Laboratory 4

Measurement of Thermal Conductivity

(Last modified on July 1, 2009) Please read this manual prior to conducting the lab. For further information refer to chapter 21 in the textbook. 1. Introduction In practice, it is important to understand the rate at which heat is transferred between a system and its surroundings and the mechanisms responsible for the heat transfer. The easiest heat transfer process to describe quantitatively is called heat conduction. In this process, the heat transfer can be viewed on an atomic scale as an exchange of kinetic energy between molecules, where the less energetic particles gain energy by colliding with the more energetic particles. For example, if you insert a metallic bar into a flame while holding one end, as the flame heats the rod, those metal atoms and electrons near the flame begin to vibrate with larger and larger amplitudes. These, in turn, collide with their neighbors and transfer some of their energy in the collisions. Eventually, metal atoms and electrons farther down the rod increase their amplitude of vibration, until the large amplitude vibrations arrive at the end being held. The effect of this increased vibration is an increase in temperature of the metal and possibly a burned hand. Although the transfer of heat through a metal can be partially explained by atomic vibrations and electron motion, the rate of heat conduction also depends on the properties of the substance being heated. For example, it is possible to hold a piece of asbestos in a flame indefinitely. This implies that very little heat is being conducted through the asbestos. In general, metals are good conductors of heat, and materials such as asbestos, cork, paper, and fiber glass are poor conductors. Gases also are poor heat conductors because of their dilute nature. Metals are good conductors of heat because they contain large numbers of electrons that are relatively free to move through the metal and can transport energy from one region to another. Page 1 of 8

The conduction of heat occurs only if there is a difference in temperature between two parts of conducting medium. Consider a cylinder of material of length x and crosssectional area A with its opposite faces at different temperatures T1 and T2, where T2 > T1 (Fig. 1).
T2 T1

!x
Figure 1: A schematic of a cylinder of material with a temperature gradient across it

One finds from experiment that the heat Q transferred in a time t flows from the hotter end to the colder end. The rate at which heat flows, Q/t is found to be proportional to cross-sectional area, the temperature difference, and inversely proportional to the length. That is:

For a cylinder of infinitesimal thickness dx and temperature difference dT, we can write the law of heat conduction

where the proportionality constant

is called thermal conductivity of the material, and

is the temperature gradient. The minus sign denotes the fact that heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature. Suppose a substance is in the shape of a long uniform rod of length L, as in Figure 2. Assume the rod is insulated so no heat can escape from its surface except at the ends. Further assume the ends of the rod are in thermal contact with heat reservoirs such that in equilibrium the temperature at each point along the rod is constant in time. In this case, the temperature gradient is the same everywhere along the rod and is given by: Page 2 of 8

Thus the heat transfer rate is:

T2

Heat flow

T1

Figure 2: Schematic of a simple thermal conductivity system

Table I lists thermal conductivities for various substances. It illustrates that metals are generally better thermal conductors than non-metals.

Table 1: Thermal conductivity of Various Materials at room temperature (See CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 93-94, 74th ed.)

Thermal conductivity of Various Materials at room temperature in W/mK* Metals (298K) Aluminum Copper Gold Iron Lead Silver Brass 238 397 304 79.5 34.7 427 120 Gases (298K) Air Helium Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Water 0.0234 0.155 0.172 0.0234 0.0238 0.6 Non-metals (298K) Asbestos Concrete Glass Ice Rubber Wood 0.28 0.8 0.8 2 0.2 0.08

There are numerous methods of measuring thermal conductivity. The principal reason for the development of so many different methods is the large range of values for heat transfer properties. No single method is applicable to the measurement of all Page 3 of 8

materials in all temperature ranges. In this experiment we will use a simple steady-state method. For additional information on other methods please see the references. An axial-flow steady-state thermal conductivity apparatus is schematically illustrated in Figure 3.
To Room Temperature

Shield T1

TemperatureControlled Heat Sink Thermocouple

Specimen

T2 Vacuum Heater

Figure 3: Schematic of a simple equilibrium thermal Conductivity apparatus

At steady-state conditions the power,

, generated by an electrical heater is

assumed to flow through the specimen to the temperature-controlled heat sink. This heat is assumed to enter the bottom of the specimen and leave the top in a uniform manner. The heat transfer rate is given by:

Then:

Where magnitude of

is the heater power to

is the mean value of thermal that depends on the and . If is will be

conductivity between

and is a source of uncertainty in

. Normally, T is defined simply as the mean of

independent or proportional to temperature,

can be any size. In practice,

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equal to

at

for most materials over narrow temperature ranges where

is

approximately linear. The advantages of this method are that the sample that is heated directly by passage of an electric current through a resistive element enable determination of k(T) on relatively small specimens, compared to most other methods of measurement. The use of small specimens often permits very rapid data generation because thermal equilibrium is established quickly. Its heat loss can be neglected if the temperature of the sample is close to that of the surroundings. This method can also offer a possibility of measuring additional properties using the same experimental set-up. The chief disadvantage of the method is that steady state must be obtained before a good result is obtained. function of T. Very poor thermal conductors require long times for equilibrium and the method returns average values of k so k(T) cannot be a strong

2. Objectives 1. To learn about the measurement of one thermal property of solids. 2. To measure the thermal conductivities of 2 solids at room temperature. 3. To analyze thermal conductivity results including errors analysis, and obtain a value of k(T). 4. To write a report describing the final results.

3. The Apparatus Heat Conduction Measurement Apparatus is capable of a thermal conductivity measurement of two samples of different metals. Different stations have different samples of metals. Each sample is 3.17 mm in diameter and is embedded in a thick copper plate which is attached to a Peltier semiconductor cooler. Samples include steel, aluminum, brass, and copper.

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A heating element fits snugly on top of either of the samples. Sliding along the samples are two fast thermocouples which measure the temperature. They should be set to a specific distance before the test begins. The power to the cooler and to the heater is individually controlled and the voltage component is measured on the LED display next to the voltage adjustment control. The resistance of the cooler is about at room temperature, but it is not quiet linear as . Either indicated by the text on the apparatus. The resistance of the heater is a fixed, thermocouple can be read manually in degrees Celsius on the middle LED.

Figure 4: Heat Conduction Measurement Apparatus

Figure 5: Details of the sample holder

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4.

Procedure 1. Draw a block diagram of the electrical wiring circuit for this experiment and the data acquisition apparatus. 2. Although the entire experiment can be performed manually, a computer program to measure all temperatures is available. 3. Make sure the power to the, heart, cooler, and the apparatus is OFF. Turn the two green power knobs all the way down (fully counterclockwise). 4. Take off the plexiglass jar, select the sample you will use, and adjust the distance (L) between the thermocouples 5. Cover the main device with the plexiglass jar as shown in Fig. 4. be careful NOT TO squash them between the jar and its base. 6. Rotate the vent valve to vacuum and turn on the vacuum PUMP by pressing the red pushbutton momentarily. Keep pumping 1 more minute until the pressure of the chamber reaches 30 units on the gauge. Rotate the valve to HOLD and depress the RED pump button. 7. Gradually increase the power of the thermoelectric cooler to 2.7 Watts. Record the temperature of the lower (blue) thermocouple. 8. See if they agree with your expectations. If you suspect a problem call your TA for help - after you have looked for obvious problems. 9. Once thermal equilibrium is attained, continue the experiment. Add power to the sample heater (Note both V and I such that this power is kept between 0.47 and 2 Watts, or until a temperature difference of several Kelvin between the two thermocouples exists. 10. Let the system come to thermal equilibrium (3 - 5 minutes) and then record the heater power, the cooler power, and the temperatures of the thermocouples. 11. After recording three runs, turn off the heater power first, then the cooler power, and rotate the valve switch to RELEASE. You will hear the air rush into the jar. Page 7 of 8

12. Calculate the thermal conductivity of one of the metal sample from your data. Compare your value to the accepted value of k, approx 290K in Table I on page 3. 13. Move the heater and the thermocouples to the second sample and repeat the experiment and above from procedure 4. 14. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the sample metal from your data, and compare it to the information in Table I on page 3.

5. Report In your report, besides describing your results as indicated in the procedures, please analyze the errors in this experiment using the error propagation suggestions in the Appendix of this manual. You should be quantitative and include an error value on the final result you obtain.

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