Dickinson Lawton Bisbee

Journal of South American Earth Sciences 14 (2001) 475504
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Tectonic setting and sandstone petrofacies of the Bisbee basin (USAMexico)

William R. Dickinson a,*, Timothy F. Lawton b
b
Department of Geosciences, Box 210077, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA Department of Geological Sciences, Box 3AB, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA Received 1 September 2000; revised 1 February 2001; accepted 1 May 2001
Abstract The Late Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous Bisbee basin spanning the USAMexico border was part of the Border rift system, which extended into the continental block from the Gulf of Mexico in response to Cordilleran slab rollback. Rift initiation was marked by eruption of a bimodal mid-Jurassic volcanic assemblage succeeding Early to Middle Jurassic arc volcanism. The core of the Bisbee basin is delineated by Upper Jurassic marine strata of limited extent, and by more widespread syntectonic conglomerate of Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age derived from intrabasinal fault blocks of synrift paleotopography. Subsequent thermotectonic subsidence of the rift belt induced Early Cretaceous marine and nonmarine sedimentation spreading from the basin core to its anks, with peak AptianAlbian transgression marked by deposition of platformal limestone. Late Cretaceous to Paleogene Laramide deformation disrupted the Bisbee deposystems. Bisbee sandstones include arkosic petrofacies derived from intrabasinal fault blocks, lithic (volcaniclastic) petrofacies derived principally from the coeval Alisitos arc to the southwest, subquartzose petrofacies derived mainly from the Mogollon paleohighland forming the northern rift shoulder, and quartzose petrofacies also derived from the rift shoulder. The joint association of disparate petrofacies reects the unusual geotectonic setting of the Border rift belt. q 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: USAMexico border; Petrofacies; Bisbee deposystem
1. Introduction The late Mesozoic Bisbee basin of southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and adjacent parts of Sonora and Chihuahua is a unique tectonic element of the North American Cordillera. Local studies by geologists working on both sides of the international border over the past two decades allow an improved appraisal of basin setting and internal anatomy. The Bisbee basin developed as a result of mid-Jurassic intracontinental rifting (Bilodeau, 1979, 1982), which produced the Border rift system extending toward the northwest into continental crust from coeval oceanic crust in the Gulf of Mexico (Lawton and Dickinson, 1999). We infer that extensional deformation, which penetrated into the continental block for a distance of ,1750 km from the Rio Grande embayment at the Gulf margin, was initiated by rollback of a subducted slab in the mantle beneath the Cordilleran continental arc (Lawton and McMillan, 1999; Dickinson and Lawton, 1999, 2001). This geodynamic
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: 11-520-299-5220. E-mail address: wrdickin@geo.arizona.edu (W.R. Dickinson).
explanation for the rifting event is speculative, but the existence of a rift belt including the Bisbee basin is observational. The Jurassic rift trend followed, however, a backarc path roughly parallel to Jurassic arc volcanism in central Mexico as far to the northwest as the eastern Bisbee basin, and angled obliquely into the Cordilleran arc belt as an intra-arc or post-arc feature in the western Bisbee basin and farther to the northwest. The Bisbee basin, with overall dimensions of 300 km 400 km, occupies the central segment of the resulting paleorift connection between Cordilleran and Caribbean realms (Dickinson et al., 1986). Stratigraphic relations along the trend of the Border rift system preserve the sedimentary record of progressive marine invasion into the continent from the Gulf of Mexico. Sandstones of the Bisbee basin display unfamiliar petrofacies associations, reecting the unusual geotectonic setting of the basin (Klute, 1987, 1991) and shedding light on provenance relations within and surrounding the Border rift system. After outlining the regional and subregional tectonism and sedimentation associated with or related to the Bisbee basin, we discuss Bisbee petrofacies as a contribution to sedimentary tectonics. We also briey treat the contrasting petrofacies of synorogenic post-Bisbee
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W.R. Dickinson, T.F. Lawton / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 14 (2001) 475504
Fig. 1. Regional tectonic setting of Bisbee and associated basins of the USAMexico border region. Bisbee core basin and Bisbee ank basin from Fig. 3; asterisks ( p ) denote exposures of Upper Jurassic marine strata along rifted keel of Bisbee basin. Extent of McCoy basin from Fig. 5. Conguration of basins and platforms in northeastern Mexico adapted after DeFord (1969), Smith (1970, 1981), Pingitore et al. (1983), Wilson et al. (1984), Cantu Chapa et al. (1985), Padilla y Sanchez (1986), Wilson (1990), Zwanziger (1992) and Wilson and Ward (1993). CTB is Chihuahua tectonic belt (Laramide) anking deformed Chihuahua trough, and IC is JurassicCretaceous Isla del Cuervo at the south end of Chihuahua trough. Jurassic islands fringing Gulf of Mexico margin after Moran-Zenteno (1994) for positions, and Gotte and Michalzik (1992) for names; Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous La Mula island (LM) of Sabinas basin after Jones et al. (1984). Aptian CupidoSligo and Albian Stuart City reef trends after Lehmann et al. (1999, 2000) and Wilson (1999) in Mexico, and Winker and Bufer (1988) in Texas. North edge of Bisbee basin (limit of rift trough) modied after Mack (1987a,b) and Dickinson et al. (1989). Cities: B Brownsville; Cb Caborca; Ch Ciudad Chihuahua; EP El Paso; H Hermosillo; L Laredo; LC Las Cruces; M Monterrey; P Phoenix; S Saltillo; To Torreon; Tu Tucson.
sandstones that were deposited within Late Cretaceous to Paleogene Laramide sedimentary basins superposed upon Upper Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous strata of the Bisbee basin. For geochronology and chronostratigraphy, we follow the timescales of Gradstein et al. (1994) for the Mesozoic and Berggren et al. (1995) for the Cenozoic. 2. Regional tectonic setting Tectonic trends delineating the keel of the Bisbee basin extend westward to dene the anks of the narrow McCoy basin athwart the Colorado River, and merge eastward with structures controlling basins that extend through northeastern Mexico to the ank of the Gulf of Mexico oceanic basin. 2.1. Mexican platforms and basins Pre-mid-Mesozoic basement of northeastern Mexico was fragmented into multiple platforms and intervening basins (Fig. 1) by extensional tectonism associated with Jurassic
opening of the oceanic Gulf of Mexico by seaoor spreading between Texas and Yucatan beginning in Middle Jurassic (Callovian) time (Marton and Bufer, 1994; Dickinson and Lawton, 1999, 2001). The structural boundaries between basins and platforms were reactivated or overprinted by latest Cretaceous (CampanianMaastrichtian) to early Paleogene (PaleoceneEocene) Laramide contractional deformation. The late Mesozoic platforms and basins developed above two conjoined crustal blocks juxtaposed across the OuachitaMarathon suture (Fig. 1) in Early Permian time: (1) Laurentian crust of the North American craton and (2) Gondwanan crustal elements of eastern Mexico. To the southwest of its exposed segment in west Texas, the OuachitaMarathon suture is masked beneath sedimentary cover of the Laramide Tornillo basin and the southern end of the pre-Laramide Chihuahua trough, but passes southward between the Aldama and Coahuila platforms (Fig. 1). The late Mesozoic array of platforms and basins in northeastern Mexico was inundated progressively from southeast
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Fig. 2. Representative stratigraphic columns (central datum at AptianAlbian boundary) showing regional WNWESE lithofacies gradient within Jurassic Cretaceous strata of the Border rift system (see Fig. 1 for geographic relations): A McCoy basin after Harding and Coney (1985), Stone et al. (1987) and Tosdal and Stone (1994); BCD Bisbee basin (see Fig. 3 for distribution of facies belts), including western (nonmarine) facies tract (B) after Dickinson et al. (1986, 1987) and central (mixed marinenonmarine) facies tract (CD) in southeast Arizona (C) after Dickinson et al. (1986, 1987) and lute (1991), and in southwest New Mexico (D) after Mack et al. (1986), Lawton and Harrigan (1997, 1998) and Lucas and Lawton (2000); E Chihuahua trough after Cordoba (1969), Cordoba et al. (1970), DeFord and Haenggi (1970), Eaton et al. (1983), Araujo Mendieta and Casar Gonzalez (1987), Cantu Chapa (1993), Monreal Saavedra (1993) and Monreal and Longoria (1999); F Sabinas basin after Cantu Chapa et al. (1985), Cuevas Leree (1985) and McFarlan and Menes (1991). Basaltic volcanic and volcaniclastic strata (denoted `v') are interstratied with Upper Jurassic marine strata within Martyr window of Chiricahua Mountains (Fig. 4) in Arizona near New Mexico line (Lawton and Olmstead, 1995). Double-headed arrow denotes local occurrences of AlbianCenomanian marginalmarine facies at top of Bisbee Group, and asterisks denote AptianAlbian marginal-marine interval within otherwise nonmarine Shellenberger Canyon Formation. La Gloria and Las Vigas Formations also include marginal-marine intervals. Key biostratigraphic boundaries (inferred where dashed or queried): Cret/Jur CretaceousJurassic; Apt/Neoc AptianNeocomian; Alb/Apt AlbianAptian; Ceno/Alb CenomanianAlbian (UpperLower Cretaceous boundary); LAR (unconformity or hachured line) base of Laramide (CampanianMaastrichtian) strata.
to northwest as the subsiding structural ank of the Gulf of Mexico was ooded by marine waters (Padilla y Sanchez, 1986; Winker and Bufer, 1988; Cantu Chapa, 1998). Late Jurassic transgression advanced up the Sabinas basin northeast of the Coahuila platform during Oxfordian time and up the Chihuahua trough to the northwest during Kimmerid gian time (Salvador, 1987, 1991; Zwanziger, 1992; Cantu Chapa, 1993). Transgression of the Mar Mexicano (Eguiluz de Antunano and Campa Uranga, 1982; Eguiluz de Antu nano, 1985) of central Mexico advanced simultaneously along the western ank of the Coahuila platform from Oxfordian into Kimmeridgian time (Contreras Montero et al., 1988). Successive positions of the Aptian CupidoSligo and Albian Stuart City reef trends (Fig. 1), marking the shelf edges of platformal carbonate systems, record the retrogradational landward shift of Early Cretaceous depositional systems prior to widespread Late Cretaceous overlap of platforms and intervening basins. 2.1.1. Chihuahua trough Sabinas basin relations The oors of the Sabinas basin and the Chihuahua trough were partly isolated from the expanding Gulf of Mexico and
Mar Mexicano, respectively, by subdued paleotectonic elements that restricted access of marine waters, and both basin keels are delineated by the subsurface distribution of evaporites formed during intervals when water bodies were ponded during basin evolution (DeFord and Haenggi, 1970; Gotte and Michalzik, 1992). Late Jurassic islands screening the Sabinas basin from the opening Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 1) were inundated by the beginning of Cretaceous time (McFarlan and Menes, 1991). The south end of the Chihuahua trough was partially separated from the Mar Mexicano to the south, however, by a positive paleogeographic element termed Isla del Cuervo located between the Coahuila and Aldama platforms (Fig. 1) throughout Late Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous (Neocomian) time (Zwanziger, 1992). The Coahuila platform and nearby La Mula island (Fig. 1), as well as the Isla del Cuervo, were overtopped by rising marine waters in late Early Cretaceous (Aptian) time (Jones et al., 1984; Zwanziger, 1992; Lehmann et al., 1999). The northeastern ank of the Coahuila platform is delineated by the San Marcos fault (McKee et al., 1990), which was recurrently active during Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous time
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(McKee et al., 1984). Before the Coahuila platform was submerged, clastic wedges of Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous strata were shed across the fault trend into the Sabinas basin on the northeast (Smith, 1981; McKee et al., 1984; Wilson et al., 1984), and also off the Coahuila platform into eastern Mexico to the southeast (Michalzik and Schumann, 1994). Succeeding Albian strata, dominantly carbonate platforms and associated reef-ank basinal sequences, are approximately as thick (600750 m) over the Coahuila platform as within the adjacent Chihuahua trough and Sabinas basin (Lehmann et al., 1999). The top of the Aldama platform west of the Chihuahua trough was still emergent during all or much of Aptian time, but was ooded during Albian time (Monreal-Saavedra, 1993) when the Diablo platform east of the Chihuahua trough was also overtopped by sediment (DeFord, 1969). At times during late Mesozoic basin evolution when the interbasin sill between the Sabinas basin and the Chihuahua trough (Fig. 1) was paleogeographically emergent, receiving nonmarine sediment, the Coahuila platform has been described as the tip of the Coahuila peninsula, but the same tectonic feature has been termed the Coahuila island during times when the interbasin sill was submerged to receive marine sediment (Smith, 1981). Similarly, the Sabinas basin has been designated paleogeographically as the Sabinas gulf at times when the interbasin sill was emergent (Gotte and Michalzik, 1992). The two basins jointly dene a paleotectonic linkage along the trend of the Border rift belt between the Gulf of Mexico and the Bisbee basin, and the keel of the Bisbee basin was invaded by a Late Jurassic marine incursion (Fig. 1) from the northern end of the Chihuahua trough (Lawton and Olmstead, 1995; Lucas and Lawton, 2000; Lucas et al., 2001). The Border rift belt was separated structurally from the Mar Mexicano to the southwest by anking platforms and intervening sills (Fig. 1). In both the Sabinas basin and Chihuahua trough, complex Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous depositional systems included nonmarine or marginal-marine to shallow-marine clastic strata, and shelfal to basinal carbonate strata including AptianAlbian reef complexes correlative with a prominent limestone interval within the Bisbee basin (Fig. 2). Overlying Upper Cretaceous marine shales and limestones
of more regional facies tracts cap the older basinal successions in both cases. Subsidence analysis of the Sabinas basin implies a stretching factor b of 1.61.8 (Cuevas Leree, 1985), and the broadly comparable thicknesses of Late Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous strata within the Chihuahua trough and along the deepest keel of the Bisbee basin (Fig. 2) suggest crustal extension of similar magnitude. 2.1.2. Laramide tectonism The eastern ank of the northern Chihuahua trough was severely deformed, as the Chihuahua tectonic belt (Fig. 1), by Laramide deformation that everted the basin ll and thrust it eastward over the ank of the Diablo platform (Hennings, 1994). The Laramide Tornillo basin (Fig. 1) developed in the foreland of the thrust system (Lehman, 1986, 1991). Lower Cretaceous strata of the Chihuahua trough change facies eastward and thin rapidly by onlap of a pre-mid-Mesozoic substratum along the ank of the Diablo platform (Gries and Haenggi, 1970; Underwood, 1980; Drewes and Dyer, 1993). Although structural telescoping along the basin margin has accentuated the lateral stratigraphic gradient, Lower Cretaceous strata exposed where the structural front crosses the Rio Grande thin from 3150 m on the southwest to only 250 m on the northeast, within a lateral span of just 60 km (Amsbury and Reaser, 1988). By contrast, the Sabinas basin, lying farther east with respect to the evolving Laramide structural front, and roughly along Late Cretaceous tectonic strike from the Tornillo basin (Fig. 1), is capped conformably by a thick succession of latest Cretaceous (CampanianMaastrichtian) clastic strata (Sohl et al., 1991). This dominantly shaly Laramide succession is analogous to the prodeltaic Parras Shale, which underlies the deltaic Difunta Group deposited south of the Coahuila platform, and was likewise derived from growing Laramide highlands farther west (McBride et al., 1974). The area of the Bisbee basin lay within the belt of Laramide deformation. 2.2. Chihuahua trough Bisbee basin relations Near the USAMexico border, Lower Cretaceous strata at the northern end of the Chihuahua trough pass gradationally to the north and west into sequences of Bisbee Group
Fig. 3. Lateral extent and internal compartments of Bisbee basin (USAMexico). See Fig. 1 for regional setting. Black areas denote Bisbee Group exposures (nearby outcrops grouped for clarity). Stippled areas denote mid-Cretaceous marine to marginal-marine strata (PF Pinkard Formation; BF Beartooth Formation; SF Sarten Formation) onlapping Bisbee rift shoulder marked by Mogollon paleohighland (eastern extent termed Burro uplift in New Mexico). Lines with arrows show trends of panel diagrams (Fig. 4), with numbers at arrowheads indicating general locations of control columns (16, Fig. 4 top; 712, Fig. 4 bottom). Locality key: A Arivaca area; BH Big Hatchet Mtns.; CCC Cerros Cabeza Colgada; CdO Cerro de Oro area; CeM Cerro Mayo; CH Canelo Hills; CM(W) Chiricahua Mtns. (Martyr window); CM(R) Chiricahua Mtns. (Rucker Canyon horst); DC Dos Cabezas Mtns.; DM Dragoon Mtns.; EM Empire Mtns.; EP East Potrillo Mtns.; GM Galiuro Mtns.; HM Huachuca Mtns.; LH Little Hatchet Mtns.; LM Lone Mtn. (Sierra San Jose); MM Mule Mtns.; PdP Planchas de Plata area; PaM Patagonia Mtns.; PeM Pedregosa Mtns.; PiM Pajarito Mtns.; PoM Peloncillo Mtns.; SAn Sierra Anibacachi; SAz Sierra Azul; SC/R Santa Catalina/Rincon Mtns.; SdC Sierra del Caloso; SEC Sierra El Chanate; SP Sierra Perilla; SR Sierra Rica; SRM Santa Rita Mtns.; T Tuape area; TM Tucson Mtns.; VM Victorio Mtns.; WM Whetstone Mtns. Towns and hamlets (italics): An Animas; AP Agua Prieta; Ar Arizpe; At Altar; Ba Bavispe; Be Benson; Ca Cananea; Co Columbus; Cu Cucurpe; De Deming; Do Douglas; H Hachita; L Lordsburg; Na Nacozari; No Nogales; SA Santa Ana; Sa Sasabe; Se Sells; SV Sierra Vista; To Tombstone; Tu Tucson; W Willcox.
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typical of the eastern end of the Bisbee basin (Mack et al., 1986; Brown and Dyer, 1987; Seager and Mack, 1998; Mack et al., 1998). In southeasternmost Arizona and southwesternmost New Mexico, the Bisbee Group in the core of the Bisbee basin displays an internal stratigraphy that has two key hallmarks (Fig. 2): (1) a markedly diachronous (Grijalva-Noriega, 1996) basal conglomerate, the Glance Conglomerate of Arizona and Sonora, and (2) a marine limestone interval, of AptianAlbian age, intercalated midway through overlying basin ll that is otherwise composed of nonmarine to marginal-marine clastic strata. The limestone-rich medial deposystem, termed the Mural Limestone in Arizona and adjacent Sonora and the U-Bar Formation in New Mexico, marks the maximal marine transgression into the Bisbee basin (Hayes, 1970). A lateral change in stratigraphic nomenclature is traditionally placed at the state boundary between Arizona and New Mexico (Ferguson, 1987), but some workers have carried the Arizona terminology across the state line (Drewes and Thorman, 1980a,b; Drewes, 1986), and more local formational names are still used in some areas near the state line (Bayona and Lawton, 2000). A less-prominent transgressive phase of sedimentation near the AlbianCenomanian boundary is represented by marine to littoral deposits locally preserved at the top of the Bisbee Group (Fig. 2). Along the keel of the Bisbee basin, extending east-west across southeastern Arizona and the `boot-heel' of southwesternmost New Mexico (Bilodeau and Lindberg, 1983), the basal Glance Conglomerate is a syntectonic deposit (Bilodeau, 1978) varying locally in thickness by orders of magnitude (202000 m). The thickest conglomerate is preserved within relict grabens and half-grabens, with thinner successions overtopping adjacent horsts and tilt blocks. The oldest Glance sections underlie fossiliferous Upper Jurassic beds (Lawton and Olmstead, 1995; Olmstead and Young, 2000), but younger Glance intervals are separated from AptianAlbian limestones of the Bisbee Group by abbreviated sections of shale-rich Lower Cretaceous strata that are locally only 1020 m thick. The Glance conglomeratic interval, which locally intertongues with overlying Bisbee strata, is accordingly inferred to range in age from Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. We interpret depocenters containing either thick Glance Conglomerate or overlying marine Jurassic beds, or both, as local fault-controlled extensional depressions formed by mid-Jurassic rifting of an underlying Jurassic arc assemblage or nearby basement during slab rollback beneath a dormant magmatic arc. Volcanic rocks of a bimodal igneous suite associated with arc rifting locally underlie, and in places are intercalated with, the Glance Conglomerate or overlying Upper Jurassic marine strata (Krebs and Ruiz, 1987; Lawton and McMillan, 1999). Younger strata of the Bisbee Group accumulated during thermotectonic subsidence of the rift belt and its margins over a time span extending to the middle of the Cretaceous. The Mogollon paleohighland of central Arizona, and its southeastern
extension along the Burro uplift of New Mexico, formed a high-standing rift shoulder anking the Bisbee basin on the north (Bilodeau, 1986; Dickinson et al., 1989). The rift shoulder lay along Early Cretaceous tectonic strike with the Diablo and Burro platforms northeast of the Chihuahua trough and Sabinas basin, respectively (Fig. 1). 2.3. Bisbee core and ank basins Southward across Sonora from the keel of the Bisbee basin where syntectonic stratal assemblages are prominent, characteristic post-Glance formations of the Bisbee Group are widespread, including the distinctive Mural Limestone (Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques-Ayala, 1990; GrijalvaNoriega, 1991; Monreal, 1995), but overlie uniformly thin intervals (,100 m) of Glance Conglomerate (Monreal et al., 1994). We term this part of the basin the `Bisbee ank basin,' as opposed to the `Bisbee core basin' farther north (Figs. 1 and 3). Along the western fringe of the Bisbee ank basin, the Mural Limestone grades into marginal-marine clastic strata of the Arroyo Sasabe Formation (JacquesAyala, 1989) derived from volcanic sources that probably lay within the AptianAlbian Alisitos arc of present-day Baja California (Jacques-Ayala, 1995). Southward into Sonora, post-Glance formations of the Bisbee Group overstep the area of Glance deposition to rest upon a contrasting basal Bisbee lithologic unit of interbedded marine shale and limestone (Cerro de Oro Formation) of Early Cretaceous (Aptian) age (Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques-Ayala, 1988; lez-Leon and Lucas, 1995). In the Monreal, 1994; Gonza type section at the southern limit of its outcrops (Figs. 3 and 4), the Cerro de Oro Formation unconformably overlies Proterozoic-Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, with no interven ing Mesozoic strata present (Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques Ayala, 1988; Gonzalez-Leon and Lucas, 1995). We infer that the lateral lithologic transition (Monreal et al., 1994; Monreal, 1995) from Glance Conglomerate to Cerro de Oro Formation at the base of the Bisbee Group heralded approach to the southern margin of the Bisbee basin as the Cerro de Oro Formation onlapped pre-Bisbee strata. The pre-Bisbee substratum beneath the southern rim of the Bisbee ank basin is part of the displaced Caborca block (Stewart et al., 1990, 1997), which evidently formed a sill separating the Bisbee basin from tectonic elements lying farther to the south. The extent and magnitude of rifting beneath the Bisbee ank basin is uncertain, with contrasting interpretations possible. On the one hand, a conglomeratic sequence underlying the Cerro de Oro Formation near Tuape (Fig. 3) in north-central Sonora and a thick metaconglomerate succession exposed farther west near Altar (Fig. 3) may represent early phases of Glance Conglomerate deposition (not shown on Fig. 4) and mark the trend of a rift trough beneath the Bisbee ank basin subparallel to the rifted keel of the Bisbee core basin. The prominence of felsic volcanic clasts in the conglomerates at both Tuape and Altar is suggestive of at
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Fig. 4. Summary panel diagrams of stratigraphic relationships within Bisbee Group: top, Bisbee core basin in Arizona and New Mexico (AZ/NM is state line); bottom, Bisbee ank basin in Sonora. Lateral spacing of control columns (Fig. 3) not to scale. Central datum at AptianAlbian Mural/U-Bar marine limestone interval (or equivalent). Unit designations: (a) Upper Jurassic marine strata (`v' denotes basaltic volcanicvolcaniclastic interbeds): Jmc Crystal Cave Fm. (Chiricahua Mtns.); Jmb Broken Jug Fm. (Little Hatchet Mtns.). (b) JurassicCretaceous Glance Conglomerate and marine Cretaceous equivalents (`v' denotes mac and silicic volcanic interbeds): JKg Glance Cg. (Kgc where inferred to be entirely Cretaceous); Kco Cerro de Oro Fm. (c) Pre-mid-Aptian (post-Glance but pre-Mural/U-Bar limestones) Lower Cretaceous strata: Kac Apache Cyn. Fm. (lacustrine); Khf Hell-to-Finish Fm. (includes Glanceequivalent conglomerate at base); Kma Morita Fm.; Kwc Willow Cyn. Fm. (d) AptianAlbian marine limestone interval (and marginal-marine equivalent): Kas Arroyo Sasabe Fm.; Kmu Mural Ls.; Kub U-Bar Fm. (e) Post-mid-Albian (post-Mural/U-Bar limestones) Lower Cretaceous strata (capped locally by mid-Cretaceous AlbianCenomanian marine to marginal-marine deposits denoted by dashed line near top): Kci Cintura Fm.; Kmo Mojado Fm.; Ksc Shellenberger Canyon Fm. (basal part below Mural/U-Bar equivalent); Ktu Turney Ranch Fm. Adapted after Mack et al. (1986), Dickinson et al. (1986, 1989), Bilodeau et al. (1987), Mack (1987a,b), Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques-Ayala (1988), Jacques-Ayala (1989, 1992a,b, 1995), Monreal et al. (1994), Monreal (1995), Gonzalez-Leon and Lucas (1995), Lawton and Olmstead (1995), Lawton and Harrigan (1997, 1998), Seager and Mack (1998), McKee and Anderson (1998) and Lucas and Lawton (2000).
least local pre-Bisbee rifting, and accompanying quartzite clasts imply high-standing exposures of pre-Mesozoic rocks somewhere nearby. On the other hand, the lesser overall thickness of the Bisbee Group in the Bisbee ank basin in comparison to its thickness in the Bisbee core basin, by a factor of two (Fig. 4), suggests that initial rift extension and subsequent thermotectonic subsidence of the Bisbee ank
basin were less than for the Bisbee core basin. A signicant fraction of the net subsidence within the Bisbee ank basin can probably be attributed to exural loading of lithosphere as thick sediment accumulated within the Bisbee core basin to the north. A summary of stratal relations near Tuape and Altar indicates the nature of interpretive ambiguities for the structural
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condition of the substratum beneath the Bisbee ank basin: 1. Near Tuape, the Cerro de Oro Formation (Monreal et al., 1994; Monreal, 1995; Bacuchi Formation of Rodrguez Castaneda, 1991) is reported to rest gradationally (Rodr guez-Castaneda, 1988, 1990, 1991) on ,1000 m of unfossiliferous clastic strata (Dos Naciones Formation of Rodrguez-Castaneda, 1991), which include conglomeratic horizons that might represent interngering lenses of Glance Conglomerate. The undated strata rest gradationally in turn, however, upon marine Upper Jurassic volcaniclastic strata of arc afnity that have yielded Oxfordian to middle Kimmeridgian ammonites (Rangin, 1977; Araujo Mendieta and Estavillo Gonzalez, 1987; Rodrguez-Castaneda, 1991). Farther north near Cucurpe (Fig. 3), correlative Upper Jurassic volcaniclastic strata pass downward into an Early to Middle Jurassic arc succession widespread to the west (Palafox et al., 1992). Although the conglomeratic beds overlying the arc assemblage near Tuape may represent a fragmentary record of syn-Bisbee rifting, they can be regarded instead as a nonmarine late Kimmeridgian and younger cap on an unrifted arc edice, which was in time onlapped progressively by the Lower Cretaceous Cerro de Oro Formation as Bisbee sedimentation spread southward from the rifted keel of the Bisbee core basin. 2. Near Altar, Nourse (2001) has reported that a metaconglomerate sequence ,2000 m thick and enclosing interstratied volcanic rocks lie gradationally beneath previously mapped Glance Conglomerate at the base of the Bisbee Group, and regards the undated older succession as lower Glance Conglomerate. His conclusions contrast markedly with previous interpretations inferring that the metaconglomerates are Late Cretaceous in age and interstratied with Laramide volcanic rocks (Jacques-Ayala et al., 1990). As metamorphism of the strata is constrained (Nourse, 2001) to the interval 71 51 Ma (Maastrichtian to early Eocene), available geochronology cannot resolve the difference of opinion, which should be addressed by closer attention to eld relations (Nourse, 2001). Information on the geochemical character of the interstratied volcanic rocks might also permit a distinction to be drawn between rift-related Glance and arc-related Laramide volcanism.
2.4. Lampazos shelf and slope Farther to the southeast in Sonora, a succession of limestone and shale equivalent in age but not in lithology to the Bisbee Group is exposed in erosional windows beneath younger strata near and southeast of Lampazos (Palafox and Martnez, 1985; Bartolini and Herrera U, 1986; Gonza lez-Leon, 1988; Scott and Gonzalez-Leon, 1991; Minjarez Sosa, 1991; Grijalva-Noriega, 1991; Baron-Szabo and Gonzalez-Leon, 1999; Monreal and Longoria, 2000a). The
AptianAlbian marine sequence represents carbonate shelf facies, or platform and slope facies, but no depositional base is exposed. We denote its depositional setting as the Lampazos shelf, inferred to lie along the northern ank of the Mar Mexicano west of the Aldama platform but south of the Bisbee basin (Fig. 1). The Bisbee ank basin is thereby viewed as a sill-like region lying west of the Aldama platform and separating the Bisbee core basin from the Lampazos shelf (Fig. 1). Because depositional systems of the Lampazos shelf and Bisbee basin were laterally contiguous, the two distinctive stratal associations have been grouped together within a more inclusive `Sonora basin' in past usage (Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques-Ayala, 1990), and both have also been regarded as part of an expanded Bisbee basin (Gonzalez-Leon, 1994). The Espinazo del Diablo Formation at Lampazos is lithologically similar to the Mural Limestone and apparently reects progradation of an Aptian Albian carbonate platform from the Bisbee ank basin across the Lampazos shelf during maximum regional transgression. The limestone-rich succession of the Lampazos shelf southeast of the Bisbee basin displays stratal afnities with coeval sections in the Chihuahua trough (Gonzalez n, 1988; Monreal, 1996; Mora Villalobos, 1997; Leo Monreal and Longoria, 2000a,b) but was seemingly separated from the latter by the intervening Aldama platform (Valencia Gomez, 1994). In easternmost exposures near Arivechi and Sahuaripa (Gonzalez-Leon and JacquesAyala, 1990; Grijalva-Noriega, 1991), limestone and shale of the Lampazos shelf-slope sequence overlie conglomeratic beds (`Conglomerado de Zarapuchi'), which are not contiguous with the Glance Conglomerate but resemble nonmarine to marginal-marine facies (Campbell, 1980) of the broadly coeval Las Vigas Formation in the Chihuahua trough. We infer that coarse Zarapuchi detritus was shed westward from the high-standing Aldama platform over the same Early Cretaceous (Neocomian) time frame during which comparable Las Vigas conglomeratic beds were deposited east of the Aldama platform. Overall paleogeographic relations of the Bisbee basin imply that marine ooding proceeded across the Lampazos shelf into the Bisbee ank basin from the south, as well as westward into the Bisbee core basin from the northern end of the Chihuahua trough. As the western limit of the Aldama platform is masked by continuous Cenozoic ignimbrite cover of the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Bisbee ank basin may represent a subdued western continuation of the Aldama platform. Maximum AptianAlbian transgression within the Bisbee basin coincided approximately with nal inundation of the Aldama platform, suggesting that access of marine waters into the Bisbee basin was facilitated by foundering of the Aldama platform to the southeast. Shallow-marine AptianAlbian strata of the Lampazos shelf sequence may have close counterparts to the east in buried coeval strata capping the Aldama platform beneath Tertiary volcanic cover and linking the Lampazos shelf with upper
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stratigraphic horizons of the Chihuahua trough. The thickness (,1775 m) of marine AptianAlbian strata at Lampa zos (Scott and Gonzalez-Leon, 1991; Monreal and Longoria, 2000a) is less than the thickness (,2800 m) of comparable AptianAlbian facies in the Chihuahua trough (Fig. 2), but greater than the thickness (,1150 m) of coeval strata (Gonzalez-Leon and Lucas, 1995) at the southeastern limit of the Bisbee ank basin (Fig. 4). 2.5. Bisbee basinMcCoy basin relations Along tectonic trend with the Bisbee basin within the Border rift belt, but isolated by a wide expanse (,125 km) in central Arizona where no Mesozoic strata are exposed, the narrow McCoy basin of exclusively nonmarine upper Mesozoic strata is exposed on both sides of the Colorado River in southwestern Arizona and southeastern California (Fig. 1). A mid-Mesozoic uplift lying north of the McCoy basin (Reynolds et al., 1989a) was probably the western extension of the Mogollon paleohighland (Robison, 1980). The lower part of the basin ll, termed in its entirety the McCoy Mountains Formation (Fig. 2), occupies the same stratigraphic position as the Bisbee Group farther east, and likewise rests depositionally upon an assemblage of silicic volcanic rocks (`quartz porphyry'). The latter, capping a magmatic arc assemblage, may represent the distal limit of rift-related volcanism along the Border rift belt at its farthest extent from the Gulf of Mexico. The upper McCoy Mountains Formation, above an intraformational unconformity, is a younger succession of syntectonic strata associated with Late Cretaceous thrusting. 3. Bisbee basin stratotectonics Exposures of the Bisbee Group occur as erosional remnants and inliers distributed irregularly within ìsland mountains' separated by interconnected alluviated basins across the broken landscape of the block-faulted Basin and Range province. The northwesterly `grain' displayed by clusters of Bisbee exposures (Fig. 3) reects the dominant trend of Cenozoic basin-range fault systems. Although the outcrop pattern precludes tracing Bisbee strata continuously for more than a few kilometers along strike, because most of the Mesozoic basin ll is masked beneath younger cover or has been eroded, no signicant segment of the Bisbee basin is entirely hidden in the subsurface. The basin substratum, offset by pre-Bisbee or syn-Glance normal faults, includes varied Paleozoic sedimentary, Mesozoic volcanic, and Precambrian basement rocks (Bilo deau et al., 1987; Dickinson et al., 1987; Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques-Ayala, 1990). Strata directly overlying the Bisbee Group range in age from Late Cretaceous through Cenozoic. All pre-mid-Cenozoic units were deformed by Laramide (CretaceousPaleogene) thrusts and folds. Younger extensional deformation included both mid-Cenozoic (Oligo-
ceneMiocene) detachment faulting and post-midMiocene block faulting (Dickinson, 1991). The Bisbee basin was widely disrupted by post-midCretaceous deformation during Laramide contractional tectonism, viewed as either retroarc or intra-arc as Laramide igneous activity swept inland into the continental block in response to subduction of oceanic lithosphere at progressively shallower angles beneath the Cordilleran region (Dickinson, 1991). Laramide strata of Late Cretaceous to Paleogene age were deposited either disconformably or with angular unconformity above the Bisbee Group to thicknesses of typically 15002500 m in multiple local syntectonic basins commonly bounded or fragmented by syndepositional thrusts (Seager and Mack, 1986; Hayes, 1987; Mack and Clemons, 1988; Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques-Ayala, 1988; Dickinson et al., 1989; Lawton and Clemons, 1992; Lawton et al., 1993; Monreal et al., 1994; Gonzalez-Leon and Lawton, 1995; Gonzalez-Leon et al., 2000). Remnants of Bisbee basin ll are present beneath Laramide cover within some mountain ranges, but they also occur in other ranges where Laramide strata were not deposited or have subsequently been removed by erosion. Within the extent of the Bisbee core basin, syntectonic Laramide sedimentation did not begin until Campanian or Maastrichtian time, contemporaneous with the subregional onset of Laramide magmatism (Dickinson, 1991). Within the area of the Lampazos shelf (Minjarez Sosa et al., 1985; Minjarez Sosa, 1991), and perhaps within the extent of the Bisbee ank basin as well (Gonzalez-Leon et al., 1992), post-Bisbee contractional deformation may have begun earlier, in Turonian or even Cenomanian time. As both the Bisbee ank basin and the Lampazos shelf lay closer to the continental margin of Mexico prior to Neogene opening of the Gulf of California, retroarc thrusting and basin formation in advance of migratory arc magmatism may have inuenced their tectonic evolution before impacting the Bisbee core basin. 3.1. Sub-Bisbee volcanic assemblages Jurassic volcanic assemblages beneath and within the southwestern part of the Bisbee basin record a transition from arc to rift magmatism where the Border rift belt interacted with the Cordilleran magmatic arc. 3.1.1. Arc magmatism Lower to Middle Jurassic volcanic rocks of southern Arizona and northern Sonora represent the southeastern prolongation of a mid-Mesozoic magmatic arc along the Cordilleran margin (Busby-Spera, 1988; Tosdal et al., 1989; Busby-Spera et al., 1990). Although discordance of UPb data makes age interpretations a challenge, the time span of arc magmatism in southern Arizona (Asmerom et al., 1990; Riggs and Haxel, 1990; Riggs et al., 1993) ranged from no later than the beginning of the Jurassic until at least 175 Ma (Middle Jurassic near the beginning of Bajocian
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time). Sedimentological conrmation of the age of the Lower to Middle Jurassic volcanic assemblage is provided by intercalated eolian quartzarenites that are correlative with Jurassic erg deposits of the Colorado Plateau to the north (Bilodeau and Keith, 1986; Riggs and Haxel, 1990; Riggs et al., 1993). The delivery of eolian sand from sources to the north into the arc terrane implies that the Mogollon paleohighland was nonexistent or subdued prior to midJurassic time (Bilodeau and Keith, 1986), when it was uplifted to form the rift shoulder of the Bisbee basin (Bilodeau, 1986; Lucas et al., 2001). The inland edge of the Jurassic arc assemblage angles obliquely, northwest to southeast, across the Bisbee basin (Fig. 3), leaving continental basement beneath the northeastern Bisbee basin in a backarc position unaffected by arc magmatism prior to postBisbee Laramide events. 3.1.2. Rift magmatism Before and during initial Bisbee Group sedimentation, Jurassic arc magmatism of dominantly andesitic character was succeeded by a bimodal phase of volcanism marking the transition to tectonics of the Border rift system. PreGlance silicic ignimbrites were emplaced as intracaldera bodies and outow sheets of the Canelo Hills Volcanics (Lipman and Hagstrum, 1992), erupted from calderas in the Canelo Hills and Huachuca Mountains (Fig. 3). Waning phases of the silicic volcanism also emplaced thin outow sheets of ignimbrite within the Glance Conglomerate of the Canelo Hills (Bilodeau et al., 1987; Dickinson et al., 1987). Farther west in the southern Santa Rita Mountains (Fig. 3), felsic to intermediate volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks are similarly interstratied within Glance Conglomerate (Bilodeau, 1979; Bilodeau et al., 1987), mapped locally as the Temporal and Bathtub formations (Drewes, 1971). Mac alkalic to tholeiitic lavas were erupted in grabens and half-grabens along the central keel of the Bisbee core basin (Lawton and McMillan, 1999), where they are interstratied with Glance Conglomerate in the Huachuca Mountains and with Upper Jurassic marine strata that overlie the Glance Conglomerate in the Martyr window of the Chiricahua Mountains (Fig. 3). Silicic ignimbrites forming the Canelo Hills Volcanics and interstratied tuffs within the overlying Glance Conglomerate display geochemical properties that are characteristic of extensional tectonic environments (Krebs and Ruiz, 1987): (a) low chondrite-normalized La/Lu ratios reecting comparative enrichment in light rare-earth elements (LREE); (b) a correspondingly at curve of chondrite-normalized REE (rare-earth element) abundances (especially for the LREE segment of the curve); and (c) a strongly negative europium (Eu) anomaly. In these respects, their geochemical signature is analogous to that of igneous assemblages from extensional domains such as the modern Rio Grande rift, the active east African rifts, the McDermitt caldera and Coso volcanic eld of the Neogene Basin and Range province, and backarc assemblages of the Scotia Sea
and Papua New Guinea. By contrast, magmatic arc assemblages commonly display strongly sloping REE curves (no LREE enrichment) and more subdued Eu anomalies. Ta ThHf plots for the ignimbrites show afnities with both arc and backarc suites, as expected for a rifted-arc setting. The mac lavas that are interstratied with strata of the lower Bisbee Group display e Nd values of 13 1 5 (Lawton and McMillan, 1999), indicative of asthenospheric sources and fully compatible with eruption within an evolving rift belt. We conclude that the bimodal volcanic assemblage present immediately below and within basal horizons of the Bisbee Group displays a petrologic character in keeping with the inferred magmatic environment of an arc structure incipiently rifted by slab rollback. 3.1.3. Arc-rift transition Age control for the transition from arc volcanism to rift sedimentation is still imprecise. Available KAr ages (Marvin et al., 1978) for the Canelo Hills Volcanics of the rifted-arc assemblage below the Glance Conglomerate range from 177 to 169 Ma (Bajocian), but individual reported dates have high uncertainties (^68 Ma). An axial pluton intruded beneath the resurgent dome of an ignimbrite caldera in the Huachuca Mountains (Lipman and Hagstrum, 1992) has yielded a KAr age of 167 ^ 6 Ma (Marvin et al., 1978), which is appropriately near the younger end of the apparent age range for the sub-Bisbee ignimbrites. Basaltic lavas in the Chiricahua Mountains (Fig. 3) of Arizona both underlie and overlie marine shales that have yielded Kimmeridgian (154 151 Ma) ammonites (Lawton and Olmstead, 1995; Olmstead and Young, 2000), and lie only 150 m conformably above fossiliferous Upper Jurassic strata in the Little Hatchet Mountains (Fig. 3) of New Mexico (Lucas and Lawton, 2000; Lucas et al., 2001). Ignimbrites interbedded with Glance Conglomerate in the Canelo Hills (Kluth et al., 1982) and the Santa Rita Mountains (Asmerom et al., 1990) have yielded essentially identical RbSr isochrons of 151 ^ 2 and 151 ^ 5 Ma (,KimmeridgianTithonian boundary), but the isochrons may not reect eruptive age because metasomatic alteration of the dated rocks is severe (Krebs and Ruiz, 1987). The RbSr ages are compatible, however, with less precise KAr ages of 147149 Ma (Marvin et al., 1978), with uncertainties of ^611 Ma. Interpretations are further clouded by the likelihood that evolution of the Jurassic magmatic arc was inuenced by intra-arc extension throughout much of its history (BusbySpera, 1988). In southeastern Arizona, the transition during the approximate interval 175170 Ma (Bajocian) from dominantly andesitic volcanism associated with stratocones to dominantly silicic volcanism associated with caldera collapse (Asmerom et al., 1990; Riggs and Busby-Spera, 1990) can be viewed either as continued arc evolution or as the onset of pre-Bisbee rifting. For example, the immense Cobre Ridge caldera (,170 Ma) in the Pajarito Mountains (Fig. 3) may have formed simply by volcano-tectonic
485
collapse of an arc edice (Riggs and Busby-Spera, 1991), but the inuence of regional extension on local caldera collapse cannot in our view be excluded. The youngest well-dated Jurassic granitic suite in southern Arizona was emplaced in the latter part of Middle Jurassic time during the interval 165160 Ma (Tosdal et al., 1989). We infer from the presence of Glance Conglomerate underlying fossiliferous marine Kimmeridgian strata in the Chiricahua Mountains, which lie northeast of the Jurassic magmatic arc assemblage (Fig. 3), that the Border rift belt had propagated westward, from a backarc position, to reach the continental ank of the Cordilleran magmatic arc shortly thereafter, by approximately 160155 Ma (Oxfordian). The observed RbSr isochrons of 151 Ma (Kimmeridgian Tithonian) obtained from ignimbrites intercalated within the Glance Conglomerate lying stratigraphically above the arc assemblage in southern Arizona are compatible with that inference. In the Huachuca Mountains (Fig. 3), an erosional surface at the base of the Glance Conglomerate truncates the edges of the calderas from which the extensive ignimbrites of the pre-Glance Canelo Hills Volcanics were erupted (Vedder, 1984). This relationship indicates that Glance depocenters were synrift tectonic features superimposed across underlying volcanic structures. Inherited topography along the volcano-tectonic rift belt may nevertheless have inuenced Glance deposition locally (Lipman and Hagstrum, 1992). 3.2. Basal Glance Conglomerate In Arizona and Sonora, successions of conglomerate and sedimentary breccia at the base of the Bisbee Group are termed the Glance Conglomerate, but analogous strata in New Mexico are generally treated as basal or interngering beds of the generally ner-grained Hell-to-Finish Formation. Locally in both New Mexico and Chihuahua, ,50 m of basal `Glance Conglomerate' has been mapped separately from the latter formation (Brown and Dyer, 1987; Drewes, 1991a). Lateral variations in thickness reect deposition of the Glance interval over a corrugated rift topography (Bilodeau and Lindberg, 1983; Mack et al., 1986; Bilodeau et al., 1987; Lawton and Olmstead, 1995), with thickest Glance accumulations conned to downdropped keels of structurally controlled depressions formed as grabens or half-grabens. Thinner Glance successions form more extensive horizons of more consistent thickness where gravel deposition was a transient phase of pediment-like or strandline sedimentation as aggradation of sediment overtopped eroding horsts and tilt blocks (Dickinson et al., 1987, 1989). In favorable instances, abrupt thickness changes dene or closely constrain the positions of bounding paleofaults of local half-grabens (Bilodeau, 1978, 1979, 1982; Sumpter, 1986; Bayona, 1998; Bayona and Lawton, 2000). In typical cases, syn-Glance paleofaults strike west-northwest (Fig. 3), with their south sides downdropped (Bilodeau et al., 1987).
This pervasive pattern of deformation suggests that the Bisbee rift topography was largely an asymmetric array of tilt blocks and half-grabens rather than symmetric horsts and grabens. The prevailing structural geometry implies that segments of the Bisbee basin oor pulled systematically downward and away from the continental interior, backtilting fault blocks toward the northern ank of the basin along the edge of the Mogollon paleohighland in the manner of giant louvers. At the northern limit of Bisbee Group exposures, a basin-margin paleofault of the same character may be exposed near the northern edge of the mid-Cenozoic Catalina core complex (Janecke, 1987). Low-angle preLaramide normal faults in the Florida Mountains of New Mexico may also record syn-Bisbee faulting near the northern edge of the Bisbee core basin (Amato, 2000). The rather consistent thickness of Glance Conglomerate within the Bisbee ank basin suggests that the substratum south of the Bisbee core basin was not disrupted to the same intricate degree prior to onlap by the Bisbee Group. The general absence of preserved Bisbee strata between the Bisbee core basin and the Bisbee ank basin within a belt passing through Cananea (Fig. 3) has suggested the presence of a `Cananea high' (Grijalva-Noriega, 1995) separating the two segments of the Bisbee basin. McKee and Anderson (1998) have argued that Bisbee sedimentation in the nearby Sierra Azul (Fig. 3) involved syndepositional downslope displacement of Mural Limestone blocks and slabs off the Cananea high into a deep trough to the south. Jacques-Ayala (1995) noted, however, that the stratigraphy and lithology of the Bisbee Group in the Sierra Azul is consistent with adjacent segments of the Bisbee basin, and cogent reasons were outlined to discount the hypothesis of local gravity sliding. The apparent continuity of post-Glance formations of the Bisbee Group across the locus of the inferred structural barrier (Fig. 4) suggests that the `Cananea high' was not qualitatively different from other paleotopographic features of the syn-Glance rift morphology. Glance depositional facies reect aggradation of alluvial fans and braidplains of varying lateral extent. Some coarse alluvial-fan deposits enclose thick lenses of debrisavalanche megabreccia (Bilodeau, 1979; Bilodeau et al., 1987; Dickinson et al., 1987), commonly mapped as èxotic blocks' from their monolithologic character, but similar in their internally shattered character to megaclasts in analogous deposits described from the Cenozoic Basin and Range province (Yarnold and Lombard, 1989). Megabreccia bodies, which are most common in the Empire Mountains, Canelo Hills, and Huachuca Mountains (Bilodeau, 1978, 1979; Bilodeau et al., 1987), are either known or inferred to occur near paleofault scarps. 3.2.1. Gravel clast assemblages Clast assemblages uniformly reect the nature of subjacent or nearby sub-Glance bedrock, with carbonate-clast and quartzite-clast conglomerate derived from Paleozoic sedimentary sequences, schist-clast and granitic-clast
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conglomerate from Precambrian basement, and volcanicclast conglomerate from subjacent Jurassic volcanic assemblages. Varied mixed-clast conglomerates are also present, reecting the irregular distribution of sub-Bisbee bedrock types (Bilodeau et al., 1987; Gonzalez-Leon and JacquesAyala, 1990). Close study has shown that some Glance successions display ìnverted clast stratigraphy,' documenting progressive unroong of an adjacent horst or tilt block, with gravel derived from sedimentary cover overlain conformably by gravel derived from basement beneath the cover. Given the distribution of rock types in the basin substratum, carbonate-clast Glance is generally dominant to the northeast within the Bisbee basin, with volcanicclast Glance dominant to the southwest where Jurassic volcanic assemblages underpin the Bisbee basin (Fig. 3). Glance successions containing high proportions of clasts derived from basement are more irregularly distributed in areas where especially rugged synrift topography induced deep syn-Glance erosion. 3.3. Post-Glance facies pattern Sediment ll of the Bisbee core basin can be subdivided into three lithofacies tracts (Fig. 3): (1) an eastern facies belt composed entirely of shallow-marine strata, except for thin basal conglomerate of locally nonmarine character, (2) a central facies belt composed of mixed marine and nonmarine strata, and (3) a western facies belt composed exclusively of nonmarine strata, except for marginal-marine deposits intercalated from the east near the eastern margin of the belt at the AptianAlbian time horizon represented by transgressive marine limestone farther east (Klute, 1987). The lateral transition from marine deposits on the east to nonmarine deposits on the west reects the regional sedimentary gradient from the marine Chihuahua trough toward the nonmarine McCoy basin (Fig. 2). The westward facies transition from mixed marine-nonmarine to nonmarine deposits continues along trend southward from the Bisbee core basin across the Bisbee ank basin (Fig. 3). 3.3.1. Medial marine limestone interval The most widespread marine horizon (Fig. 4), forming the lithologically continuous Mural Limestone (Arizona Sonora) and U-Bar Formation (New Mexico), is well bracketed biostratigraphically between mid-Aptian and mid-Albian time (Scott, 1987; Warzeski, 1987; Scott and Warzeski, 1993; Monreal, 1995; Rosales-Domnguez et al., 1995; Seager and Mack, 1998; Lucas, 2000; Lucas and Estep, 2000b; Lucas et al., 2000a). Lateral continuity with similar AptianAlbian carbonate strata of the Chihuahua trough and Lampazos shelf (Monreal-Saavedra, 1997) is implied by regional paleogeography (Figs. 1 and 2). The limestone interval is a complex depositional mosaic of tidal and subtidal carbonate platform, shelf, and lagoonal facies including prominent coralgal-rudistid patch reefs (Scott, 1979; Roybal, 1981; Schreiber and Scott, 1987;
Monreal, 1994). Mixed carbonatesiliciclastic intervals are widely distributed within the lower part of the carbonate sequence (Mack et al., 1986), providing evidence for intermittent delivery of terrigenous detritus to the carbonate province prior to the full development of reef-dotted platforms. The limestone interval is a generally progradational stratal interval, with shelf and lagoonal facies overlain by biostromal platform and reef facies (Lindberg, 1987; Klute, 1991). Marine ooding of the Bisbee basin thereby produced a continuous carbonate blanket that completed the burial of rift topography throughout the marine eastern and mixed central facies belts. Time-equivalent marginalmarine strata along the eastern edge of the nonmarine western facies belt are represented by oyster-bearing beds associated with estuarine or lagoonal deposits within the Shellenberger Canyon Formation of the Whetstone Mountains (Fig. 3) in Arizona (Archibald, 1987), and by lagoonal to strandline beds of the Arroyo Sasabe Formation in the westernmost part of the Bisbee ank basin in Sonora (Jacques-Ayala, 1989, 1995). 3.3.2. Nonmarine and marginal-marine strata Clastic strata both above and below the AptianAlbian limestone interval (Fig. 4) include a wide variety of local facies representing shelf, lagoonal, tidal-at, estuarine, and uvial-plain environments that evolved over time in complex spatial patterns (Mack, 1987a; Klute, 1991; Jacques-Ayala, 1992b,c). The overall intrabasinal paleogeography of the Bisbee core basin was a broad and low-lying coastal plain prograding to the east or southeast toward the marine environments of the eastern facies belt. Within the Bisbee ank basin of Sonora, commonly bimodal paleocurrent patterns suggest widespread inuence of tidal currents on sedimentation (Jacques-Ayala and Potter, 1987; JacquesAyala, 1995), but overall northeasterly to southeasterly sediment dispersal is inferred throughout Sonora (Jacques Ayala, 1992a; Gonzalez-Leon, 1994). Immediately above and below the Mural/U-Bar limestones, shallow-marine shelf or lagoonal deposits transitional to the marine carbonate complex are characteristic (Dickinson et al., 1987), but farther up and down section nonmarine assemblages are dominant, except in the exclusively marine eastern facies belt. More rapid thermotectonic subsidence during Morita deposition, prior to the transgression that deposited Aptian Albian Mural/U-Bar limestones, than during post-Mural/UBar Cintura/Mojado deposition is suggested by the prevalence of single-story uvial channels encased in Morita mudstones, as opposed to amalgamated multistory channel complexes in Cintura/Mojado uvial strata (Gonzalez Leon, 1994). Below the Mural/U-Bar limestone interval, paleocurrent indicators and facies patterns within the Morita Formation of Arizona-Sonora and the Hell-to-Finish Formation of New Mexico suggest transport of detritus into the Bisbee basin from both the northern and southwestern basin margins (Mack et al., 1986; Klute, 1991; Jacques-Ayala, 1995).
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Above the Mural/U-Bar limestone interval, continuation of the same sediment delivery systems is indicated for the Cintura Formation of ArizonaSonora, but uvial strata of the Mojado Formation in New Mexico display axial paleocurrents indicating sediment transport from west to east, parallel to the trend of the Bisbee core basin (Mack et al., 1986). Within the exclusively nonmarine facies belt farther west in Arizona, uvial paleocurrents are also dominantly axial, trending southeasterly parallel to the trend of the Bisbee core basin (Risley, 1987; Sumpter, 1986; Archibald, 1987). 3.3.3. Lacustrine strata Fluvial facies tracts of the western nonmarine facies belt are interrupted locally by intercalated lacustrine facies deposited in lakes that were apparently ponded within residual half-graben depressions conned between tilt blocks inherited from synrift topography. The Apache Canyon Formation, representing a mixed carbonate-clastic lacustrine deposystem exposed in the Empire and Whetstone Mountains (Fig. 3), thins from 600 m within 6 km of a basin-bounding paleofault to only 200250 m at distances of 1325 km up the paleoslope of the associated tilt block downfaulted against the ank of the basin (Soreghan, 1999). The Empire-Whetstone lakebeds (Archibald, 1987) and analogous lacustrine facies exposed farther west in the Tucson Mountains (Risley, 1987) were in time buried beneath uviodeltaic deposits, as accumulating sediment lled the ponded lacustrine basins. The western nonmarine facies belt can be viewed as a segment of the corrugated oor of the Border rift system that never subsided below sea level but had sufcient internal tectonic relief to promote development of local freshwater or saline lakes until sedimentation within the rift belt overwhelmed the synrift topography. West of the Tucson Mountains (Fig. 3), depositional environments were probably entirely uvial throughout basin history for the Sand Wells Formation (Haxel et al., 1980; Beikman et al., 1995), deposited on the reservation of the Tohono O'Odham Nation near the preserved fringe of the Bisbee basin. 3.3.4. Onlap of rift shoulder Along the rift shoulder north of the Bisbee core basin, mid-Cretaceous (AlbianCenomanian) marine to marginalmarine deposits resting unconformably on a pre-Bisbee substratum are locally preserved along the trend of the Mogollon paleohighland (Dickinson, 1981; Dickinson et al., 1986, 1989), termed the Burro uplift in New Mexico. Sandy strata, typically resting on transgressive ravinement surfaces, include the Pinkard Formation of Arizona (Molenaar, 1983), the Beartooth Formation (Chafetz, 1982) near Silver City, and the Sarten Formation (Lucas et al., 1988) of the Cookes Range farther east in New Mexico (Fig. 3). The onlapping sandstones are overlain by marine shales that are laterally contiguous with Upper Cretaceous marine strata of the interior seaway that occupied the Rocky Mountain retro-
arc foreland basin (Molenaar, 1983; Mack et al., 1988; Lucas and Estep, 1998a; Lucas et al., 2000b). Detailed biostratigraphy implies, however, that initial marine transgression of the Mogollon paleohighland was from the Bisbee basin on the southwest (Lucas and Estep, 2000a). 3.3.5. Uppermost marine interval Within the Bisbee basin, correlative marine and littoral (foreshore) deposits of known or inferred AlbianCenomanian age are present at or near the exposed stratigraphic top of the Bisbee Group in both New Mexico (Mack et al., 1986) and Arizona (Inman, 1987), and also near Arizpe in Sonora (Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques-Ayala, 1990; Gonza lez-Leon and Lucas, 1995; Baron-Szabo and Gonzalez Leon, 1999). The marine to marginal-marine strata of the uppermost Mojado Formation in the Bisbee basin of New Mexico are laterally equivalent and lithologically comparable to the Beartooth and Sarten Formations onlapping the Mogollon paleohighland, and the latter units can therefore be regarded as members of the Mojado Formation (Lucas and Estep, 1998b, 2000a). The presence of a marine-inuenced mid-Cretaceous stratigraphic interval marking the close of Bisbee deposition suggests that the previously lled Bisbee rift basin was incorporated into the proximal ank of the Rocky Mountain retroarc foreland basin just prior to regional regression that carried the shoreline of the interior seaway off to the northeast (Molenaar, 1983; Cobban and Hook, 1984; Mack, 1987a; Mack et al., 1988; Lucas and Lawton, 2000). The transient mid-Cretaceous return of marine waters to the Bisbee basin probably resulted, however, from global AlbianCenomanian eustasy rather than tectonic downwarping (Mack, 1987b). 3.4. Laramide deformational style Laramide structures that disrupted the Bisbee basin have been exposed by erosion at varying crustal levels (Keith and Wilt, 1985, 1986). In the northeastern part of the basin, only supracrustal structures are exposed to view, with internally undeformed basement faulted against Laramide and older sedimentary successions. In the southwestern part of the basin, a record of ductile infracrustal deformation, involving deep-seated plutonism and widespread metamorphism of both basement and cover, is widely displayed (Haxel et al., 1984; Tosdal et al., 1990; Jacques-Ayala et al., 1990). The contrast in thermal history and crustal level of exposure reects the greater proximity of the southwestern domain to the thermal core of the Cretaceous magmatic arc along the continental margin (Reynolds et al., 1988; Barton and Hanson, 1989; Gastil et al., 1992). Two contrasting structural styles and patterns of deformational geometry have been proposed for Laramide tectonism within the area of the Bisbee basin. On the one hand, Drewes (1976, 1978, 1981, 1982, 1988, 1991b) has long maintained that Laramide deformation was controlled by translation of extensive subhorizontal thrust sheets, each
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Fig. 5. Conguration of McCoy basin (California-Arizona). Bisbee-equivalent strata include lower McCoy Mountains Formation (black) and Winterhaven Formation (ruled). Stippled areas denote post-Bisbee upper McCoy Mountains Formation. Outcrop distributions after Harding and Coney (1985), Haxel et al. (1985), Spencer et al. (1985), Reynolds et al. (1986, 1989b, 1991), Richard et al. (1987, 1993), Stone and Pelka (1989), Sherrod et al. (1990), Richard (1992), Richard and Spencer (1994) and Tosdal and Stone (1994). Locality key: BR Black Rock Hills; CM Coxcomb Mtns.; DR Dome Rock Mtns.; GW Granite Wash Mtns.; LHa Little Harquahala Mtns.; LHi Livingston Hills; MM McCoy Mtns.; NW New Water Mtns.; PaM Palen Mtns.; RH Red Hills; sPM southern Plomosa Mtns.
composed of both basement and cover, which moved on the order of 100 km from southwest to northeast. The subregional thrusts are viewed as components of a long-lived foreland tectonic system that evolved progressively from Late Jurassic to Eocene time (Drewes, 1991b). On the other hand, others argue that observed Laramide thrust faults are entirely Late Cretaceous to Paleogene structures that ank basement-cored uplifts, analogous to structures of the central Rocky Mountains, and root more locally into subjacent basement (Davis, 1979; Seager and Mack, 1986; Krantz, 1989; Lawton, 2000). We favor the latter interpretation for the following reasons: 1. Contacts inferred to represent important segments of the Hidalgo and Cochise thrusts (Drewes, 1980), the supposed master structures of the subregional thrust system (Drewes, 1976, 1978, 1981), are known instead to be either unconformities (Keith and Barrett, 1976; Dickinson et al., 1987; Lipman and Hagstrum, 1992) or low-angle normal faults (Dickinson, 1984) and detachment faults (Dickinson, 1991) associated with mid-Cenozoic extensional deformation. 2. We can detect no areal repetitions of Bisbee lithofacies or petrofacies patterns that could reect systematic lateral displacements of separate compartments of the Bisbee
basin on subregional thrust surfaces. 3. The concept of a progressively evolving foreland system requires the Bisbee basin to be viewed as one of a linked series of foreland basins (Drewes, 1991a, Figs. 31 and 3640), shifting successively eastward as an integrated Cordilleran orogeny unfolded. However, the following observations argue against the picture of a foreland setting for the Bisbee basin: (a) lack of any evidence for syndepositional thrusting to the west or southwest, (b) derivation of the basal Glance Conglomerate exclusively from intrabasinal sources rather than from a provenance outside the basin, (c) local stepwise thickening of the Glance Conglomerate across syndepositional normal faults, (d) overall thickening of the Glance Conglomerate into the keel of the basin rather than toward a postulated basin-ank thrust system, and (e) thickening of the Bisbee Group as a whole toward the northeast from the Bisbee ank basin into the Bisbee core basin in a direction away from the continental-margin orogen.
4. McCoy basin stratotectonics Stratal remnants of the McCoy Mountains Formation are
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Fig. 6. Internal stratigraphy of Bisbee-equivalent and Laramide-age strata within McCoy Mountains Formation of McCoy basin (petrofacies abbreviations from Fig. 10). Overall thickness relations after Harding and Coney (1985). Unconformity between lower and upper McCoy Mountains Formation after Tosdal and Stone (1994). Member correlations discussed in text. `t' denotes horizon of ,80 Ma tuff bed.
exposed within an elongate eastwest belt, pinched structurally between the north-vergent Mule Mountains thrust system on the south and the south-vergent Maria fold-andthrust belt on the north, with segments of the McCoy basin ll incorporated into the latter (Fig. 5). Consequently, the original width of the basin is unknown, but it probably extended southward far enough to include the unfossiliferous Winterhaven Formation (Fig. 5), which is lithologically similar to the lower part of the McCoy Mountains Formation and occurs in the same stratigraphic position (Haxel et al., 1985). All exposures of the McCoy Mountains Formation are variably metamorphosed; at least weak foliation and fracture cleavage are ubiquitous. Basal beds of the McCoy Mountains Formation locally rest gradationally (Fackler-Adams et al., 1997) and elsewhere disconformably (Harding and Coney, 1985; Richard et al., 1987; Tosdal and Stone, 1994), but in any case concordantly, on Jurassic volcanic rocks that have yielded discordant UPb ages projecting to concordia at 165 155 Ma (Reynolds et al., 1987; Richard et al., 1987; Asmerom et al., 1991; Fackler-Adams et al., 1997). Comparable volcanic rocks are mapped as a lower member of the Winterhaven Formation (Haxel et al., 1985), with only the overlying quartz arenite and argillitic siltstone members being correlative with the lower McCoy Mountains Formation. The implied Oxfordian to Kimmeridgian age for the base of the McCoy Mountains Formation is closely comparable to the maximum age of the Glance Conglomerate along the rifted keel of the Bisbee basin. The underlying volcanic rocks are dominantly rhyodacite porphyry petrologically similar to the Canelo Hills Volcanics beneath the Bisbee Group of southeastern Arizona, and they appear to represent an analogous rifted-arc assemblage.
Mac dikes and sills that intruded the McCoy Mountains Formation when it was still only partly consolidated are compatible geochemically with a rift environment (Gleason et al., 1999), and petrologically similar mac lavas are present locally within the lower McCoy Mountains Formation (Sherrod and Koch, 1987; Sherrod et al., 1990). The older horizons of the subjacent silicic volcanic assemblage have yielded ages as old as ,175 Ma (Fackler-Adams et al., 1997), similar to the oldest ages reported for the Canelo Hills Volcanics. In Arizona, an intraformational angular unconformity (Fig. 6) separates diverse lower members of the McCoy Mountains Formation from contrasting conglomeratic strata forming the stratigraphically lowest of the upper members (Tosdal and Stone, 1994). The stratal discordance at the unconformity diminishes westward into California, where a hiatus in deposition may or may not have occurred. The age of the strata directly below the unconformity is unknown, but a tuff bed within the conglomeratic succession above the unconformity (Fig. 6) has yielded a UPb age of 79 ^ 2 Ma (Campanian), indicating general correlation of the upper McCoy Mountains Formation with syntectonic strata of Laramide basins in Arizona and Sonora (Tosdal and Stone, 1994). Fossil wood collected stratigraphically above the tuff represents a genus well known from Upper Cretaceous strata elsewhere (Stone et al., 1987). The lower McCoy Mountains Formation is evidently correlative with the Bisbee Group, representing a distal northwestern extension of the nonmarine facies belt of the Bisbee basin, with the intraformational unconformity or laterally equivalent change in lithology reecting the onset of Laramide deformation. Lateral variations from sharply angular unconformities to disconformities or diastems are also common between Bisbee and Laramide strata in southeastern Arizona (Dickinson et al., 1989). With a maximum observed thickness of only ,360 m in the type section (Haxel et al., 1985), the sedimentary members of the Winterhaven Formation are almost an order of magnitude thinner than the lower McCoy Mountains Formation (Figs. 2 and 6), and were probably deposited along a subdued basin ank analogous tectonically to the Bisbee ank basin along tectonic strike to the southeast (Fig. 1). 4.1. Basin-bounding thrust systems Displacement on the Mule Mountains thrust, placing Precambrian basement and Jurassic arc plutons against the deep keel of the McCoy basin, is bracketed within Campanian time between 79 ^ 2 and 70 ^ 4 Ma (Tosdal, 1990). The thrusting apparently represents Laramide deformation analogous to deep-seated, basement-involved Laramide structures of nearby southwestern Arizona. The Maria fold-and-thrust belt along the northern ank of the McCoy basin is at least in part somewhat older, for strands of the thrust system are crosscut by a pluton that has yielded a 40 Ar/ 39Ar age of 79.3 ^ 0.4 Ma (Richard et al., 1998).
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Fig. 7. Areal distribution of dominant clast types in Glance Conglomerate of Arizona-Sonora, and equivalent strata in basal conglomerate of Hell-to-Finish Formation in New Mexico and Sand Wells Formation of Tohono O'Odham Indian Nation west of Tucson. Outline of Bisbee basin (dashed line) from Fig. 3. Tie lines between symbols denote mixed-clast conglomerate, most polymictic in the Canelo Hills (CH), Sierra Azul (SAz) and Sierra Anibacachi (SAn). Bars between stacked symbols separate clast assemblages of stratigraphic units dening inverted clast stratigraphy of Empire (EM) and Mule Mountains (MM), or more complex but also successive clast facies of Huachuca (HM) and Dragoon (DM) Mountains. Legend symbols denote ages of source rocks in basin substratum: J Jurassic; Pz Paleozoic; Pr Proterozoic. Data from Bilodeau (1978, 1979), Haxel et al. (1980), Mack et al. (1986), Archibald (1987), Bilodeau et al. (1987), Lindberg (1987), Riggs (1987), Segerstrom (1987), Gonzalez-Leon and Jacques-Ayala (1990), Jacques-Ayala (1995), Lawton and Olmstead (1995), Lawton and Harrigan (1998) and Lucas and Lawton (2000).
Peak metamorphism of pre-Mesozoic rocks along the northern ank of the Maria fold-and-thrust belt was approximately 75 Ma (Hoisch et al., 1988; Miller et al., 1992), and KAr cooling ages for the 79 Ma pluton fall in the range 7065 Ma (Richard et al., 1998). As it evolved, the Maria fold-and-thrust belt incorporated strata of the lower McCoy Mountains Formation into the thrust system (Fig. 5), gradually reducing the width of the McCoy basin and shedding coarse detritus southward to produce the conglomeratic basal member of the upper McCoy Mountains Formation (Tosdal, 1990; Miller et al., 1992; Tosdal and Stone, 1994). Paleocurrent indicators consistently reect southerly directed ow, and the polymictic conglomerate contains variable proportions of plutonic and supracrustal detritus including both volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Harding and Coney, 1985). Strata comprising much of the upper McCoy Mountains Formation were deposited after eruption of the 79 Ma tuff bed, evidently as post-tectonic basin ll, and some ner-grained strata are probably lacustrine (Harding and Coney, 1985). The homogeneous structural style displayed by the entire McCoy Mountains Formation, with foliation and cleavage uniform in attitude as exposed along the preserved keel of the McCoy basin, suggests either that some deformation within the Maria fold-and-thrust belt continued into Campanian time, or that a uniform tectonic overprint was associated with movement along the Mule Mountains thrust system south of the basin. The relationship of the Maria fold-and-thrust belt to the coeval Sevier fold-and-thrust belt, with its southern terminus only 175 km to the north-northwest, remains enigmatic. The trend of the Maria belt is perpendicular to the Sevier
belt, and the Maria belt is south-vergent, away from the continental interior, whereas the Sevier belt is east-vergent, toward the continental interior. Their mutual geometric relationship is reminiscent of the trend of the Uinta uplift and its bounding Laramide thrust systems at right angles to the Sevier belt farther north in Utah. Just as the trend of the Uinta uplift was apparently controlled by the structural grain of a Precambrian aulacogen-like feature in which the Uinta Mountains Group was deposited, the trend of the Maria fold-and-thrust belt may have been controlled by the previously established structural grain of the aulacogenlike Border rift belt (Reynolds et al., 1986). 5. BisbeeMcCoy petrofacies associations Available for analysis of sandstone petrofacies were point counts of framework modes for 1076 sandstone samples from the Bisbee and McCoy basins, including the Bisbee Group or its equivalents and overlying Laramide strata of Late Cretaceous and Paleocene age. Both areal and stratigraphic coverage should be adequate to detect any signicant compositional trends. Samples from the Bisbee basin n 626 include 339 from Arizona, 147 from New Mexico, and 140 from Sonora, plus 250 additional samples collected from overlying strata deposited within superposed Laramide basins. Samples from the McCoy Mountains Formation n 200 include 124 from the Bisbee-equivalent lower members and 76 from the Upper Cretaceous upper members (Fig. 6). As the point counts were performed by multiple operators
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Fig. 8. QmFLt diagram showing compositional ranges of Bisbee basin sandstone petrofacies: Qm quartz grains; F feldspar grains; Lt lithic grains including chert and detrital limeclasts. No modes plot within ruled areas. Symbols and abbreviations for petrofacies elds keyed to Figs. 911. Data from Goodlin (1985), Sumpter (1986), Archibald (1987), Inman (1987), Jamison (1987), Klute (1987, 1991), Mack (1987a), Risley (1987), Olmstead (1992), Gonzalez-Leon (1994), Jacques-Ayala (1995), Mann (1995) and Bayona (1998).
(n , 20) working at six different academic institutions, results may not be comparable in detail. In particular, we are unsure how rigorously the different operators followed the Gazzi-Dickinson or other conventions (Ingersoll et al., 1984) in summing modal percentages for points falling on sand-sized quartz and feldspar grains enclosed within polycrystalline lithic fragments. Both contrasts and similarities in petrofacies appear robust, however, at the level of detail we treat them here using QmFLt diagrams (Dickinson, 1985). In many of the rocks studied, plagioclase consists of secondary (low-temperature) albite pseudomorphs of originally more calcic plagioclase, but no workers have reported any evidence for albite replacing K feldspar (Dickinson et al., 1982). In addition to petrofacies analysis, control for provenance interpretations is provided by variations in gravel clast composition within the Glance Conglomerate (Fig. 7). Because all Glance successions were deposited close to source areas, compositional trends within the conglomerates provide direct information on the nature of intrabasinal source rocks. In the southwestern part of the Bisbee basin, the dominant clasts are volcanic rocks derived from the subjacent Jurassic arc assemblage (Fig. 3), whereas limestone clasts derived from underlying Paleozoic sedimentary sequences are dominant in the northeastern part of the basin (Fig. 7). In southeastern Arizona and adjacent Sonora, some intrabasinal fault blocks were eroded deeply enough to shed
granitic clasts from either Precambrian basement underlying Paleozoic strata or from Jurassic plutons intrusive into the arc assemblage. Precambrian schist clasts and quartzite clasts derived from Cambrian strata in basal horizons of the limestone-rich Paleozoic cover are also prominent locally. Inverted clast stratigraphy is reected locally by stratigraphic progressions upward from limestone-clast conglomerate to granitic-clast or schist-clast conglomerate (EM and MM of Fig. 7). Typically, an intervening gradational interval of mixed limestone-clast and quartzite-clast conglomerate is present as the record of an intermediate stage in the erosional stripping of cover rocks from underlying basement in the source. 5.1. Bisbee petrofacies Five empirically delineated petrofacies and one subfacies are present within the Bisbee basin (Fig. 8), within which their areal and stratigraphic distributions are indicated by Fig. 9. Where local stratigraphic correlations allow the distinction, data are plotted separately for sandstones of the upper Bisbee Group overlying the Mural/U-Bar limestone interval, and for the lower Bisbee Group below that horizon. In establishing Bisbee petrofacies boundaries and distributions, only 11 point counts (,2% of the total available) were ignored as apparently unrepresentative of the various local sample suites as a whole. Empirical
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Fig. 9. Distribution of sandstone petrofacies (Fig. 8) within Bisbee basin. Solid and open symbols for pre-mid-Aptian and post-mid-Albian strata lying respectively below and above the AptianAlbian Mural/U-Bar limestone interval or its lateral equivalent in nonmarine strata (horizon shown as horizontal lines breaking symbol clusters). Symbols half-solid where correlation of sample sites uncertain. Tie lines connect interstratied petrofacies (.symbol where one dominant). Outline of Bisbee basin (dashed line) and limit of marine Mural/U-Bar transgression from Fig. 3.
petrofacies boundaries were selected to be in harmony with perspectives on compositional variation developed in subregional syntheses for Arizona (Klute, 1987, 1991), New Mexico (Mack, 1987b), and Sonora (Jacques-Ayala, 1995). Petrofacies are identied by descriptive designations, relevant only for this study, as follows (percentages cited are relative to the QmFLt grain population). 5.1.1. Bisbee quartzose petrofacies (Q) Sand frameworks of the quartzose petrofacies uniformly contain more than ,80% monocrystalline quartz grains (Fig. 8). Quartz grains are most typically subrounded, and some display abraded quartz overgrowths indicative of reworking from older sedimentary successions (Klute, 1987, 1991). The quartzose petrofacies is dominant in sandstones throughout the Bisbee Group in the central part of the Bisbee core basin and within the upper Bisbee Group of New Mexico to the east (Fig. 9). 5.1.2. Bisbee subquartzose petrofacies (S) The quartz content of the subquartzose petrofacies ranges downward toward ,45%, and lithic grains are commonly but not uniformly more abundant than feldspar grains. Chert is the most common lithic grain type in most sandstones of
the subquartzose petrofacies, and a chert-rich subfacies (Fig. 8) containing only 1545% monocrystalline quartz grains is present sparingly in New Mexico. Some chert grains display relict or ghost replacement features indicative of derivation from chert nodules in carbonate successions (Mack et al., 1986; Klute, 1987, 1991). Minor feldspar includes both plagioclase and K feldspar in varying proportions (Mack, 1987a; Klute, 1987, 1991). The subquartzose petrofacies is dominant in the lower Bisbee Group of New Mexico and is widespread, though subordinate to the quartzose petrofacies, throughout the Bisbee Group in nearby southeasternmost Arizona and adjacent Sonora (Fig. 9). 5.1.3. Bisbee lithic petrofacies (L) The quartz content of the lithic petrofacies is less than 45%, with quartz contents of only 1030% most common. Many quartz grains display straight extinction suggestive of derivation from phenocrysts in volcanic rock. Polycrystalline lithic grains, which are chiey volcanic rock fragments, are typically, though not uniformly, more abundant than feldspar grains (Fig. 8), which are dominantly plagioclase (Inman, 1987; Klute, 1991; Jacques-Ayala, 1995). The association of plagioclase with volcanic rock fragments is indicative of volcaniclastic detritus (Dickinson, 1985). Both
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frameworks assigned here to a transitional petrofacies occupying a QmFLt compositional eld intermediate between the lithic and the arkosic petrofacies (Figs. 8 and 9). Admixture of arkosic and lithic sands derived, respectively, from plutonic and volcanic sources is suggested, and some samples of the transitional petrofacies may be volcanoplutonic sands (Dickinson, 1982) derived from dissection of Jurassic arc assemblages. Alternate or additional admixture of either or both kinds of igneous detritus with quartzose or subquartzose sands may also be represented in the transitional petrofacies. 5.2. Laramide petrofacies
Fig. 10. QmFLt diagram illustrating wide variability of sandstone petrofacies in Laramide synorogenic successions (ArizonaSonora and New Mexico) within geographic area of older Bisbee basin. Data from Mark (1985), Inman (1987), Hayes (1987), Jacques-Ayala and Potter (1987), James and Russo (1988), Wilson (1991), Mann (1995), Gonzalez-Leon and Lawton (1995) and Basabilvazo (2000).
microlitic grains derived from intermediate (andesitic) rocks and felsitic grains derived from more felsic rocks are common (Klute, 1991; Gonzalez-Leon, 1994; JacquesAyala, 1995). The lithic petrofacies is dominant throughout the Bisbee Group in the southwestern part of the Bisbee basin, particularly over most of the Bisbee ank basin (Fig. 9). Selected sandstones in uvial strata of the Bisbee Group contain frameworks typical of the lithic petrofacies as far northeast as the Huachuca n 5 and Mule n 3 mountains in southeastern Arizona and selected nearby ranges of New Mexico n 2: The lithic detritus is commonly more angular toward the southwest (JacquesAyala, 1995) and better sorted toward the northeast (Klute, 1991). Northeastern representatives of the lithic petrofacies are undiluted by mixing with more quartzose sands, but are interstratied with typical representatives of the quartzose and subquartzose petrofacies. 5.1.4. Bisbee arkosic petrofacies (A) Arkosic (quartz-feldspar) frameworks, containing less than 14-19% polycrystalline lithic grains (Fig. 8), reect derivation from subjacent or nearby granitic rocks of Precambrian basement or Jurassic plutons. Plagioclase and K feldspar are coequal in abundance, as expected from plutonic sources. Sand frameworks are most typically subangular and are more poorly sorted than other petrofacies (Klute, 1991), as expected from short distances of transport and deposition in depositional environments proximal to source. The arkosic petrofacies is dominant in sandstones of the lower Bisbee Group in the northwestern part of the Bisbee basin, but is absent elsewhere and in the upper Bisbee Group (Fig. 9). 5.1.5. Bisbee transitional petrofacies (T) Some sample suites from southern and northwestern segments of the Bisbee basin include sandstones displaying
Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene sandstones of Laramide basins in Arizona and adjacent parts of Sonora vary widely and unsystematically in modal composition (Fig. 10) but have uniformly feldspathic to lithic frameworks reecting composite derivation from Laramide volcanic elds and pre-Laramide rocks exposed in local fault-bounded uplifts. Near-vent volcanic or more distal pyroclastic rocks are locally intercalated within many Laramide sedimentary successions (Dickinson et al., 1989). Widespread and broad overlap of the Laramide petrofacies with Bisbee petrofacies is evident, except that Laramide strata of Arizona and Sonora contain no frameworks comparable to the quartzose or subquartzose Bisbee petrofacies (Fig. 10). Even that distinction is lost, however, in New Mexico where some Laramide sandstones display subquartzose and even quartzose frameworks (Fig. 10). Much of the overlap in framework composition between Bisbee and Laramide sandstones probably stems from reworking of detritus from the Bisbee Group, for Bisbee clasts are common in conglomerates of Laramide successions (Goodlin and Mark, 1987; Wilson, 1991; Gonzalez-Leon and Lawton, 1995; Mann, 1995; Basabilvazo, 2000). The ambiguity between Bisbee and Laramide petrofacies is shown by sandstones of the Amole Arkose in the Tucson Mountains (Fig. 9). Although most Amole exposures include lithofacies typical of the nonmarine western facies of the Bisbee Group (Risley, 1987), ignimbrite of Laramide age is known to be interbedded within strata mapped as uppermost Amole Arkose intruded by an Upper Cretaceous pluton near the western edge of the range (Lipman, 1993). No clear-cut petrofacies distinction can be drawn between the sandstones of known Laramide age and the older sandstones exposed farther down in the local stratigraphic sequence as part of typical Bisbee stratal assemblages, which include laminated algal limestone resembling strata of the lacustrine Apache Canyon Formation exposed in ranges farther east (Risley, 1987). 5.3. McCoy petrofacies Reliable detrital modes are more difcult to determine for sandstones of the McCoy Mountains Formation than for the Bisbee Group. Typical rocks in most exposures are foliated
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Fig. 11. QmFLt diagram (see Fig. 8) showing compositional ranges of sandstone petrofacies of McCoy Mountains Formation. No modes plot within ruled areas. For comparison, dashed lines indicate boundaries of Bisbee basin petrofacies (abbreviations in brackets from Fig. 8). Data from Robison (1979, 1980), Harding (1980, 1982), Laubach et al. (1987), Richard et al. (1987), Fackler-Adams et al. (1997) and Dickinson (2000). Plotted points represent individual control samples (Dickinson, 2000), with ticks indicating mixed (M) petrofacies.
to varying degrees, and neomorphism of metamorphic minerals has obscured detrital textures in many cases, with variable development of diagenetic-metamorphic epimatrix interstitially between relict framework grains. For this study, we collected a control set of 30 samples from outcrops in Arizona displaying the least foliation and metamorphism (Dickinson, 2000). Point counts from this selective sample suite were given greater weight in delineating petrofacies than the generally comparable results reported from 170 other samples described by previous workers. Even so, we dismissed modal data from only eight of the other available McCoy counts (,5% of the total sample suite) as unrepresentative. Petrofacies boundaries (Fig. 11) were established entirely on the internal basis of McCoy point counts without external reference to Bisbee petrofacies. Petrofacies are identied by the following descriptive designations, relevant only for this study (the rst three, abbreviated with the prex `m' to distinguish them from Bisbee petrofacies, occur in Bisbee-equivalent lower McCoy strata, but the other two occur only in postBisbee-age upper McCoy strata). 5.3.1. McCoy quartzose petrofacies (mQ) The McCoy quartzose petrofacies is essentially indistinguishable from the Bisbee quartzose petrofacies (Fig. 11), and the two are inferred to reect the same type of provenance. The dominant quartz grains are generally well sorted
and subrounded, and feldspar is rare or absent (Dickinson, 2000). The quartzose petrofacies is characteristic of `basal sandstone member 1' of Harding and Coney (1985), which equates to the `quartz arenite member' (Sherrod et al., 1990) and the Crystal Hill `formation' or member (Richard et al., 1993; Richard and Spencer, 1994). 5.3.2. McCoy subquartzose petrofacies (mS) The compositional eld for sand frameworks of the McCoy subquartzose petrofacies is contained almost entirely within the eld for the Bisbee subquartzose petrofacies (Fig. 11). In the control samples, the dominant lithic grains are chert, and an analogous provenance is implied for the two similar subquartzose petrofacies. Both feldspars are present, with either the more abundant in different local collections (Fackler-Adams et al., 1997; Dickinson, 2000). The position of the QmFLt compositional eld for the McCoy subquartzose petrofacies along a potential mixing path between compositional elds for the stratally associated McCoy quartzose and McCoy lithic petrofacies suggests that sedimentological mingling of quartzose and volcaniclastic sands may have produced the McCoy subquartzose sandstones in which plagioclase is more abundant than K feldspar. Samples of the McCoy subquartzose petrofacies in which K feldspar is more abundant than plagioclase were probably derived, however, from the same types of sources as the Bisbee subquartzose petrofacies. The
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near Ramsey Mine (Sherrod and Koch, 1987; Sherrod et al., 1990), and also occurs within the `mudstone member' of Harding and Coney (1985). 5.3.4. McCoy quartzo-feldspathic petrofacies (QF) The McCoy quartzo-feldspathic petrofacies is similar in overall grain composition to Bisbee arkosic and transitional petrofacies (Fig. 11) but is generically more closely related to feldspathic representatives of analogous Laramide petrofacies in Arizona and Sonora (Fig. 10). Both feldspars are present in signicant proportions, although plagioclase is more abundant (,2:1) than K feldspar (Dickinson, 2000). The quartzo-feldspathic petrofacies is restricted to the upper McCoy Mountains Formation (Harding and Coney, 1985) and is characteristic of all its members. Samples from the uppermost (siltstone) member fall entirely within the compositional eld for the Bisbee transitional petrofacies, indicating dilution of arkosic debris dominant in both the underlying members (conglomerate and sandstone) with detritus from more supracrustal sources. Sedimentary metasedimentary rock fragments are more abundant (,4:1) than volcanic rock fragments (Dickinson, 2000). By inference, the arkosic detritus was derived principally from basement rocks uplifted along the Maria fold-andthrust belt north of the McCoy basin, and the supracrustal detritus was derived from cover strata as the deformed belt was eroded. 5.3.5. McCoy mixed petrofacies (M) Samples from the Apache Wash formation or member (Harding and Coney, 1985; Richard, 1992; Richard et al., 1987, 1993) contain a mixed petrofacies that overlaps compositional elds for lower and upper McCoy sandstones (Fig. 11). The ratio of plagioclase to K feldspar (,2:1) is characteristic, however, of upper rather than lower McCoy petrofacies (Dickinson, 2000). Within the McCoy Mountains Formation, the mixed petrofacies of the Apache Wash member is also notable for its relatively high content (510%) of detrital limeclasts reworked from older Paleozoic limestone bedrock. The stratigraphic position of the Apache Wash member was long uncertain (Harding and Coney, 1985), but detailed mapping (Richard, 1992; Richard et al., 1993) has now shown that it overlies a thick lens of debris-avalanche megabreccia previously misidentied as bedrock. The megabreccia in turn overlies the lower McCoy Mountains Formation, and the Apache Wash member thus correlates broadly with the basal `conglomerate member' of the upper McCoy Mountains Formation. As inferred with regard to the compositional overlap of Bisbee and Laramide petrofacies in Arizona, compositional overlap of the mixed petrofacies of the upper McCoy Apache Wash member with lower McCoy petrofacies may stem in part from reworking of lower McCoy detritus, in this case from erosion of strata deformed and uplifted within the Maria fold-and-thrust belt (Fig. 5).
Fig. 12. Provenance relations of Bisbee and McCoy basins during Early Cretaceous time. Intrabasinal sources from residual synrift paleotopography not shown. Gulf of California closed by reversal of slip on San Andreas transform system (SAF, Neogene San Andreas fault trend); note offset of international boundary (SA offset). Arrows denote dispersal of volcaniclastic detritus from Alisitos arc, quartzose cratonic detritus from continental surface (across Mogollon paleohighland anking Bisbee basin), and subquartzose detritus from Burro uplift (eastern segment of Mogollon paleohighland). Cities: A Albuquerque; Ch Ciudad Chihuahua; EP El Paso; H Hermosillo; LA Los Angeles; LC Las Cruces; LV Las Vegas, P Phoenix; SD San Diego; Tu Tucson. Modern rivers: C.R. Colorado; R.G. Rio Grande.
McCoy subquartzose petrofacies is characteristic of the `Ranegras member' (Spencer et al., 1985; Richard et al., 1987), but also occurs within the `mudstone member' of Harding and Coney (1985). 5.3.3. McCoy lithic petrofacies (mL) The compositional elds for the McCoy and Bisbee lithic petrofacies are virtually coextensive (Fig. 11), except that the former overlaps somewhat with the related transitional facies of the Bisbee basin, and both lithic petrofacies are dominantly volcaniclastic. Most volcanic rock fragments are felsite similar to the quartz porphyry bodies that underlie the McCoy Mountains Formation, and the feldspar is exclusively or predominantly plagioclase (Harding, 1982; Dickinson, 2000). The McCoy lithic petrofacies is characteristic of `basal sandstone member 2' of Harding and Coney (1985), forms the `Harquar member' (Richard et al., 1987; Spencer et al., 1985) and the related sedimentary succession
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6. BisbeeMcCoy provenance interpretations The sources and provenance of Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous BisbeeMcCoy petrofacies can be inferred from their geographic and stratigraphic distributions in the two related basins. Derivation of the arkosic petrofacies in the lower Bisbee Group of the nonmarine western facies from intrabasinal basement sources, exposed in local tilt blocks of the northwestern Bisbee basin, is indicated by gradational to interngering contacts with granitic-clast Glance Conglomerate. Derivation of the lithic petrofacies from subjacent Jurassic volcanic rocks exposed nearby is also feasible for lower parts of the Bisbee Group, and is specically inferred for sequences of the lower McCoy Mountains Formation closely associated stratigraphically with directly underlying Jurassic volcanic rocks in both Arizona and California. Later widespread deposition of the lithic petrofacies in the upper Bisbee Group cannot be attributed, however, to erosion of local intrabasinal sources because the basin substratum was by then buried under thick sequences of older Bisbee strata. The extent of the lithic petrofacies across a broad expanse of the southwestern Bisbee basin, coupled with generally easterly paleocurrent indicators, suggests derivation from the AptianAlbian Alisitos magmatic arc of modern Baja California, which was located not far southwest of the Bisbee basin before seaoor spreading that opened the Gulf of California in Neogene time (Fig. 12). Although stripping of sedimentary cover from intrabasinal tilt blocks may have locally contributed minor volumes of subquartzose sand to the Bisbee basin, the widespread quartzose and subquartzose petrofacies of the northeastern Bisbee basin record the entry of extrabasinal detritus into the rift belt. Southerly directed paleocurrents suggest that the subquartzose petrofacies dominant in the lower Bisbee Group of New Mexico was derived from the northern rift shoulder of the basin where Paleozoic sediment cover at least 1 km thick (Mack, 1987a) was stripped by erosion from basement of the Burro uplift (Mack et al., 1986). Farther west in the central Bisbee basin, where southerly directed paleocurrents also prevail, the dominance of the quartzose petrofacies throughout Bisbee deposition (Fig. 9) implies delivery of quartzose sediment from the segment of the rift shoulder forming the Mogollon paleohighland of Arizona (Fig. 12). The quartz-rich sand was probably recycled from Jurassic erg deposits, which are widespread on the Colorado Plateau in the region directly north of the Mogollon paleohighland of Arizona but never extended as far east as the Burro uplift of New Mexico (Riggs and Blakey, 1993). The absence of the erg deposits overlying Paleozoic and older rocks along the trend of the Mogollon paleohighland is interpreted to reect erosional stripping of early Mesozoic cover during Bisbee sedimentation. A similar sediment supply reached the McCoy basin still farther west (Fig. 12) where relict erg deposits are also present directly to the north beyond the rift shoulder. As sediment
ll built up, quartzose detritus initially ponded in the central part of the Bisbee basin, but later spilled eastward along the axis of the basin within uvial systems owing toward the northern end of the Chihuahua trough. Derivation of the quartzose petrofacies from any direction other than the northern rift shoulder is precluded by the dominance of arkosic and lithic petrofacies to the west and southwest, respectively, and by easterly-directed paleocurrents in the quartzose petrofacies of the upper Bisbee Group in New Mexico. Transitional and intermingled petrofacies within the Bisbee basin are inferred to reect mixing and interstratication of intrabasinal arkosic detritus, intrabasinal and basin-ank subquartzose detritus, volcaniclastic lithic detritus derived from both subjacent and extrabasinal volcanic sources (the latter lying toward the southwest), and cratonderived quartzose detritus delivered to the basin from the north. The axis of most prominent petrofacies mixing and intertonguing was oriented northwestsoutheast at right angles to the boundary between the nonmarine western and the mixed (nonmarine-marine) central facies belts (Figs. 3 and 9). Lithic to arkosic petrofacies are dominant to the southwest of the mixed petrofacies belt, and quartzose to subquartzose petrofacies are dominant to the northeast. The transitional petrofacies reects intermixing mainly of arkosic and volcaniclastic sands, whereas some of the subquartzose petrofacies may reect intermixing of quartzose and volcaniclastic sands, especially within the McCoy basin. The delivery of subordinate quantities of unmixed lithic sands from volcanic sources toward the southwest into the central Bisbee basin indicates, however, that the uvial transport systems leading across the basin oor from different source terranes could at times maintain quite separate dispersal paths for long distances. 7. Summary Conclusions The Bisbee core basin was one of a string of linked Late Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous depocenters extending to the northwest from the Gulf of Mexico as far as the McCoy basin of ArizonaCalifornia and dening the trend of the Border rift belt controlled by slab rollback beneath the Cordilleran magmatic arc (Dickinson and Lawton, 1999, 2001). The Bisbee ank basin, which received less sediment cover, extended across one of the paleotectonic sills intervening between higher standing platforms that delineated the southwestern ank of the Border rift belt north of the Mar Mexicano. The latter oceanic domain occupied central Mexico prior to arc collision and accretion of the Guerrero superterrane in AptianAlbian time (Dickinson and Lawton, 1999, 2001). Retroarc and intra-arc deformation related to migratory Laramide magmatism disrupted the Bisbee and McCoy basins in Late Cretaceous time. The association within a single rift basin of quartzose, volcaniclastic, and arkosic petrofacies, together with
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transitional and subquartzose petrofacies of intermediate character, reects the unusual geotectonic setting of the Bisbee basin as a segment of the Border rift belt. The close geographic and stratigraphic juxtaposition of petrofacies reecting derivation of detritus from the coeval Alisitos magmatic arc, locally uplifted continental basement, and the craton surface are understandable in the paleogeographic context of the Border rift belt, but are otherwise puzzling. The geodynamic patterns that controlled Bisbee basin evolution and sediment provenance were apparently unique in the Phanerozoic history of North America, which led to the delivery into the same depocenter of multiple petrofacies normally indicative of disparate geotectonic settings. Acknowledgements The graduate work of W.L. Bilodeau at Stanford University introduced the rst author to problems of the Bisbee basin. Liaison across the international border with Claudio Bartolini, Samuel Eguiluz de Antunano, Carlos M. Gonza lez-Leon, Cesar Jacques-Ayala, and Rogelio Monreal was especially helpful during our investigations. Discussions of Bisbee-McCoy geology over the years with colleagues and coworkers R.F. Butler, R.E. Clemons, P.J. Coney, P.E. Damon, G.H. Davis, K.W. Flessa, E.R. Force, G.B. Haxel, S.B. Keith, C.F. Kluth, P.W. Lipman, S.G. Lucas, G.H. Mack, N.J. McMillan, S.J. Reynolds, S.M. Richard, J. Ruiz, W.R. Seager, J.F. Schreiber, D.R. Sherrod, J.E. Spencer, S.R. Titley, and R.M. Tosdal improved our understanding of various key relationships. We gratefully acknowledge the collaboration and stimulus of the following students at the University of Arizona and New Mexico State University at various stages of our study: L.E. Archibald, Y. Asmerom, C. Bartolini, G.T. Basabilvazo, G. Bayona, S. Buffum, R.C. Ferguson, A.R. Fiorillo, J.D. Gleason, C.M. Gonzalez-Leon, T.C. Goodlin, D.L. Hall, L.E. Harding, P.J. Harrigan, M.J. Hayes, K.F. Inman, K. Jamison, S.U. Janecke, M.A. Klute, C.K. Krebs, F.A. Lindberg, J.D. Mann, R.A. Mark, S.R. May, R. Monreal, G.A. Olmstead, A.R. Potochnik, S.M. Richard, N.R. Riggs, R. Risley, S. Sindlinger, L.T. Sumpter, P.N. Swift, L.K. Vedder, and D.A. Wilson. An oral version of this paper was presented at the Cuarta Reunion Sobre la Geologa del Noroeste de Mexico y Areas Adjacentes in Hermosillo in March 2000. Reviews by S.G. Lucas, G.A. Smith, and J.E. Spencer improved the manuscript. Jim Abbott of SciGraphics prepared the gures. Our research was funded in part by National Science Foundation grants EAR-8417106 (to Dickinson) and EAR-9304759 (to Lawton). References
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Dickinson Lawton Bisbee

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 14 (2001) 475504

Tectonic setting and sandstone petrofacies of the Bisbee basin (USAMexico)

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