structural unemployment The fading of Victorian sensibilities o Fading of idea that the unemployed were either deserving (disabled) or undeserving (lazy etc) o Harsh ideas up for redefinition due to shift in circumstances undermining opportunity for employement even for those who were very willing to work o New Term: no fault of their own Idea of unemployment insurance in 1941 a response to depression AND anticipatory policy with a view to the return of soliders after the war, whenever the war would end, to avoid the same problems that occurred after the first world war JS Woodsworth on unemployment (address to Parliament, 1931)

Do not lose sight of the men and women who are suffering. A few weeks ago, I stood in my own city of Winnipeg watching a long line of men register so that they might obtain foodThis was not a long line of manufacturers approaching the finance minister for favours, but a queue of men four deep stretching for half a block around the corner to the next lane They were not bums, they were not tramps down and out; most of them were self-respecting men anxious only for work. Methodist minister, social gospeller o Religious movement that believed in helping others, arose in many locations dominated by protestant churches, invokes a collective response to the new emergin problems of industrial society v. the indidual pulling themselves up by their bootstraps Becomes key figure in development of CCF Strong anti-immigrant views

Finding help: the contours of relief Direct relief less than work projects at the beginning, shift to more direct relief, amount of federal input increasese over time No overall system articulation or how municipalities would set upper and lower limits etc. Diff terms in differ cities to prove o Montreal: 3 years consecutive residence, if away for some time, prove 6 years in past 10 years, employable, declare underoat that you were destitute, that family was unable to help and verify that all info was true. THEN, an investigator was sent to your home to see if you had nanything that oculd be sold, report from previous employer, and if improved, then given ration cheques for food, clothing fuel and rent paid directly by city to landlord. Casual work not more than $3.00/week. Fairly high bar. o These rules would vary between cities. The occupational profile of relief camps: regional comparisons Who was seeking relief? Most labourers few jobs, many people, in all regions. Professionals least affected across the board Relief and the local burden Limited ability to raise funds property taxes, which often cant be paid when there is high unemployment. Costs are going through the roof at the same time that their tax base is limited, or even shrinking. Many cities bankrupted, being propped up by provinces to maintain basic function Crisis of government and intergovernmental relations Beyond relief: Finding help in the city Different ways that prefernce might be shown in helping/dealing with people and relief etc. Only skeletal framework of social assitance in 1930s, so range of other agencies attached to religious and ethnic communities were placed in a position of central importance Eg. Toronto 1930s

o Neighborhood Workers Association Protestants o Catholic Welfare Bureau Catholic o Jewish Family Welfare Bureau Jews o Home Service Organization Blacks o Poppy Fund Indigent veterans o Samaritan Club TB patients in distress o Citys divisions of Social welfare Chronically indigents o House of Industry Refuge of last resort Diet for a poor family: Toronto House of Industry Grocery Bag contents, 1930 what families got when they were destitute. 2 versions: 1) For families of five or under 2) For families of five or more Food stuffs in a 2) order: Oatmeal, Onion, Rice, Flour, Turnips, Cocoa, Cornstarch, Butter, Cream of Wheat, Dripping, Sugar, Cheese, Syrup, Bean, Potatoes, Carrots, and small amounts of tea, salt and baking powder +4 lbs of meat delivered to homes Limited veggies, few fruits, high carbs low protein (See Struthers, Limits of Affluence, p 81) Grocery Bag calories o Caloric value of 2) groceries? o Based on estimates conducted by nutritionists at the University of Toronto in 1931: 7389 calories/day.

Adult male required 3300 calories/day Would not meet needs of a family, essentially a starvation diet. Only a portion of what an average family might need to survive

The On to Ottawa Trek, 1935 A mobile protest against the relief system o Felt that work they were doing was essentially useless, without purpose, make work to keep young men busy and not homeless in the cities o Men got organized and descended on Vancouver from relief camps in BC, organized by communist organizations, looking to link them with workers movements. o Sit on street banging cups, long snake processions, mass gatherings in Stanley park, colourful organization Local community responses o Vancouver mayor rising for potential communist revolution, cause for serious concern, city already had organized workers movements and hobo jungles. State response Significance?

Getting by: Migration Drought limited ability of farmers to raise crops. Big #s leaving sask, abt and man to BC and Ontario Suggest some return migrations to family hearth regions, after earlier migrations west. Getting by: Social Strategies Subsistence living o Shift back to subsistence farming for survival, la early settler style Non-cash forms of economic exchange o Collective institutions to get by own produce, but share livestock etc. on schedule. Close to a barter Informal labour markets

o Response of shifting out of the market cash economy to keep food and goods moving through the local community Discussion of content of letters and difficulty of using them as historical evidence Very personal despite a lack of personal relationships o Thinking of the state in very personal tersm Not just working class, wide range of locations All very polite, very sorry

Canada and the Second World War: Mobilization 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture notes: To consider how the Canadian state sought to mobilize natural resources for war. To analyze how the changing technologies of war, and the problems of continental defense, resituated Canadian peripheries as strategic locations.

Controlling resources: From depression to war: reconstructing the state Gathering materials: Munitions and Supply, CD Howe Regulation (Wartime Prices and Trade Board) and Controls An unprecedented centralization of authority Coordination: a continental program The Ogdensburg Agreement (1940): o The Permanent Joint Board of Defense The Hyde Park Declaration (1941): o Core principle: each country will provide the other with the defense articles which it is best able to produce and above all, produce quickly, and that production programmes should be coordinated to this end. The shifting bias of the north Atlantic triangle Making aluminum in eastern Quebec The significance of aluminum for modern warfare The Aluminum commodity chain Mobilizing rivers Electricity system interconnection

Conservation Dam development (Shipshaw, 1943) Defense: U-boats and Air attack

Hydro/Gender/Conservation Militarizing the north The Canadian north as a strategic periphery The Alaska Highway/ Canol pipeline o Purpose, construction, consequences Surveying the new Northwest The Arctic Survey and American interests Towards the cold war: a militarized north Concluding thoughts The Canadian state: centralized and continentalized? Canadian regions: war as a catalyst of geographical change

Canada and the Second World War:Domestic Dislocations 10/01/2012 16:36:00

Lecture objectives: To explore three complex domestic issues during the war: o The conscription debate o The enrollment of women into new areas of the workforce o The treatment of Japanese-Canadians as enemy aliens Conscription (again) How to face the military demands for fighting forces? National Resources Mobilization Act (1940) The legacies of the First World War The Liberal government of Mackenzie-King Conscription and Quebec politics The conscription plebiscite Towards conscription or a holding pattern? Conscription: the plebiscites outcome The risks of conscription The risks of no conscription Towards conscription (1944) Packaging the policy politically Differences with the WWI experience

Women in the workforce: Two steps forward and one step back?

R. Pierson: Theyre Still Women After All (1986): o Wartime did not erase gender-based barriers to female employment o Wartime gains were short-lived Initial adoption of a system of voluntary womens work: draws on domestic labour skills Women in the workforce Engaging women in war work: o Re-training o Re-framing gender categories o Overcoming practical constraints: daycare But did it last? Enemy Aliens State responds to perception of subversive activities Regional variations o Targeting religious groups (PQ) o Fascist organizations (Ont) British Columbia: Wartime tensions and racial anxieties converge Ken Adachi: The Enemy that Never Was Why were Japanese-Canadians removed? Pat Roy: federal response to unstable local situation? US example? A security threat? The process of removal (1942) Moving and containing enemy aliens Dispersal and the liquidation of property

Reconstructions
Lecture objectives:

10/01/2012 16:36:00

To consider some of the legacies of the warfare state in Canada To analyze the scope and limits of Canadian nationhood in the late 1940s To account for the inclusion of Newfoundland as a Canadian province in 1949 Legacies of the warfare state Expanding the civil service Civil service (1939-45): 46 000 > 116 000 Financing war Tax rental agreements; corporate tax; bonds Managing the economy Warfare and welfare Unemployment Insurance, 1941 Signs of an emerging nationhood? Disengaging Empire/ Institutionalizing Nationhood Citizenship Act, 1947 The Supreme Court, 1949 A Canadian Governor General, 1952 Warfare state to welfare state Family Allowance (1944) Veterans Charter (1945) Expanding university system

o Example: UBC Old Age Security (1951) In the late 1940s regional tensions did not unsettle national parties or policies. Significant that there WAS no fracturing of the federal parties like seen after the first world war and the diecisions made, conscription etc, economic instability, regional fracturing etc. This did NOT occur after WWII And yet Consider Donald Creightons description of Canada after the war: An unidentified, nondescript, almost anonymous country, [Canada] had ostentatiously started off on a new career, with no very definite purpose in mind and not much idea of where it was going. (The Forked Road, p. 131) weak in the context of the emerging continental power to the south (USA) Continental Integration Again: Military Much closer military relationship with the USA Negotiantion for mutual defense agreement in the context of potential British defeat, and perhaps draw USA closer into the fold of an allied cause (Ogdensburg Agreement 1940) o NO timeframe for agreement, permanent o Canadian foreign policy would need to be negotiated in context with the USA (including position/membership in NATO) continental arsenal for democracy? The Permanent Joint Board of Defense comes out of Ogdensburg Agreement NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1949 NORAD: North American Air Defence Command, 1957 air defence danger of exposure to air attack from the USSR quick response air force reactions became basic aspects of national and continental defence policy

now tracks Santa USA didnt want a weakly defended Canadian airspace as potential weak spot in cold war Continental radar defence systems, 1950 to 1957: Distant Early Warning System (DEW line): 63 radar stations to monitor airspace, to wait for invasion from USSR to warn southern airforces high arctic, now challenges in decommissioning costs and toxic materials Pinetree network Mid-Canada line

practical monitoring of Canadian airspace tied up in the continental relationship with the USA Economic Integration Hyde Park agreement 1941 coordinate wartime production Free trade, opened and closed (1948) Killed b4 entered into a wider discussion, hopes of better management and belief not totally needed Concern re what happened after 1911 free trade election and concequences of removing aspects of Canadian sovereignty in the trade sphere and economic policy Deepening trade linkages Canadas imports from the US reached about 70% of total imports during WWII: this level would be maintained in the post-war period. Canadas exports to the US, however, increased in volume and value. Expanding trade linkages 1946 US: 38% UK: 26% 1951 US: 59% UK: 16%

percentage of export trade goes down re. UK, and US goes up SIGNIFICANTLY. HUGE shift towards relationship with the USA in favour of the UK after the war o Britain becomes less important to Canadas economic prospects

The post-war resource boom Notable export growth in minerals: o Uranium (one hundred fold increase, 1948-1959) o Aluminium, copper, lead, zinc and iron ore: Surpass WWII peaks by 1950, production doubles by 1955, increases again by half, by 1960. Interesting in face of wartime concerns that there would be MASSIVE over supply of aluminium after wartime demand disappeared, and Alcan included clauses in their contract to be compensated for their overproduction Never had to use this clause, because demand went up and up and up, particularly in the face of expanding military production in the USA during the cold war o Range of demands driving minieral/resource productions Batteries, weapons, looking to incorporate new metals into products now that they were more readily available thanks to wartime infrastructure and production expansion.

US direct investment US State Department Estimates (1957): o 1950: $ 3.58 billion o 1957: $ 8.33 o Flow of US investment capital INTO Canada Investment fields in 1957? o Manufacturing $ 3.51 billion o Oil $ 2.15 o Mining and Smelting $ 1 Canadian govt estimates (1960)

o US accounts for 75% of all foreign investment. UK, by contrast, accounts for 15%. o Issue of American investment was becoming more controversial (threat to sovereignty v. source of employment etc) Political v. economic consequences. Estimates began to be produced to asses this, levels of US investment really quite high A different kind of continental integration: Newfoundland joins Canada,

1949 The legacies of the depression Bankruptcy o Depression hit nfld particularly hard o Severe difficulties in meeting financial challenges Independent dominion standing within commonwealth Amassed considerable debts during WW1 troubled to payoff o National policies Railroad construction across island, very expensive Commission government, 1935 o Concern that nfld declared bankruptcy, it would create a credit crisis across the commonwealth o Canadian banks bailed out nfld government, but insisted they would oversee all major financil decisions of the government (the banks) o Didnt look like there was any solution to solve problem o Commission established by commonwealth, and the elected nfld government was put on ice, Appointed commission by the UK government put in place Not HUGE reaction from nfld, accepted as reasonable outcome given dire situation o Pre war, no voting, because no elections o WAR TIME

Huge changes going on, in context of north atlantic alliance and convoys etc, nfld became VERY strategically important Military investment (lend-lease program) Wartime participation as soldiers The legacies of war Increased prosperity o Surplus, government imagine new role in prospect of economic management, post-war future o Prosperity built on rather unusual circumstances in history where geographic location key, could not be depended upon in the future. Closer Can-Nfld ties o Important in post-war period in sorting out nflds future in circumstances with a weakend UK government unable to support/maintain its commonwealth obligations/commitments abroad Closer Nfld-US ties

Facing the future after 1945 Within Newfoundland, three options for the future had support: 1) Continued commission government. o Status quo It worked fairly well at stabalizing economiy etc. o Let British rule continue 2) Responsible government o Nfld regains political independence as a dominion within the commonwealth o End to commission, free and fair elections etc. o Reversion to pre-1935 reality 3) Confederation with Canada o some popular support, but very controversial, unclear consequences British support, Canada considers its options Liked Canadian federation

o Release uK from financial commitments and potentially difficult political considerations of overseeing a country with no elected representatives Canada tentative o What would be the costs of expanding all new welfare policies to nfld etc? employment insurance in context of seasonal fishing communities?

The promise of Canada? What were the arguments in favour of joining? o Means to modernize society, inequalities between city and outport communities Federal investment and the infrastructure of a welfare state. Joey Smallwood promises welfare measures and material prosperity: family allowances unemployment insurance, social safety net. In 1948 referendum, support as follows: Commission govt: 14.3% Responsible govt: 44.6% Confederation: 41.1% After run-off vote Confederation: 52.4%

Way more popular in smaller, outport community Catholic church in favour of responsible government, protestants proconfederation Joined March 31, 1949 Big dog and little beaver