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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study Since the beginning of 1970s, pioneered by Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975), research in TEFL has shifted its focus from the teacher to the learner (taken from Mistar, 2002). The process of learning itself nowadays does not only find out what they learn but also put the attention on finding out how and why learners learn (Wenden 1991:11). In other words, the process of language learning has become part of the content of learning. Oxford (1980:5) states that Interest has been shifting from a limited focus on merely what students learn or acquire the product or outcome of language learning and acquisition to an expanded focus that also includes how students gain language- the process by which learning or acquisition occurs. Therefore, according to Chamot (2005:113), studying the learners language learning strategies is considered as the best way to uncover the process of language learning. Furthermore Ellis (1994:537-8) lists the three major classifications in the language learning strategies (henceforth: LLS) those are cognitive strategies which relate to how students think about their learning (ex: I try to find pattern in English), metacognitive strategies which relate to how students manage their own learning (ex: I plan my English course), and social strategies which relate to how student interact with others through the language (ex: I practice my language with my friends). The

classifications are variously elaborated by some researches like Rubin (1981), OMalley and Chamot (1987), and Oxford (1990) which will be elaborated in Chapter 2 and 3. As mentioned before that learning strategies have been discussed by various scholars, a range of terms here have emerged with regard to the field. First of all, Oxford and Crookall (1989:404) collected some terms that define learning strategies First is the learning techniques (Stern, 1983) or learning behaviors (Weinstein and Mayer,1986) which occurs when learners adopt some forms of language learning actions in order to cope problems in particular areas of language learning such as grammar. Seliger uses tactics which is used when learners try to organize a learning situation, respond to the learning environment, or cope with input and output demand (Seliger, 1984, cited in Ellis 1994:531). The last and most common used term for LLS is strategy (Oxford, 1990:8) defined as behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed, and enjoyable. Therefore based on the terms collected, it shows that learners attempt to deal with their learning process such various ways in order to make the process become easier and interesting. In addition, Lessard-Cluston (1997, cited in Dakun, 2004) summarizes some basic characteristics in the generally accepted view language learning strategies. Firstly, language learning strategies are consciously generated by learners; they are actions or steps taken by language learners to facilitate learning tasks. Secondly, language learning strategies enhance language learning and help develop the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the second language. Thirdly, the main goal of language learning strategies is to affect the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes,

or integrates new knowledge. Fourthly, language learning may be visible behaviors, steps, and techniques or unobservable thoughts and mental processes. Finally, the other generally accepted features of language learning strategies include allowing learners to become more self-directed, expanding the role of language teachers, being problemoriented, flexible and teachable. Oxford also adds that learning strategies help improve learners proficiency and build their greater self-confidence (Oxford, 1990:9) In Indonesia, according to Khairul (2004), research on language learning strategies used by the Indonesian-speaking learners to learn English as a foreign language has rarely been conducted. For example, CBSA (Cara Belajar Siswa Aktif), which is a method that aims to activate learners critical thinking and has been developed by the Department of Education since 1990s, still does not give any satisfactory result for Indonesian learners. Consequently, there was not enough empirical information about language learning strategies used by Indonesian-speaking learners in learning English as foreign language. So far in the case of Indonesian learners of English, research in language learning strategies has been conducted in order to answer whether Indonesian learners have employed these strategies during their learning process (Manurung, 2005; Mistar, 2002; Weda, 2005). The aim is to introduce the language learning strategies to various levels of learners, since there are certain reasons why learning strategies are ignored by some learners. First reasons, cited by Sadtono (1995, in Mistar, 2002) indicate that most Indonesian learners probably do not use effective techniques or strategies for learning English. He notes that Indonesian learners of English do not realize that learning a foreign language requires

perseverance, discipline, knowledge of techniques of assimilating new habits, selfevaluation, a great deal of practice, and that the whole business takes a long time. Another explanation, mentioned by Weda (2005), is that learners are not trained to overcome their learning problems or they are too dependent on their language teachers. In line with Weda, Manurung (2005) adds that the situation occurs because the majority of Indonesian students have always learnt language in a context where a guru (an expert) is the main focus of the teaching-learning activities. Thus, the language learning researchers indicate that language teacher should not only teach the language but also teach learners how to learn (Nunan, 1996; Oxford, 1990). On the other hand, there are also some Indonesian learners who are considered to be applying the learning strategies when they solve their learning problems, even though they probably do not realize that their learning techniques are actually a part of the language learning strategies. Certain groups seem to choose some strategies different than the others, for example the college students prefer to use cognitive strategy than the English teachers who chose metacognitive, and meanwhile they are both considered as language learners. For the other group of learners like the office workers, who also need to use English for their professional career, probably could use social strategies during their learning processes. Obviously, these learners employ some behaviors and techniques that could help them improve their potential in developing their language ability whether they realize it or not. Therefore, this thesis attempts to investigate the most frequent strategies employed by three groups of learners. Those groups are divided into the college

students, the English teachers, and the office workers. In other words, the study reported here tries to focus on how the learners from different background level learn a foreign language by using their language learning strategies.

1.2 Statement of The Problem With regards to the previous section, this study aims to examine the process of learning English as a foreign language especially from the learners point of view. In order to reach this goal, this study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the most frequently used strategies employed by all the groups of learners? 2. What is the individual language learning strategy used by each group of learners?

1.3 Significance of The Study This study intends to compare the language learning strategies among the learners and hopefully the findings can help language teachers facilitate teaching and learning more effectively by focusing not only on the teaching methods but also on at the strategies that learners employed.

1.4 Objective of The Study In order to fulfill the goal of the study, this study has two fundamental objectives: 1. It intends to investigate which group of learning strategies is believed to be used most frequently by the learners. 2. It intends to investigate which individual LLS is used by each group of learners.

1.5 Limitation of The Study This study offers a closer look at the problem of learning strategies for language learners. As explained previously, many experts and researchers have identified the learning strategies used by some language learners. The present study, however, only adapts the LLS and its categorization as listed by Oxford (1990)

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

This chapter reviews the relevant literatures of language learning strategies by examining the background, the issues along the definition, the characteristics, and the categories of the language learning strategies. The first part of the chapter discusses the development of language learning strategies based on some research conducted by several researchers. The second part provides about the definitions and characteristics of language learning strategies and the third part describes categories in the language learning strategies. The third part discusses about factors that influencing the strategy choice and some method used in investigating the LLS. For the last part, it presents surveys by previous research methodologies in investigating the language learning strategies.

2.1.

The Good Language Learner

Language learning strategies research began in the 1970s with the work of Joan Rubin (1975), who suggested the model of the good language learner (henceforth GLL) which was taken from the successful language learners and differentiated from the less successful ones. Furthermore, Rubin comes up with the strategies that were being employed by the successful learners and those are:

1. The good language learning is a willing and accurate guesser 2. The good language learner has a strong drive to communicate or to learn from a communication. 3. The good language learner is often not inhibited. He is willing to appear foolish if reasonable communication results. 4. In addition to focusing on communication, the good language learner is prepared to attend to form 5. The good language learner practices 6. The good language learner monitors his own and the speech of others 7. The good language learner attends to meaning (Rubin, 1975: 21-23) However, according to Graham, Stern (1975) is the first one who contributed the idea of the good language learner (cited in Graham, 1997:37). He has classified learning strategies which he drew up based on his own experience as a learner and teacher and the background literature on language learning. Stern argues that the good language learner must fit into a theory of language learning and such a theory can be developed in five progressive stages, those are; (1)What it means to know a knowledge: competence, (2) What it means to know more than one language, (3) What is involved in first-language learning (4) What is involved in second- language learning, (5) What is the distinction between the strategies of the good and the poor language learner.

Based on the five stages, Stern (1975, cited in Croft: 1980) further took three of them and explains about some principles that underlie the strategies of the GLL. The first one is knowing a language: competence, by competence he means that GLL also should learn from what native speakers knowledge on the language and how they intuitively use form, meaning, communication, and creativity in their language. The second stage is by starting his language learning process which is divided into

(a) initial stage, where learners start to learn the new language; (b) learning process where learners collected the new information and build the new system according to the new language he learnt; (c) the ideal end point: native-like competence. Here Stern argues that the second-language learner comes close to the native-like

competence when he has internalized, interiorized, or incorporated the rules of the new language (Stern 1975, cited in Croft 1980: 55-62). The third stage, he

explains about the three major problems of learning which are explained as follows: (1) The discrepancy between first and second languages (he states that GLL should be able to overcome the difference in the language system between L1 and L2). (2) The code-communication dilemma (it is the problem whenever the learner have to use the language either formally (focus on grammar, sound system, etc) or functionally (focus on communication)) (3) The choice between rational and intuitive learning (it is mentioned that learners have their dilemma when they want to use the language naturally/intuitively or they should also pay attention on the concepts and systems). (Stern 1975, cited in Croft 1980: 55-62) Therefore, based on the three-progressive stage mentioned, Stern concluded some features from the GLL as their result of his observation. The following are the features.

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1. A personal learning style or positive learning strategies 2. An active approach to the learning task 3. A tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and empathy with its speakers 4. Technical know-how about how to tackle a language 5. Strategies of experimentation and planning with the object of developing the new language into an ordered system of revising this system progressively. 6. Constantly searching for meaning 7. Willingness to practice 8. Willingness to use the language in real communication 9. Self-monitoring and critical sensitivity to language use 10. Developing the target language more and more as a separate reference system and learning to think in it. (Stern, 1975 cited in Croft, 1980: 68)

Research on the good language learners continue to develop. Another research conducted by Naiman et al (1978) also interested in comparing the less successful students with the unsuccessful ones. The research reported by them had three main aims. One was to identify the strategies that good learners used. Second, they wondered whether there were any correlations between successful learning and the variables, particularly the personality and cognitive style ones. The third was to learn something about what teachers do in classrooms. Two case studies were conducted from the interviews from 32 adult learners and students at grade 8, 10, 12 of French in Toronto. The result was cited in Graham (1997:39) as follows, The interviews with the adult subjects produced several pertinent insights into the language learning process. Most thought they had a good memory (50%) and were interested in analyzing languages (66%); 47% thought motivation was important; 82% favoured actively producing the language from the start of learning. Interestingly, 94% saw learning as a largely conscious process, whereas the unsuccessful learners felt it was something one effortlessly acquires; 78% thought it was a help to have learned more than one language; 85% had felt some

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discouragement, frustration, impatience or confusion during learning. About half had left inhibited or embarrassed. Many emphasized the importance of action in learning, seeking out speaking situations to overcome shyness (Naiman et al., 1978:13-15) As the result, Naiman et al. (1978, cited in Graham 1997:39) went on to classify such observations into strategy types, which are summarized as follows: 1. 2. 3. An active task approach, active involvement in the learning process, seeking out learning opportunities Realization of language as a system, e.g. analyzing the L2 and making inferences Realization of language as a means of communication and interaction, e.g. looking for situations involving communication, emphasizing fluency rather than accuracy in the initial stages of language learning. Management of affective demands, e.g. learning to laugh at oneself Monitoring of L2 performance, e.g. asking native speakers for corrections

4. 5.

Based on some research on GLL studies, it can be seen that the results provide some answers regarding to the question why some students fail or probably have some serious learning problems while the others were capable to face them. By discovering how successful language learners produce some strategy to overcome their learning problems, it is hoped the less successful learners can also produce some strategy to overcome their learning problems. Furthermore the recent research on investigating language learners strategies has developed rapidly. Some researchers include Rubin (1981), Wenden (1983a, 1986b), OMalley et al (1985) and Oxford (1990) conduct the LLS research included the relationship to its variables such as in gender, age, culture, etc. Further discussion in the language learning strategies will be presented in the sections that follow.

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2.2

Terminology in Language Learning Strategies (LLS)

Based on Griffith (2004), the term strategy has been used by many prominent writers (such as Rubin, 1975; OMalley et al, 1985; Oxford, 1990). She further explains that some researchers prefer to use the terminology such as learning behaviours (Wesche, 1977; Politzer and McGroarty, 1985 cited in Graham 2004), tactics (Seliger, 1984 cited in Ellis 1986) and techniques (Stern, 1992 cited in Ellis 1986). The learning strategies also have been defined by several experts. For example Oxford (1990:8) defines it as the specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations. In line with her, OMalley and Chamot (1990:1) mention learning strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning, or retention of information. Ellis is another author who views strategies for learning and strategies for using, including communication strategies or devices for compensating for inadequate resources (Ellis, 1986:165), as quite different manifestations of a more general phenomenon which he calls learner strategies. Besides the definitions, categorizing in LLS also has variously explored, furthermore the following section will explain each characteristic and some categories in language learning strategies.

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2.3.

Characteristics of Language Learning Strategies

Researchers such as Wenden (1987: 7-8), Lessard- Clouston (1997: cited in Internet TESL Journal and Oxford (1990a:9) list some characteristics that define the language learning strategies. The characteristics of language learning strategies are summarized in the table below.

Table 2.1: Characteristics of LLS

Wenden (1987:7-8) Lessard- Clouston (1997: Internet TESL Journal) 1. Enhance language learning and develop competency 2. Visible or unseen 3. Involve information and memory 4. Learner generateddeliberate steps Oxford (1990a:9)

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Contribute directly and indirectly to learning Observable and unobservable Problem oriented responding to the need Specifications/techniq ues Deplorable and automatized Behaviour which are amenable to change

1. Contribute to communicative competence 2 Observable and unobservable 3 Are problem oriented 4 Are action based 5 Expand the role of language teachers 6 Can be taught 7 Allow learners to become more self-directed 8 Often used consciously 9 Involve in any aspects, not just cognitive 10 Are influenced by a variety of factors 11 Support learning directly /indirectly 12 Are flexible

As can be seen in Table 2.1, Wenden (1987), Lessard-Clouston (1989) and Oxford (1990) agree that LLS enhance learning and can be both observable which include the actions and techniques, or unobservable which include the memory and cognitive aspects. Furthermore it also shows that both Wenden and Oxford feel that LLS are problem-oriented and are applied when a problem exists. Though Lessard-Clouston

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places learners as playing a greater role (that is being learner-generated), in the other hand Oxford places teachers as having a greater role. Nevertheless, for successful learning to take place, it is obvious that learners need to participate actively in the learning process, although the teachers can help to enhance their learning process.

2.4. Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies Some researchers identified three major strategies used by the language learners, those which are dealing indirectly and directly to the process of learning such as metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and social/affective strategies (O Malley et al 1983, Rubin and Wenden 1987, Ellis 1994). Based on Rubins classifications, metacognitive strategies refer to make use knowledge about cognitive processes and constitute an attempt to regulate language learning by means planning, monitoring, and evaluating whereas cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis learning materials (Wenden and Rubin 1987:23). Social strategies, on the other hand is the ways in which learners elect to interact with other learners or native speakers of the target language such as cooperation and questioning for clarification (Ellis 1994:538) Therefore, OMalley and Chamot (1985), Oxford (1990) and Rubin (1981) have first categorized the strategies under direct and indirect strategies which are further sub-categorised and samples of such taxonomies of language learning strategies by the key figures in the field are as summarized in table 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4.

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Table 2.2. OMalley and Chamots typology of learning strategies (1985, taken from Ellis 1994: 538)
Learning Strategy Sub-strategies Advance organizers Directed attention Selective attention Self-management Advance preparation Self-monitoring Delayed production Self-evaluation Repetition Resourcing Directed physical response Translation Grouping Note-taking Deduction Recombination Imagery Auditory representation Key word Contextualization Elaboration Transfer Inferencing Cooperation Question for clarification

Metacognitive

Cognitive

Social/ affective

Chamot and O Malley provide the first clear contrast between cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies include the processes by which learners plan, monitor (considered in a broad sense), and evaluate their learning. For cognitive strategies, Chamot (1987, cited in Ellis, 1994: 536) argues that techniques such as repetition (imitating a language model, either covertly or overtly), notetaking (writing down information presented orally), and elaboration (relating new concepts to other information in memory) appear to be directly linked to the

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performance of particular learning tasks. Social/affective strategies, on the other hand, concern the ways in which learners elect to interact with other learners and native speakers. Rubins classification on LLS divides into four types, however besides the cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and social, she also adds communicative strategies between them. The communication strategies employed by learners when they practice their language with others, it covers participating in a conversation, getting meaning across and clarifying. Whereas social strategies deal with opportunities to use the language that learners have.
Table 2.3 Rubins typology of learning strategies (in Ellis 1994:534)
Learning Strategy Sub-strategies Clarification/ Verification Guessing/ Inductive Inferencing Deductive Reasoning Practice Memorization Monitoring

Cognitive Strategies

Metacognitive Strategies

Planning Prioritising Setting goals Self-management Participating in a conversation Getting meaning across Clarifying Opportunities to be exposed to the knowledge Opportunities to practise the knowledge

Communicative Strategies

Social Strategies

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The classification of language learning strategies reflects more or less the same categorization. A comparative study OMalley and Chamot (1990), Oxfords (1990), and Rubin (1981) classification systems used in the field however concludes that Oxfords (1990) system of language learning strategies is superior in accounting for the variety of strategies used by language learners (Chamot, 2004). Oxfords (1990:17) taxonomy of language learning strategies consisting of direct and indirect strategies are further subdivided into six categories as can be seen as follows,

Table 2.4 Oxfords typology of learning strategies (1990)

Learning Strategies A. Direct Strategies Memory Strategies Are devices used by learners to make mental linkages to enable new information especially vocabulary to be retained by learner. Creating mental linkage Grouping Associating/elaborating Placing new words into context Applying images and sounds Using imagery Semantic mapping Using keywords Representing sounds in memory Reviewing well Using action Practising Repeating Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems Recognizing and using formulas and patterns Recombining Practising naturalistically Receiving and sending messages Getting the idea quickly Sub-strategies

Cognivtive strategies Are used by learners to process language and accomplish tasks.

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Using resources for receiving and sending messages Analyzing and reasoning Reasoning deductively Analyzing expressions Analyzing contrastively (across languages) Translating Transferring Compensation strategies Are used by learners to make up for their missing knowledge. They include the use of gesture, rephrasing, asking for help and making guesses. Creating structure for input and output Taking notes Summarizing Highlighting Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing Switching to mother tongue Getting help Using mime or gestures Avoiding communication partially or totally Selecting the topic Adjusting or approximating the message Coining words Using a circumlocution or synonym Centering your learning Overviewing and linking with already known material Paying attention Delaying attention Delaying speech production to focus on listening Arranging and planning your learning Finding out about language Organizing Setting goals and objectives Identifying the purpose of a language task Planning for a language task Seeking practice opportunities Evaluation your learning Self-monitoring Self-evaluating

B. Indirect Strategies Metacognitive strategies Are used by learners to plan, organize, evaluate and monitor their own language learning.

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Affective Strategies Are used by learners to deal with their emotions, motivations and attitudes when learning English.

Lowering your anxiety Using progressive relaxation/ deep breathing/meditation Using music Using laughter Encouraging yourself Making positive statements Taking risks wisely Rewarding yourself Taking your emotional temperature Listening to your body Using a checklist Writing a language learning diary Discussing your feelings with someone else Asking questions Asking for clarification or verification Asking for correction Cooperating with others Cooperating with peers Cooperating with proficient users of the new language Empathizing with others Developing cultural understanding Becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings.

Social Strategies Refer to how learners use language learnt to interact and learn from others.

2.5. Factors influencing the choice of LLS Discussions on individual, situational and social factors which could be the factors that influencing learners choices will be elaborated in the following sections even though the relationship between learners factors and the choice of LLS is not going to be the main focus in the thesis. However these factors will enrich our insights on LLS.

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2.5.1 Learners belief about language learning Wenden (1987:23) found that learners who emphasized the importance of learning tended to use cognitive strategies that helped them to understand and remember specific items of language, while learners who emphasized the importance of using language employed few learning strategies, used more on communication strategies. However, learners who stressed personal factors did not manifest any distinctive pattern of strategy use.

2.5.2 Age and Learning Experience In terms of age that is also related to the extent of learning experience, young learners have been observed to employ task-specific strategies while older learners employ generalized strategies more flexibly. Ehrman and Oxford (1989:1) reported that adults use more complex and sophisticated strategies. It explains why older learners generally learn grammar and vocabulary faster initially than younger learners and not so in pronunciation.

2.5.3 Affective States Investigation on the influences of the affective domain of learners dealing with variables such as learners, attitude towards language and motivation has carried out by Green and Oxford (1995). Studies into the area suggest that motivation seems to be the most important of the learner variables since how learners deal with their emotions affects the strategies they employ.

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2.6. Previous LLS Research Methodologies Learning strategies has been identified through various self-report procedures. They range from listing the strategies through intuitions and making informal observation to conducting interviews, coming up with self-exploration data and finally designing questionnaires to collect data. The major methodologies that have been employed previously are detailed in this section. In general two categories have been used in the study of language learning strategies, namely observation and self-report. For observation, researchers have either used informal observations or scheduled observation. Self-report methods include interviews, diary studies and questionnaires. These methods are discussed in detail in the sections that follow.

2.6.1. Interviews Oxford and Crookal (1989:404) listed some methods and findings on the LLS and interviews are the first research methodology used in this field. Interviews are conducted to find out how learners describe what they are thinking and doing in a recently completed task. However, learners may forget details of the mental processes or even describe what they thought are right. A more accurate method of learning the strategies actually applied by learners is through the use of stimulated recall interview. For stimulated recall interview, the learners are asked to describe

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their thoughts as videotapes of students performing a certain task are played. (Chamot 2005:113)

2.6.2. Diaries and Journals Written diaries and journals have also been used to identify language learners strategies. In these, learners write personal observations about their own learning experiences and the ways in which they attempted to solve language problems. Rubin (2003:78 cited in Oxfrod and Crookal 1989:408) suggests using diaries for instructional purposes to help students develop metacognitive awareness of their own learning processes and strategies. The diary studies also have been primarily used to shed light on the learnerss affective states and how these influence learning (Brown 1985, Parkinson and Howell-Richardson 1990, cited in Oxford and Crookal 1989: 408)

2.6.3. Thinking-aloud protocols A think-aloud protocol can be used for individual interviews in which the learner is given a target language task and asked to describe his or her own tasks while working on it (Chamot 2005:114). In general, think-aloud tasks may tell us more about skill learning than language strategies. This self-report may be inaccurate if learners do not report truthfully or cannot remember their thinking. As Grenfell and Harris have pointed out: It is not easy to get inside the black box of the human brain and find out what is going on there (1999:54, cited in Chamot 2005:115)

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2.6.4. Questionnaires The most frequently used method for identifying students learning strategies is through questionnaires. Most descriptive studies have relied on a questionnaire developed by Oxford (1990:293-6), the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). The SILL is a standardized measure with version for English as a second language (ESL) students and students of a variety of other languages, and as such can be used in studies to correlate strategy use with variables such as learning styles, gender, proficiency level, culture, and task. Oxford argues that her classification on LLS has been acknowledged to be more systemic in linking individual strategies, as well as strategy groups (Oxford 1990:14) and also the most comprehensive classification (Ellis 1994:539) Furthermore, Oxfords SILL has been adopted for this research since it is also formulated for learners who study English as their foreign language so each question were designed understandable.

2.7.

The Importance of LLS and Current Study

Early research into language learning strategies has been concerned with establishing what good language learning strategies might be. The findings from research conducted by Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) suggest that the successful learners have employed a number of positive strategies. Oxford (1990a:1) stresses that language learning strategies are important for language learning because they are tools for active, selfdirected involvement essential for developing competence. Graham (1997:20)

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indicates that second and foreign language teachers can help learners understand good LLS and should train learners to develop and use them. Lessard-Clouston (1997) poses the question of what types of language learning strategies appear to work best with what learners in what context. Oxford (1993:25) stresses the importance of further research in different learning environments regarding learners language learning strategy use: investigations should be replicated so that more consistent information becomes available within and across groups of learners. Based on the findings and recommendations made by the various researchers, the current study thus seeks to find the language learning strategies employed by Indonesian learners according to their context. It is hoped that the findings will provide insights for teachers and researchers in similar and almost similar context to reflect and improve on their teachings as well as help their learners learn more effectively.

2.8.

Research into Language Learning Strategies

Furthermore, some Indonesian research has conducted LLS research among Indonesian learners. The research studies attempt to reveal what the strategies employed by the learners relating to their language proficiency test. Other research discussed factors influencing learners in choosing their strategies. The following is the review from the previous research.

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2.8.1 Studies of the effects of strategy instruction Some researchers like Weda (2005) and Manurung (2005) conduct the research in order to find out the strategies employed by the learners. As the result, learners proficiency level showed increasing as they applied the strategies. The following the studies on the strategy instruction.

2.8.1.1. Weda (2005) The study is designed to identify the range and types of learning strategies used by students learning English and to give information about the use of particular language learning strategies which can explain the success in language learning. Weda research also provides information about the students assessment towards teachers performance in the classrooms, and suggests a model of training learner or learning how to learn based on the findings. The research method was quasi-experimental and was carried out in the population of 85 students from two classes which focused on social science. Two main instruments were being used, they are (1) the self-administered questionnaire (a 40-item Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) and the seven strategies employed by good language learners (GLL) (2) proficiency test which covers English Structure, Vocabulary and reading comprehension. For the first group (IPS 1), the pre-test result showed that Metacognitive and Social strategies were the highly usage and after the treatment the strategies highly used were Metacognitive and Memory strategies respectively. Furthermore, for the GLL

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strategies was Attend to form and Attend to meaning strategies, while in postquestionnaire, it was found that the high usage of GLL strategies was Monitor speech and Attend to Meaning strategies. The second group (IPS 2), it was found that Attend to Meaning strategies was the highest usage, and the highest use of LLSs in postquestionnaire was also Attend to Meaning strategies. From this description, it can be seen that the students who used Attend to Meaning and Monitor Speech strategies have score improvement in post test.

2.8.1.2. Manurung (2005) The research discusses the effect of language learning strategy instruction on the improvement of the four language skills at tertiary education level. It focuses on two main points, of which the first is related to the effect of instruction in the use of language learning strategies prior to undertaking autonomous language learning as selfaccess center on the improvement of the four language skills, and the second relates to the language learning strategies used in the self-access center where autonomous language learning takes place. The subjects of the study were 126 first year nonlanguage department students registered for General English, a compulsory course at the Language Training Centre (LTC) at a university in Indonesia. The subjects were divided into two groups, 63 students as the experimental group and other 63 as the control group. The experimental group was given instruction in the use of effective language learning strategies before they use the self-access centre, while the control group was assigned only to do self-access language learning. The result of the language

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learning strategy instruction in the present study indicates that students in the experimental group benefited from the language learning strategy instruction. Furthermore, this study shows that the students in the experimental group improved more in their EFL performance than their counterparts in the control group

2.8.2 Studies investigating factors affecting strategy choice Use of appropriate learning strategies enable students to take responsibility for their own learning furthermore, it is said that better language learners generally use strategies appropriate to their own stage of learning, personality, age, purpose for learning the language and type of language (Bialystok, 1981) as taken from Oxfrod and Nyikos (1989). These factors are important because learners need to keep on learning even when they are no longer in a formal classroom. The following are some research that has been conducted in order to find out the relation between the language learning strategies employed by the students with their culture backgrounds.

2.8.2.1. Lengkanawati (1999) The study reported about the learner variable in relation to the language learning strategy use. Language learning strategy choices used by the EFL students in Indonesia and Indonesian as a foreign language in Australia related to the possible influences of the learners cultural background were investigated. The data were collected through observation, self-report survey using modified Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) and interviews. This research reveals some evidence of the differences

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in the degree of strategies used by both groups. The use of memory , metacognitive, and affective strategies by EFL students in Indonesia is more frequent than the use of those by IFL students in Australia. On the other hand, the use of cognitive, compensation, and social strategies is higher in Australia than in Indonesia. Furthermore, the study attempted to analyze the differences among the students point of view of their cultural background. Furthermore, the statistical result showed that among the six categories of language learning strategies, five strategies are proven to have significant differences in the intensity of using memory, cognitive, compensation, affective, and social strategies between EFL learners and IFL learners. There is no significant difference in the use of metacognitive strategies by EFL and IFL learners. The influence of the students cultural background on the use of these strategies is very obvious. Very few of the respondents involved in this research dared to put forward questions to the teachers. The other influence is the low-used strategy in cooperating with peers or with proficient user of the target language. This is probably because Indonesian students are very shy to reveal that they do not know something.

2.8.2.2. Sugeng (1997) Five research questions are asked concerning the profiles of students' learning strategies in terms of general categories and subordinate categories. Three hypotheses are proposed concerning the influences of Language, Gender, and Grade on students' learning strategies. Observation was conducted by trained student observers using a

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modified guide (Oxford, 1990) involving a total of 240 elementary school students. Percentages were used as the statistics for the descriptive analyses. For hypothesis testing a three-by-four multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used. MANOVA is methods to cover cases where there is more than one (correlated) dependent variable and where the dependent variables cannot simply be combined. Further the research followed by three-way analyses of variance (ANOVA), which is a stasticial analysis based more than two variables, for the four strategy categories. Correlation was calculated for the four strategy categories and non- parametric ANOVA was conducted for the metacognitive category. Use of the students' learning strategy is as follows: cognitive (63.31 %), affective (23.79%), social (9.05%), and meta-cognitive (3.85%). A significant main effect is found for Grade (p = 0.0001), and Language (p = 0.0126). A significant interaction is found for Grade and Language (p = 0.0001). For metacognitive a significant interaction is found between Grade and Gender (p = 0.0012). A significant main effect of Grade was found for cognitive (p = 0.0009) and for affective (p = 0.01).

30

CHAPTER III THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter is divided into two major sections. The first section describes and explains some underlying theories in the language learning strategies. It discusses some features in the language learning, which will be explained in details based on Oxfords (1990) language learning strategies classifications. The second section is concerned with the research methodology and the data analysis.

3.1 Direct and Indirect Strategies Oxford studied the learning strategies and classified them. She refers to it as Oxfords Strategy Classification System (Ehrman and Oxford, 1990). For the use of the strategies when one is learning the target language, Oxford divided it into two general classifications, namely direct strategies and indirect strategies.

3.1.1 Direct Strategies Oxford states that direct strategies are the strategies that require mental processing of the language even though the processing is differentiated according to its purpose (1990:37). She illustrates direct strategies as the performer in a state play which when learners express their specific actions with the language. Direct strategies

31

categorized into memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies therefore the following are the explanation of each category.

3.1.1.1 Memory strategies First of all, Thompson (1987, cited in Wenden 1987) describes some techniques in memory strategies. She calls the memory strategies as mnemonic which means aiding memory (Higbee, 1979 cited in Thompson 1987) or is often also referred to as memory tricks. There are several ways the mnemonics can be adapted by the learners. She puts her ideas as follows: 1. By using linguistic mnemonics the learners try to remember every new word by linking them to the other words. There are two ways in relating the new words. The first is called the peg method which uses the unrelated item and then links them with a set of memorize pegs or hooks like: red with bed, green with clean, blue with glue, etc. The second one is called the keyword method which by rhyming the new word with the learners L1, for example in Indonesian, the word sound of house is almost similar to haus. 2. By using spatial mnemonics, the learners can apply it in three ways. First, the loci method is sometimes used by the learners to memorize speeches (Yates, 1966 in Thompson 1987) when they imagine the word and then put each word into each room therefore whenever the person visits the rooms, the location selected will help him/her to remember those words. Second, the spatial grouping which the learner put the new words by drawing in a

32

pattern of triangle or circle. The last one is called the finger method, in which the learner associates the item to be learned with a finger (first item=left pinky, second item=left ring finger, etc) (1987:45). 3. By using visual methods, here the learners can use pictures that represent the new word or visualize the new word or a content of a passage. 4. By using the physical response, the learners pretend to act out a sentence or words that they have just learnt. For example pretend that you are writing a book, which is easier to remember than I am writing a book. 5. By verbal elaboration methods, the learner can apply it in three ways. The first one is by grouping a certain words according to their classes such as animals, colors, vegetables, and so forth. The second one is by using the word chain, that is by associating each word according to what comes first and then relating it to the next word. Thompson (1987:46) gives examples like to remember car, house, flower, and so forth, one forms an image a car in front of a house, a house surrounded by flowers, etc. The third method, called the narrative chain, is just the same as the word chain. Here the association is done by putting the new words into a story that might help learners to remember easier. Some techniques on the memory strategies that are listed by Thompson (1987) were also adopted by Oxford, which fall into four sets: creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, employing action. Furthermore, Oxford (1990:40-43) abbreviates these strategies as CARE, as illustrated by her statement

33

Take CARE of your memory and your memory will take CARE of you. Creating mental linkages strategies form the corner stone for the rest of the memory strategies by classifying or reclassifying language material into meaningful units, by associating/elaborating, and by placing new words into a context. Applying images and sounds strategies include: using imagery (the visual imagery is used either in the mind or in actual drawing), using keywords (remembering a new word by using auditory and visual links), semantic mapping (relating words, pictures, and means of lines or arrows) and representing sounds in memory (remembering new language according to its sound). Reviewing well strategy is done by reviewing carefully spaced intervals, which is also called spiraling. Employing action includes two ways, namely by using physical response or sensation and by using mechanical techniques. Based on the classification given, it seems that making mental pictures, linking words from one to another, and exposing an action are the memory strategies learner use mostly.

3.1.1.2 Cognitive Strategies, These strategies are typically found to be the most popular strategies with the language learners (Adler and Vogler, 1986, taken from Oxford, 1990:43). Cognitive strategies are defined by Rubin (1987) as the steps, or operations used in problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning materials. There are four types of cognitive strategies, namely

34

practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output. Oxford creates the acronym PRAC, as illustrated in her statement Cognitive strategies are PRACtical for language learning. Practicing is the most important type of cognitive strategies. It includes repeating, formally practicing with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and patterns (being aware of and/or using routing formulas), recombining (combining known elements in new ways to produce a longer sequence), and practicing naturalistically (as in participating in a conversation, reading a book or article, listening to a lecture, or writing a letter in the new language). Receiving and sending messages can be used by learners to extracting the new ideas by using a variety of resources for understanding or producing meaning. Analyzing and reasoning are concerned with logical analysis and reasoning as applied to various target language skills. The strategies contain deductive reasoning deductively (by applying the general rules to the new target language situations); analyzing expressions (using the meanings of various parts to understand the meaning of whole expression); translating; transferring (applying knowledge of words, concepts, or structures from one language to another). Creating structure for input and output combines three ways to create structure, namely taking notes, summarizing, and highlighting.

3.1.1.3 Compensation Strategies

35

These are some strategies that help learners when comprehending and producing the new language. There are two types of compensation strategies included; guessing intelligently in listening and reading, and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing. The acronym created by Oxford (1990:47-50) for this category is GO as illustrated by her statement, language learners can GO far with compensation strategies. The strategy is considered very useful when the learners try to make educated guesses rather than become panic and tend to use whatever words they can find. In guessing strategies, there are two strategies that can be used, namely using linguistic clues (language-based clues) and using other clues (non language-based clues). The second strategy, overcoming limitations, as applied in speaking and writing, such as switching to the mother tongue, getting help, using mime and gesture, avoiding communication partially or totally, selecting the topic, adjusting or approximating the message, coining words, and using a circumlocution or synonym.

3.1.2

Indirect strategies

For the indirect strategies, Oxford mentions it as The Director, is an internal guide and support the Performer (1990:15). Furthermore she argues that the learner attempts to take self-control of his/her learning process while the teacher seems put a less focus in this part. The classifications under this strategy are metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies.

3.1.2.1 Metacognitive strategies

36

These are the strategies that go beyond the cognitive and the way learners manage their own learning process. Wenden (1982 cited in Wenden 1987:25) listed several planning that learners use, those are when learners choose what and how they want to learn the language and then they prioritize which part of the language they prefer to learn first and finally they could set up their own learning goals. Metacognitive strategies therefore facilitates learners to make a self-control to their own learning process, if they feel that what they have planned consider as not successful they could re-organized according to what fit them best. Furthermore, Oxford categorizes the metacognitve strategies as centering your learning, arranging and planning your learning, and evaluating your learning (Oxford 1990:138-40). The acronym is created as CAPE, that is, metacognitive strategies make language learners more CAPE-able. Centering your learning helps learners to keep focusing on certain language tasks, activities, skills, or materials. These strategies include activities such as overviewing and linking with already known material; paying attention to specific aspects of the language or to situational details; and delaying speech production to focus on listening. Arranging and planning your learning include strategies used in finding out about language learning; organizing; setting goals and objectives; identifying the purpose of language task; planning for a language task; seeking practice opportunities. Evaluating your learning, by applying self-monitoring such as identifying errors in understanding or producing is used the new language or by self-evaluating by checking one progress in a certain month or week. 3.1.2.2 Affective strategies

37

These strategies refer to the learners emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values towards their learning process, as illustrated in the following statement good language learners are often those who know how to control their emotions and attitude about learning (Savignon: 1983, taken from Oxford :1990:141), since the unstable emotions and motivations would influence the learners effort during the learning process. There are three ways used by learners to maintain their affective personality, namely lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself, taking your emotional temperature (Oxford 1990:143-4). Lowering your anxiety can be applied by using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation; by listening to music, or also by using laughter when watching or reading fun stuffs. Encouraging yourself includes activities like making positive statements, taking risks wisely, and rewarding yourself. Taking your emotional temperature consists of activities like listening to ones body; using a checklist to discover feelings, attitudes, and motivations concerning language learning in general; writing a language learning diary, and discussing your feeling with someone else.

3.1.2.3 Social strategies. Learning a new language requires a learner to be able to communicate in the new language in a community. The strategies help learners when engaging in a conversation. The strategies include activities such as asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing with others(Oxford 1990:146-7). Asking questions consists of activities like asking for clarification by paraphrasing, slow down, or give

38

example; and also asking for correction when the learner makes a mistake. Cooperating with others can be done with peers or with proficient users of the new language. Empathizing with others is applied by developing cultural understanding and also by becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings

3.2

Research Methodology

This section describes the research framework, setting and respondents and the research instruments and procedure. Both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods and a number of descriptive as well as statistical analyses to seek answers to the following research questions; (1) what is the most frequently used strategies that are employed by all the groups of learners? And (2) what is the individual language learning strategy used by each group of learners?

3.2.2 Setting and Respondents This research attempts to investigate the LLS used by English language learners who have been using the English language in their daily activities. The sampling includes sixty respondents that are divided into three different groups, namely 20 college students, 20 English teachers, and 20 office workers. The twenty college students were first semester students majoring in English language. Their experiences in language learning were quite varied; most of them have taken English course outside their formal institution while other respondents have learnt it through the formal institution only. The twenty English language teachers have taught

39

English for more than five years. They teach English from kindergarten up to college students. The third group, twenty office workers who were taken from different professions such as; doctors, tour consultants, tax consultants, executive secretaries, accountings, technician, and bank officers. These office workers showed more varied experiences in their language learning process especially when dealing with their professions. In addition to their formal education, some of the respondents indicate that they studied in the English course before. 3.2.3 Research Instruments The research adapts Oxfords (1990) SILL which is considered to be more comprehensive in accounting for strategies used by learners. The adapted Oxfords (1990) SILL was divided into six sections, A to F, based on Oxfords (1990) categorization of strategies as mentioned and explained earlier (see page 18). Each item from the questionnaire were adopted precisely in this thesis, since the questions were designed for foreign language learners on the other hand it uses simple words and easy to understand by the respondents. Furthermore, strategy description was based on the five-point Likert-scale, namely; 1 = never or almost never true of me, 2 = usually not true of me, 3 = sometimes true of me, 4 = usually true of me and 5 = always or almost always true of me. Table 3.2 shows the categorization of items in the questionnaire. Items under each category in SILL questionnaire, A. Memory strategies (9 items); 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 B. Cognitive strategies (14 items);10, 11, 12,13,14,15,16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23 C. Compensation strategies (6 items); 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29

40

D. Metacognitive strategies (9 items); 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, and 38 E. Affective strategies (6 items); 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, and 44 F. Social strategies (6 items); 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, and 50 The main procedure used in collecting quantitative data was done by distributing questionnaire. To enrich the quantitative data, qualitative data were collected through guided interview questionnaires.

3.2.4 Data Analysis After the data were collected, they were coded and analyzed. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The descriptive data used include the means and standard deviations. Based on the classification in this study, LLS are analyzed in terms of its frequency of use based on Oxfords classification of the SILL average analysis (Oxford, 1989, cited in 1990) as follows: Classification High Frequency of use Always or almost always true of me Usually used Medium Sometimes used Generally not used Low Never or almost never used Average score 4.5 to 5.0 3.5 to 4.4 2.5 to 3.4 1.5 to 2.4 1.0 to 1.4

Based on the categorization above, the data reported in this study work are analyzed statistically by using SPSS. CHAPTER IV

41

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter presents and analyzes the data obtained from using the Oxfords SILL questionnaires. The first section of this chapter will mainly describe the data of the respondents and their backgrounds. The data include the age, gender, and education. The second section of this chapter will present analyses on the correlation between some variables in language learning strategies and their accounts for answering the research questions mentioned earlier in Chapter 1.

4.1 Data a. The age of respondents The data indicate that more than 60% of the student respondents are between the age 18 22 years old, around 70% of the teachers and workers respondents are between 24 35 years old. The minimum age is 18 and the maximum age is 60 years old. Based on table 4.1 it could be seen that most student respondents are of young learners while teachers and workers respondents are of adult learners.

Table 4.1 Age

42

Age 18 19 20 21 22 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 35 37 38 39 55 58 60 Total

student Count 13 4 1 1 1 % 65.0% 20.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0%

teacher Count % Count

Worker %

1 2 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 1

5.0% 10.0% 10.0% 10.0% 15.0% 5.0% 10.0% 5.0% 10.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0%

6 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1

30.0% 5.0% 10.0% 10.0% 5.0% 10.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0%

1 1 20 100.0% 1 20 5.0% 100.0% 20

5.0% 5.0% 100.0%

b. English learning experiences The respondents gave a variety of responses based on their English learning experience. The English learning experiences table (figure 4.1) below indicates that the respondents' experience in learning English is more than ten years in average. Most of them stated that their first encounter with the language started when they were in junior high schools. Some of them were introduced to English when they were at elementary schools. Table 4.2 indicates that the respondents' English learning experience ranges from 3 to 35 years.

43

Table 4.2 English learning experiences

student Years 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 17 18 20 25 35 Total 20 100.0% 1 5.0% 1 5.0% 2 9 2 4 1 10.0% 45.0% 10.0% 20.0% 5.0% 3 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 20 15.0% 5.0% 15.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 10.0% 5.0% 100.0% 20 100.0% 1 2 5.0% 10.0% 1 2 5.0% 10.0% Count % teacher Count 1 2 1 % 5.0% 10.0% 5.0% 1 1 6 3 4 2 5.0% 5.0% 30.0% 15.0% 20.0% 10.0% Count worker %

14

12

10

Count

0 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 17 18 20 25 35

education

Figure 4.1

4.2. The overall result of Language Learning Strategies

44

The overall mean language learning strategies score of 3.45 indicates that all learners are moderate users of language learning strategies. However there is a difference between the group of students and the groups of teachers and workers. The students are moderate users (3.29), whereas the teachers and workers are considered as high users of language learning strategies, the mean results are 3.54 and 3.51. For the overall result of the strategies used by respondents is shown in table 4.3 Results of the strategies used

Table 4.3: The overall result of the strategies used The strategies Memory strategies Cognitive Language Learning Strategies Compensation Language Learning Strategies Metacognitive Language Learning Strategies Affective Language Learning Strategies Social Language Learning Strategies Mean 3.13 3.55 3.42 3.71 3.12 3.48 S.D. 0.63 0.59 0.62 0.71 0.73 0.81 Rank 5 2 4 1 6 3

It can be seen that the memory and affective language learning strategies are the least frequently used by the respondents. It demonstrates that most learners hardly learn a language by memorizing it. As a result, the highest score occurs in metacognitive strategies and the second highest score occurs in the compensation language learning strategies.

Next at the table 4.4 (Results of the individual strategies used) listed the highest score of the individual-strategies employed by the learners:

45

Table 4.4: Results of the individual strategies used

Individual Strategies I pay attention when someone is speaking English(MET32) If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or say it again (SOC 45) I try to find out how to be a better learner of English (MET33) I notice my English mistakes and use that information to me do better (MET 31) if I cant think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing (COMP 29) I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake (AFF 40) I think about my progress in learning English (MET38)

Mean 4.38

S.D 0.73

% 88%

4.35

0.84

86%

4.16

0.95

76%

4.11

0.80

80%

4.03

0.90

80%

3.98

0.91

68%

3.93

0.95

71%

The result shows that there are three individual strategies chosen under the metacognitive strategies, namely one individual strategies chosen under the social strategies, one individual strategies chosen under the compensation strategies, and one individual strategies chosen under the affective strategies. Therefore, no memory strategies are chosen as the highest strategy. As explained earlier, the metacognitive strategies turn out to be the most frequently used strategies used by the English learners, that is almost 88% respondents choose MET32 paying attention when someone is speaking English as their mostfrequently used strategies.

46

4.2.1. Overall LLS used by EFL Learners For the overall LLS used by EFL learners, the result will be analyzed based on Oxfords LLS classifications (1990). The results of the most and least frequently strategies used by all groups of learners are listed in the table 4.5 up to table 4.10 in the following sections.

4.2.1.1. Memory LLS used by EFL Learners Oxford (1990:41) further explains that the strategies can be classified into simple or complex, mundane or strange. Here, learners associate the new language into things that they have already known in order to remember the new information easily. This strategy is part of semantic mapping which means connecting the key concept placed in the center and linked it with the relative words or concepts.

Table 4.5: Results of the memory strategies

The most-frequently used strategies MEM1 I think of relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English Min 1 Max 5 Mean 3.65 S.D 1.03 Rank 1

The least-frequently used strategies MEM5 I use rhymes to remember new English words

Min 1

Max 5

Mean 2.70

S.D. 1.013

Rank 1

4.2.1.2. Cognitive LLS used by EFL Learners

47

As we could see from the tables below, learners most favorite cognitive learning strategies are watching English language TV shows or going to movies spoken in English (COG15). Learners who apply cognitive strategies actually try to practice naturalistically. Rubin further explains that Language learners often feel besieged by whirling words from radio and TV programs, films, lectures, stories, articles, and conversations (1975:45). The other strategies such as in practicing and practicing naturalistically are mostly employed by the learners (COG12, COG11). While the second frequently chosen category is in COG17, where the learners try to create structure for input and output that could help them comprehends and produces the new language. For the least frequently used strategies is to start conversation in English (3.33).

Table 4.6: Results of the cognitive strategies The most frequently used strategies Min COG11 I try to talk like native English speakers COG12 I practice the sounds of English COG15 I watch English language TV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English. COG17 I write notes, messages, letters, or reports in English COG18 I first skim an English passage (read over the passage quickly) then go back and read carefully COG20 1 1 1

Max 5 5 5

Mean 3.62 3.62 3.90

S.D. 1.059 1.027 .986

Rank 5 4 1

3.72

1.136

3.57

.927

3.55

.946

48

I try to find patterns in English COG21 I find the meaning of an English word by dividing it into parts that I understand COG22 I try not to translate word-for-word

3.50

1.066

3.65

1.132

The least-frequently used strategy COG14 I start conversation in English COG23 I make summaries of information that I hear or read in English

Min 1 1

Max 5 5

Mean 3.33 3.32

S.D 1.115 1.214

Rank 2 1

4.2.1.3. Compensation LLS used by EFL Learners In order to compensate for the meaning of new words, here learners use guessing strategies which are sometimes called inferencing. Therefore, when they apply this strategy, learners try to overcome their limitations in speaking or in writing. The other strategies which are most frequently used include guessing the unfamiliar words (3.85), guessing what the other person will say in English (3.45), and by using gestures (3.78). The least frequently used strategy in this part is by making up new words and reading English without looking up every new word.

Table 4.7: Results of the compensation strategies The most frequently used strategies Min Max Mean S.D. Rank

49

COMP24 To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses COMP25 When I can't think of a word during a conversation in English, I use gestures COMP28 I try to guess what the other person will say next in English COMP29 If I can't think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing

3.85

1.087

3.78

1.043

3.45

.999

4.03

.901

The least frequently used strategies COMP26 I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English COMP27 I read English without looking up every new word

Min 1

Max 5

Mean 3.22

S.D. 1.195

Rank 1

3.28

1.195

4.2.1.4. Metacognitive LLS used by EFL Learners

For metacognitive strategies, learners choose paying attention when someone is speaking English (4.38). By applying this strategy, learners basically try to centering their learning. Furthermore as the second and third strategy, learners choose noticing their English mistakes and using it to become better (4.12) and thinking about ones progress in learning English (3.93). The highest score also shows that learners applying the strategy in arranging and planning ones learning, in this category they chose to find as many ways as he/she can use the English (3.67) and to look for opportunities

50

to read as much as possible (3.60). In the least strategies used, they choose organizing ones schedule (3.05), seeking practice opportunities (3.17), setting goals and objectives (3.37)

Table 4.8: Results of the metacognitive strategies The most frequently used strategies MET30 I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English MET31 I notice my English mistakes and use that information to me do better MET32 I pay attention when someone is speaking English MET36 I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English MET38 I think about my progress in learning English Min 1 Max 5 Mean 3.67 S.D. 1.020 Rank 4

4.12

.804

4.38

.739

3.60

1.077

3.93

.954

The least frequently used strategies MET34 I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English MET35

Min 1

Max 5

Mean 3.05

S.D. 1.241

Rank 1

3.17

1.251

51

I look for people I can talk to in English MET37 I have a clear goal for improving my English skills

3.37

.920

4.2.1.5. Affective LLS used by EFL Learners

Even though affective strategies are one of the least frequently used strategies, however there is one affective strategy which is considered highly being used by all learners and that is encouraging oneself to speak English even when he/she is afraid of making a mistake (3.98). This self-encouragement includes saying supportive things, prodding oneself to take risks wisely, and providing rewards (Oxford 1990:143). For the least strategy used in this category is to write down ones feelings in a language learning diary (2.43)

Table 4.9: Results of the affective strategies The most frequently used strategies AFF39 I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English AFF40 I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake AFF41 I give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English AFF42 I notice if I am tense or nervous when I Min 1 Max 5 Mean 3.58 S.D. 1.013 Rank 2

3.98

.911

2.93

1.300

3.12

1.195

52

am studying or using English AFF43 I write down my feelings in a language learning diary AFF44 I talk to someone else about how u feel when I am learning English 1 5 2.43 1.345 6

2.68

1.214

4.2.1.6. Social LLS used by EFL Learners For the social strategies, learners prefer asking for clarification or verification from the opponents every time they do not understand of what have been said previously, while the second highest score is in cooperating with peers. Oxford explains that this strategy can involve a regular learning partner or a temporary pair or small group. Further she adds that this strategy involves controlling impulses toward competitiveness and rivalry. (Oxford 1990:147)

Table 4.10: Results of the social strategies The most frequently used strategies SOC45 If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow Min 2 Max 5 Mean 4.35 S.D. .840 Rank 1

53

down or say it again SOC47 I practice English with other students 1 5 3.68 1.066 2

The least frequently used strategies SOC46 I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk SOC48 I ask for help from English speakers SOC49 I ask questions in English SOC50 I try to learn about the culture of English speakers

Min 1

Max 5

Mean 3.35

S.D. 1.338

Rank 3

1 1 1

5 5 5

3.10 3.42 2.98

1.272 1.030 1.214

2 4 1

4.2.2. Individual LLS used by each group of learners Based on the strategies chosen, there are 50 items of individual strategies under the six language learning strategies. Those are 9 individual strategies under the memory strategies, 13 individual strategies under the cognitive strategies, 6 individual strategies under the compensation strategies, 8 individual strategies under the metacognitive strategies, 6 individual strategies under the affective strategies, and 6 individual strategies under the social strategies.

Before we go further, the table 4.11 shows the result of overall language strategies divided by each group of respondents. There are 60 respondents which were divided into three groups; those are 20 college student, 20 English teachers, and 20 office workers.

54

Table 4.11: Average SILL results by each group of learners Learner groups Strategies used Memory Cognitive Compensation Metacognitve Affective Social College Students Mean 3.08 3.30 3.52 3.47 3.12 3.24 Std. Dev 0.55 0.26 0.28 0.46 0.67 0.49 English Teachers Mean 3.21 3.68 3.75 3.85 3.07 3.62 Std. Dev 0.50 0.26 0.28 0.46 0.67 0.49 Office Workers Mean 3.10 3.67 3.00 3.82 3.16 3.57 Std. Dev 0.36 0.50 0.47 0.58 0.61 0.58

Figure 4.2.Results of each group learners LLS

The result above shows all the three groups who used metacognitive as their highest strategies in the language learning. However, the teachers result shows the highest mean score (3.85), while the workers mean score is 3.82 and the college students

55

mean score is 3.47. For the least-used strategies, the results vary. The memory strategies are used least frequently by the college students (3.08) and by the office workers (3.10), whereas affective strategies are used least frequently by the teacher respondents. Results of the individual strategies will be explained in the following sections.

4.2.2.1. The result of memory strategies used by each group of learners The result indicates that memory strategies were used least frequently among the other categories of strategies. Data on the use of individual strategies shows that all individual strategies, which were grouped into memory strategies, had mean scores in the range of 2.5 to 3.2. The low use of memory strategies could be considered as a surprising result because this finding was contradictory with Indonesian learning habits. Indonesian students usually study the facts by learning and remembering however this learning style highly requires memory and cognitive strategies. As a result, the findings of the present study provide additional empirical information that supports a tendency that Indonesian students are not in favor with their traditional learning style (learn and remember) anymore. Furthermore, the results show that there are two strategies selected under this strategy, i.e., those that are dealing with creating mental linkages by associating and classifying new words into context. However, the strategy in using flash cards and rhymes is least used. The reason is becaused that both of these techniques are still rarely used in the schools or institutions where they learn English. The table 4.12 shows the differences of LLS choice among the groups.

56

Table 4.12: Results of memory strategies used among the group learners

Category Memory Strategies MEM1 Think of relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English MEM2 Make use the new words in order to remember

College Students Mean SD 3.8 0.74

English Teachers Mean SD 4.05 0.75

Office Workers Mean SD 3.05 1.27

2.9

0.84

3.6

0.81

3.1

1.14

MEM3

Connect the sound of a new 3.5 English by making a mental picture Making a mental picture of the word Use rhymes to remember new English words 3.6

0.91

3.2

1.04

3.7

1.25

MEM4

1.17

3.6

0.96

3.1

1.13

MEM5

2.7

0.85

2.6

1.14

2.6

1.02

MEM6

Use flashcards to remember 2 new English words Act out new English words Review English often 2.6 3

1.07

2.6

1.05

2.6

1.03

MEM7 MEM8 MEM9

0.83 0.88 1.00

3.1 3.4 2.7

1.03 1.39 1.11

3.1 3.4 3.2

1.05 1.03 1.39

Remembering the location 3.3 on the page, on the board, or on the street sign everytime they find the new words or phrase

57

Figure 4.3 Overall results of memory strategies

More than 65% of college student and 85% of English teachers use the category in associating and elaborating (MEM1) as their most frequently used strategies. On the other hand, for the office workers, 50% of them choose the other strategy, i.e., by using images in order to remember the new words. Table 4.13- 4.15 show the difference in the way the memory strategies are used.

Table 4.13 Most frequently memory strategies used by the college students

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Answers 1 2 3 4 5

MEM1

MEM3 1

% 5%

MEM4

2 7 9 4 35 % 45 % 20 % 8 10 1 40 % 50 % 5% 7 7 4

10 % 35 % 35 % 20 %

Table 4.14 Most frequently memory strategies used by the English Teachers Answers 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 12 5 5% 10 % 60 % 25 % 1 8 8 3 5% 40 % 40 % 15 % MEM1 % MEM2 % MEM4 1 1 7 7 4 % 5% 5% 35 % 35 % 20 %

Table 4.15 Most frequently memory strategies used by the office workers Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total MEM3 1 1 5 9 4 20 % 5% 5% 25 % 45 % 20 % 100 %

4.2.2.2. The result of cognitive strategies used by each group of learners

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The result indicates that cognitive strategies were medium to most frequently used. Data on the use of individual strategies show that all individual strategies, which were grouped into cognitive strategies, had mean scores in the range of 3.3 to 3.9. Cognitive learning language strategies were least used by the college students (3.3), whereas English teachers and office workers were reported as the medium-users of the strategy (3.6).

Figure 4.4. Overall results of cognitive strategies

Table 4.16: Results of cognitive strategies used among the group learners

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Category COG10 COG11 COG12 COG13 COG14 COG15

COG16 COG17 COG18

Cognitive Strategies Say or write new words several times talk like native English speakers Practice the sounds of English Use the English words in different ways Start conversations in English watch TV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English Read for pleasure in English Write notes, messages, letters, or reports in English skim an English passage first then go back and read carefully Look for words in L1 that are similar to new words in English Try to find patterns in English Finding the meaning by dividing the new words into parts Finding the meaning by dividing the new words into parts Make summaries of information in English

College Students Mean SD 3.2 0.73 3.5 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.5 0.78 0.89 1.14 0.93 1.12

English Teachers Mean SD 3.3 1.13 3.9 3.6 3.8 3.5 4.3 1.11 0.83 1 1.04 0.73

Office Workers Mean 3.8 3.4 3.8 3.5 3.4 4.05 SD 1.13 1.10 1.20 1.05 1.27 0.99

3.5 3.2 3.5

1.07 1.27 0.77

3.8 3.9 3.6

0.95 0.88 1.03

3.50 4.05 3.6

1.19 0.88 0.88

COG19

3.7

1.04

3.3

0.97

3.3

1.18

COG20 COG21

3.3 3.6

0,88 0.88

3.6 2.4

0.88 1.05

3.8 3.4

1.05 1.12

COG22

1.15

3.9

0.85

4.05

1.06

COG23

2.8

1.04

3.5

1.05

3.6

1.31

The result in table 4.17 shows that the college students are moderate users of cognitive strategies. We can see that only 50%-60% of the college students apply this

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strategy like in practicing naturalistically (COG11, COG15, and COG16). It also shows that the college students use analyzing and reasoning such as in COG21

Table 4.17 Most frequently cognitive strategies used by the college students Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 8 10 1 20 5.0% 40.0% 50.0% 5.0% 100.0% COG11 % COG15 1 1 9 4 5 20 % 5.0% 5.0% 45.0% 20.0% 25.0% 100.0% COG16 1 2 6 8 3 20 % 5.0% 10.0% 30.0% 40.0% 15.0% 100.0%

COG18

COG19

COG21

1 10 7 2 20

5.0% 50.0% 35.0% 10.0% 100.0%

2 8 4 6 20

10.0% 40.0% 20.0% 30.0% 100.0%

2 8 6 4 20

10.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 100.0%

On the other hand, the English teachers result (Table 4.18) use almost all the strategies in the cognitive categories. Here, more than 60 % of English teachers practice their language naturalistically such as in COG 11, COG 15, COG 17, COG 16, COG 13, COG 14. Some of these strategies are related to their speaking ability. Like in COG15,

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almost 90% of them watch TV shows or movies spoken in English, 70% of them chose COG12 practice the sound of English, 70% of them use COG11 try to talk like native speakers, and 60% use COG14 start conversations in English. Besides

practicing, the English teachers also use analyzing and reasoning strategies such as in COG20 try to find pattern in English and COG21 find the meaning of an English word by dividing it into parts. The following is the percentage of the most frequently used cognitive strategies by the English teachers.

Table 4.18 Most frequently cognitive strategies used by the English teachers

Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

COG11 1 1 4 7 7 20

% 5% 5% 20 % 35 % 35 % 100 %

COG12 1 1 6 8 4 20

% 5% 5% 30 % 40 % 20 % 100 %

COG13 1 7 6 6 20

% 5% 35 % 30 % 30 % 100 %

COG14 5 4 7 4 20

% 25 % 20 % 35 % 20 % 100 %

COG15 1 2 8 9 20

% 5% 10 % 40 % 45 % 100 %

COG16 1 8 6 5 20

% 5% 40 % 30 % 25 % 100 %

Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

COG17

COG18 1 1

% 5% 5% 30 % 45 % 15 % 100 %

COG20 3 4 11 2 20

% 15 % 20 % 55 % 10 % 100 %

COG21 1 1 9 6 3 20

% 5% 5% 45 % 30 % 15 % 100 %

COG22 1 5 9 5 20

% 5% 25 % 45 % 25 % 100 %

COG23 1 3 4 7 5 20

% 5% 15 % 20 % 35 % 25 % 100 %

8 5 7 20

40 % 25 % 35 % 100 %

6 9 3 20

Similar to the English teachers result, the office workers in table 4.19 also try to practice their language naturalistically, such as in COG11 (50%), COG 17 (70%). For

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75% of the office workers use analyzing and reasoning for cognitive strategies, like in COG20 and COG22. The result also shows that around 60% of them choose strategies for creating structure for input and output, like in COG 18, COG21, COG23.

Table 4.19 Most frequently cognitive strategies used by the office workers

Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

COG10 1 8 3 8 20

% 5% 40 % 15 % 40 % 100 %

COG11 1 5 4 5 5 20

% 5% 25 % 20 % 25 % 25 % 100 %

COG12 4 2 7 7 20

% 20 % 10 % 35 % 35 % 100 %

COG13 3 9 3 5 20

% 15 % 45 % 15 % 25 % 100 %

COG15 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 6 7 6 20 COG20 1 2 3 4 5 Total 2 6 6 6 20

% 5% 30 % 35 % 30 % 100 % % 10 % 30 % 30 % 30 % 100 %

COG17 2 4 5 9 20 COG21 2 2 6 5 5 20

% 10 % 20 % 25 % 45 % 100 % % 10 % 10 % 30 % 25 % 25 % 100 %

COG16 2 1 7 2 8 20 COG22 1 1 3 6 9 20

% 10 % 5% 35 % 10 % 40 % 100 %

COG18 1 1 7 7 4 20

% 5% 5% 35 % 35 % 20 % 100 % % 10 % 15 % 15 % 35 % 25 % 100 %

% COG23 5% 2 5% 3 15 % 3 30 % 7 45 % 5 100 % 20

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4.2.2.3. The result of compensation strategies used by each group of learners Compensation strategies were used by the learners as a moderate frequently used strategies with the mean score of 3.42. The data shows that among the three groups, English teachers are categorized as moderate to most frequent users of the strategy. The result shows that the English teachers use the strategy mostly in COMP24 make guesses (4.1). The same result is also shown by the college students groups, i.e., besides guessing most of them choose using gestures. Oxford (1990) mentions that guessing strategies are used whenever they are listening or reading whereas making gestures is used whenever they are speaking. Both could help students when they face difficulties in expressing their language performance. However, based on the mean score of 3.0, the office workers seem reluctant in applying these strategies.

Table 4.20: Results of compensation strategies used among the group learners

Category COMP24 COMP25 COMP26

Compensation Strategies make guesses use gestures Make up new words

College Students Mean SD 3.4 3.6 3.4 1.15 0.93 1.31

English Teachers Mean SD 3.7 4.05 3.5 0.96 1.18 1.14

Office Workers Mean SD 4.15 3.6 3.05 1.13 1.25 1.27

COMP27

Read English without looking up every new word

3.4

1.36

3.2

1.01

3.2

1.14

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COMP28

Try to guess what the 3.3 other person will say next in English use a word or phrase that means the same thing 3.8

1.21

3.2

0.78

3.4

1.02

COMP29

0.89

4.3

0.80

4.15

1.03

Figure 4.5. Overall result of compensation strategies

For the college students, 70% of them use gestures (COMP 25) and make guesses (COMP24) when they try to overcome their limitation in speaking and also in writing. While in guessing intelligently, around 75% of them use a word or phrase that means the same thing (COMP29). The results is shown in the table 4.21 below.

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Table 4.21 Most frequently compensation strategies used by the college students

Answers COMP24 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 Total 2 9 6 20

% 5% 10 % 10 % 45 % 30 % 100 %

COMP25 1 5 10 4 20

% 5% 25 % 50 % 20 % 100 %

COMP28 1 3 8 4 4 20

% 5% 15 % 40 % 20 % 20 % 100 %

COMP29 2 3 11 4 20

% 10 % 15 % 55 % 20 % 100 %

Almost all the categories in compensation strategies are highly used by the English teachers. While the college students tend to use gestures, for English teachers the result in the table 4.22 shows that almost 85% prefer to use a word or phrase that means the same thing to overcome their limitations. The other 80% of teachers prefer to use linguistic clues when they guess the meaning of a word (COMP24). The data also shows that 70% of them use gestures whenever they find difficulties in explaining.

Table 4.22 Most frequently compensation strategies used by the English teachers Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 5 5 9 20 5% 25 % 25 % 45 % 100 % COMP24 % COMP25 2 1 3 10 4 20 % 10 % 5% 15 % 50 % 20 % 100.0% COMP26 1 2 6 6 5 20 % 5% 10 % 30 % 30 % 25 % 100 %

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Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

COMP27

COMP29

3 5 8 4 20

15 % 25 % 40 % 20 % 100 %

1 2 8 9 20

5% 10 % 40 % 45 % 100 %

Similar with the previous group, whenever they try to overcome the limitations, more than 80% of the office workers, in table 4.23, choose to use other words or phrases, and 65% of them use gestures. However, only 50% of them use the guessing strategy.

Table 4.23 Most frequently compensation strategies used by the office workers

Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

COMP24

COMP25

COMP29 1

% 5%

4 6 4 6 20

20 % 30 % 20 % 30 % 100 %

2 5 6 7 20

10 % 25 % 30 % 35 % 100 % 3 10 6 20 15 % 50 % 30 % 100 %

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4.2.2.4. The result of metacognitive strategies used by each group of learners Metacognitive strategies are the most frequently employed strategies among the other categories. The popularity of these strategies is supported with data on the use of five individual strategies which fell under this category of strategies. Five individual strategies which were grouped into metacognitive strategies had mean scores of 3.5 or above. The lack of exposure of using English in the learners daily life probably forced them to make their own efforts in order to have enough opportunities to learn by themselves. In the poor-environment area, without having the habit of autonomous learning, the desire to possess a foreign language is difficult to realize. Another more probable cause of the high use of metacognitive strategies is that the students are commonly concerned with their grades. Consequently, they keep on monitoring their learning process and evaluating what and how well they had learnt. In other words, the learners might be instrumentally motivated to learn English language. Based on the result, learners try to learn from people who speak English better than them. However, since the lack of exposure to English, the strategy look for people to talk English became the least used strategy for the college students and office workers.

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Table 4.24: Results of metacognitive strategies used among the group learners

Category Metacognitive Strategies Find as many ways to make use MET30 the English MET31 MET32 notice ones English mistakes pay attention when someone is speaking English Try to find out how to be a better learner of English Plan a schedule to learn English Look for people to talk English look for opportunities to read in English Have goals for

College Students Mean SD 3.2 0.99

English Teachers Mean SD 3.9 1.02

Office Workers Mean SD 3.9 1.20

4.05 4.05

0.81 0.78

4.3 4.4

0.58 0.73

4.3 4.6

0.93 0.68

MET33

4.05

1.10

4.4

0.80

MET34 MET35 MET36

2.9 2.8 3.5

1.35 1.25 0.94

3.1 3.55 3.8

0.93 1.14 1.08

3.1 3.1 3.5

1.44 1.45 1.23

MET37

improving 3.3

0.83

3.5

0.86

3.3

1.08

English skills MET38 think about ones progress in learning English 3.6 0.76 4.2 0.91 3.9 1.12

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Figure 4.6 Overall results of metacognitive strategies

As mentioned earlier, the strategy centering ones learning such as in MET32 has become the most frequently used strategy. Therefore, results in table 4.25 shows that more than 85% of the college students choose this strategy, moreover nearly 90% of them select notice ones English mistakes (MET31). The other strategy is arranging and planning the learning process. That is, 80% of college students set their goals and find out how to be a better learner (MET38)

Table 4.25 Most frequently metacognitive strategies used by the college students Answers 2 3 4 5 5 7 8 25 % 35 % 40 % MET31 % MET32 1 1 10 8 % 5% 5% 50. % 40 % MET33 1 6 5 8 % 5% 30 % 25 % 40 %

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Total

20

100 %

20

100 %

20

100 %

Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

MET36 3 7 7 3 20

% 15.0% 35.0% 35.0% 15.0% 100.0%

MET38

4 8 8 20

20.0% 40.0% 40.0% 100.0%

Furthermore 85% of the English teachers select the strategy centering the learning process. Additionally, 80% of the English teachers also evaluate their mistakes (MET31). For the strategy setting goals and objectives, 75% of them choose think about the progress (MET38) and 65% choose have goals for improving English skills (MET37). The other strategies like looking for opportunities to use their English are selected by 70% of the English teachers such as in MET36, and 50% in MET35. The result shown in table 4.26 as follows

Table 4.26 Most frequently metacognitive strategies used by the English teachers

Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

MET30 1

% 5%

MET31

MET32

MET33

3 5 8 6 20 25 % 40 % 30 % 100 1 11 8 20 5% 55 % 40 % 100 % 3 6 11 20 15 % 30 % 55 % 100 % 1 5 11 20

15 % 5% 25 % 55 % 100 %

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Answers MET35 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 2 7 5 5 20

% 5% 10 % 35 % 25 % 25 % 100 %

MET36

MET37

MET38

3 6 5 6 20

15 % 30 % 25 % 30 % 100 %

2 5 10 3 20

10 % 25 % 50 % 15 % 100 %

2 3 10 5 20

10.0% 15.0% 50.0% 25.0% 100.0%

Similar to the result of previous groups, table 4.27 shows 90% of the office workers choose centering their learning by paying attention (MET32) and 65% of them choose try to find as many ways to use ones English (MET30). However in looking for opportunities, it shows that only half of the office workers apply this strategy (MET36). In setting goals, only 50% of them think about their progress (MET38).

Table 4.27 Most frequently metacognitive strategies used by the office workers

Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

MET30

MET31

MET32

4 5 3 8 20

20 % 25 % 15 % 40 % 100 %

2 4 9 5 20

10 % 20 % 45 % 25 % 100 % 2 6 12 20 10 % 30 % 60 % 100 %

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Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total

MET33

MET36 2 1

% 10 % 5% 25 % 35 % 25 % 100 %

MET38

4 4 6 6 20

20 % 20 % 30 % 30 % 100 %

4 6 10 20

20 % 30 % 50 % 100 %

5 7 5 20

4.2.2.5. The result of affective strategies used by each group of learners Of all the language learning strategies, affective strategies are the least-frequently used strategies with the mean score of 3.12. However, for the individual strategy itself, the result shows that encourage oneself to speak English (AFF40) is the most-frequently used strategies by all learners. This provides us with a clue that most learners lack confidence in speaking English. Furthermore, the strategy trying to relax helps them overcome their problems. This strategy is also used most frequently by all learners.

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Table 4.28: Results of affective strategies used among the group learners

Category AFF39 AFF40

Affective Strategies try to relax Encourage oneself to speak English Give oneself a reward

College Students Mean SD 3.8 4.05 0.94 0.99

English Teachers Mean SD 3.3 3.75 0.94 0.96

Office Workers Mean SD 3.4 4.3 1.09 0.80

AFF41 AFF42

2.8

1.44 1.31

2.9 3.05

1.33 1.09

3.1 3

1.19 1.25

Put a notice when they 3.2 feel tense or nervous Write down their feelings 2.4 in a language learning diary Communicate the feeling 2.5 about learning English to someone

AFF43

1.60

2.4

1.43

2.4

1.43

AFF44

1.12

2.7

1.20

2.8

1.36

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Figure 4.7 Overall results of affective strategies

Based on the six types of affective strategies, almost all the respondents choose the same individual strategies. Lowering anxiety is the strategy that is most-frequently used both by the English teachers and college students. The college students result shows that trying to relax (AFF39) is chosen by 60% of the college students and by 75% by the English teachers. While for the office workers, they only apply one type of affective strategies, i.e., 75% of them choose encourage oneself to speak English. The results of the affective strategies are listed in the table 4.29 up to 4.31.

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Table 4.29 Most frequently affective strategies used by the college students Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total 3 5 9 3 20 15 % 25 % 45 % 15 % 100 % 3 7 6 4 20 15 % 35 % 30 % 20 % 100 % AFF39 % AFF40 %

Table 4.30 Most frequently affective strategies used by the English teachers Answers 1 2 3 4 5 Total AFF39 2 3 9 6 20 % 10.0% 15.0% 45.0% 30.0% 100.0%

Table 4.31 Most frequently affective strategies used by the office workers Answers 2 3 4 5 Total 5 8 7 20 25.0% 40.0% 35.0% 100.0% AFF40 %

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4.2.2.6. The result of social strategies used by each group of learners Social strategies stand as the moderate frequently used strategies furthermore among the three. College students were found to be the least users of these strategies (3.24) and English teachers were found to be the highest users (3.62). Interestingly, the overall result of the individual strategies shows that all the three groups chose SOC45 asking for questions, especially in clarification, whenever they feel unsure about the new information. However, since the opportunity to exposure the language is limited only in the classroom setting, it may explain why the social strategies were only used once in a while. If we examine the previous findings in MET32, it shows that learners have the tendency to focus on other speakers when they speak English but when it comes to exposure to the language, the result shows that they have less interest in that area such as in SOC 46, SOC47, SOC,48, SOC49. This could be occurred because they do not feel confident enough to speak the language with others or probably they are afraid of making mistakes.

Table 4.32 Results of social strategies used among the group learners

Category SOC 45 SOC46

College Students Social Strategies Mean SD ask the other person to slow 4.1 0.87 down or say it again Ask the English speakers to 3.2 1.31 correct them when they talk

English Teachers Mean SD 4.4 0.85 3.5 1.31

Office Workers Mean SD 4.6 0.74 3.3 1.48

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SOC47

Practice English with other 3.3 students

1.20

3.8

1.20

3.9

1.08

SOC48

Ask for help from English 3.1 speakers

1.28

3.3

1.03

2.8

1.49

SOC49 SOC50

Ask questions in English

3.1

0.89 1.38

3.5 3.1

0.88 1.19

3.1 3.2

1.23 1.28

Try to learn about the 2.6 culture of English speakers

Figure 4.8 Overall results of social strategies

The result in social strategies for the college students, table 4.33 shows that 80% of them ask for clarification or verification whether with peers or with the other users of the target language. This strategy is the only one strategy that is used most frequently by the college students.

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Table 4.33 Most frequently social strategies used by the college students Answers 2 3 4 5 Total SOC45 1 3 8 8 20 % 5.0% 15.0% 40.0% 40.0% 100.0%

For the English teachers, the result in table 4.34 shows 85% of them also use the strategy in asking for clarification and 75% ask questions in English. Besides asking questions, more than 50% of the English teachers seem to develop their empathy to the target culture by developing their cultural understanding (SOC50). Table 4.34 Most frequently social strategies used by the English teachers SOC45 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 2 8 9 20 5.0% 10.0% 40.0% 45.0% 100.0% 1 4 9 6 20 5.0% 20.0% 45.0% 30.0% 100.0% % SOC49 % SOC50 2 1 6 8 3 20 % 10.0% 5.0% 30.0% 40.0% 15.0% 100.0%

Social strategies are used most frequently by the office workers and the result shows that almost more than 50% of them apply this strategy. It indicates that 95% of them always ask for clarification every time they do not understand the given information.

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Table 4.35 Most frequently social strategies used by the office workers SOC45 1 2 3 4 5 Total 4 15 20 20 % 75 % 100 % 1 5% % SOC46 2 3 3 2 10 20 % 10 % 15 % 15 % 10 % 50 % 100 % 4 4 7 5 20 20 % 20 % 35 % 25 % 100 % SOC47 %

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Chapter 5 CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study provide a better understanding of the ways ESL learners approach learning. It reveals differences between the three groups of learners: college students, English teachers, and office-workers. A comparison among these groups is expected to promote effective teaching in learning strategies and prevent any obstacles that could impede the progress during the learning process. All language learning strategies covered in the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) were employed by all the group of learners at formal institutions. Some strategies were used at a high level of use, while some others at a medium level of use, and the others at a low level of use. Based on the mean scores of the strategy used either in overall strategy or categories of strategies or individual strategies, it can be concluded that the use of language learning strategies on the SILL can be categorized into a moderate level. The individual learning strategy-used, paying attention when someone uses English is the most employed strategy by all the respondents. This is probably because of the influence of their learning experiences in English when they were in school. Therefore, almost more than half of the total numbers of the respondents are not only paying attention moreover they tend to imitate the way their English teachers use the language.

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Based on the findings, it can also be concluded that learners must have their own strategies in learning a foreign language. They need learning strategies in learning a foreign language because the process of learning itself is not easy to do. Learners do not know the difficult words in foreign language however learning strategies can help us to understand the language easier. It does matter which strategy or combination of strategies one uses: cognitive, metacognitive, social or communication, affective strategy or socio-affective strategy. Learners can choose which one is the best for them. The use of learning strategies helps students become self-regulated language learners because they can use their own variations of learning, but all those things can happen with the teachers help. Teachers help with students difficulties, give clear explanation and solution to every problem, give examples of each strategy, correct errors and become good listeners whenever their students share their difficulty in learning a language.

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REFERENCES:

Chamot, A., et. Al. (1985). Learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students. Language Learning Journal, Vol. 35, 21-43.

Chamot, A. (2005). Academic Success for English Language Learners: Strategies for K-12 Mainstream Teachers pp.87-101, The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA): An Update. In P. A. Richard-Amato & M. A. Snow (Eds.), White Plains, NY: Longman.

Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Green, J.M., & Oxford, R.L. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29/2, 261-297.

Griffiths, Carol. 2004. Language Learning Strategies: Theory and Research

Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon

Larsen-Freeman, D. & M.H. Long (1991). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. London: Longman.

Lengkanawati, Nenden Sri (1999). EFL Learners' Own Culture and Their Language learning Strategies. TEFLIN International Seminar 1999

Lessard-Cloustan. (1997). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for Second Language Teachers. The Internet TESL Journal, VOL. III.

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Manurung, Konder (2005). Instructing language learning strategies to promote autonomous learning. LIA International Conference 2005. Mistar, Junaidi.2002. Teaching EFL Learners How to Learn. The 50th TEFLIN International Conference: Surabaya

Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H.H. & Todesco, A. (1978). The Good Language Learner. Toronto: Modern Language Centre, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

Oxford, Rebecca. 1990. Language Learning Strategies. Newbury House: New York

Oxford, Rebecca and Crookall, David. 1989. Research on Language Learning Strategies: Methods, Findings, and Instructional Issues. The Modern Language Journal 73 (404-415).

Oxford, R. and Lan, Rae. 2003. Language Learning Strategy profiles of elementary school students in Taiwan. IRAL 41-4 (339-79).

Oxford, R. and Nyikos, M (1989). Variables affecting the choice of language learning strategies by university students. Modern Language Journal 73-3 (291-300) Politzer, R. & McGroarty, M. (1985). An exploratory study of learning behaviors and their relationship to gains in linguistic and communicative competence. TESOL Quarterly, 19/1, 103-123. Rubin, J. (1975). What the good language learner can teach us. Sociolinguistic Aspects of Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford University Press: Oxford

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Stern, H.H. (1975).What can we learn from the good language learner? Canadian Modern Language Review, 31, 304-18.

Weda, Sukardi.2005. English Language Learning Strategies Employed by Senior Secondary School Students. Koalita volume 3, pp.138 142

Wenden, A. L. (1991b). Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall.

Wenden, Anita L.2002. Learner Development in Language Learning. Applied Linguistics Volume 23 number 1 March 2002

Wesche, M. B. (1975). The Good Adult Language Learner : A Study of Learning Strategies and Personality Factors in an Intensive Course. Published Doctoral Dissertation. University of Toronto, Canada.

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APPENDIX THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The Analysis of Language Learning Strategies among the English Language Learners
(Questionnaire form) Dear participant, You are invited to participate in a research project on language learning strategies. The project is being conducted by Magdalena Kartikasari Tandi Rerung, from the Atma Jaya Catholic University majoring Applied English Linguistics. The following questionnaire is conducted in order to investigate the type of English Language Learning among the English learners. Further, the result of this project is going to be published and discussed in my thesis project. All you need to do is complete this questionnaire. There are two parts of questionnaires those are LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES (50 items) and LANGUAGE LEARNING STYLES (4 items). Your participation is voluntary. For your information, responses will be completely anonymous; your name will not appear anywhere on the survey. Finally, thank you for have been participated in this project. I appreciate for your involvement.

Sincerely,

Magdalena Kartikasari T.R.

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Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) Version 5.1 R. Oxford, 1989 Please choose your answer between the number 1 up to 5 (Separated answer sheet)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Never true of me: also includes 'almost never true of me'- it doesn't happen very often in your learning behaviour Usually not true of me: it happens occasionally in your learning behaviour Somewhat true of me: it happens in a fairly regular pattern in your learning behaviour Usually true of me: it happens regularly and represents an obvious pattern in your learning behaviour Always true of me: also includes 'almost always true of me'- it happens almost all the time and represents a strong pattern in your learning behaviour

Part A 1. I think of the relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English. 2. I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them. 3. I connect the sound of an English word and an image or picture of the world to help me remember the word. 4. I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation in which the word might be used. 5. I use rhymes to remember new English words. 6. I use flashcards to remember new English words. 7. I physically act out new English words. 8. I review English lessons often. 9. I remember the new words or phrases by remembering their location on the page, on the board, or on a street sign. Part B 1. I say or write new English words several times. 2. I try to talk like native English speakers. 3. I practice the sounds of English. 4. I use the English word I know in different ways. 5. I start conversations in English.

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6. I watch English language TV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English. 7. I read for pleasure in English. 8. I write notes, messages, letters, or reports in English. 9. I first skim an English passage (read over the passage quickly) then go back and read carefully. 10. I look for words in my own language that are similar to new words in English. 11. I try to find patterns in English. 12. I find the meaning of an English word by dividing it into parts that I understand. 13. I try not to translate word-for-word. 14. I make summaries of information that I hear or read in English. Part C 1. To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses. 2. When I can't think of a word during a conversation in English, I use gestures. 3. I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English. 4. I read English without looking up every new word. 5. I try to guess what the other person will say next in English. 6. If I can't think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing. Part D 1. I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English. 2. I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better. 3. I pay attention when someone is speaking English. 4. I try to find out how to be a better learner of English. 5. I plan my schedule so I have enough time to study English. 6. I look for people I can talk to in English. 7. I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English. 8. I have clear goals for improving my English skills. 9. I think about my progress in learning English.

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Part E 1. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English. 2. I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake. 3. I give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English. 4. I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am studying English. 5. I write down my feelings in a language learning diary. 6. I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning English. Part F 1. If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or say it again. 2. I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk. 3. I practice my English with other students. 4. I ask for help from English speakers. 5. I ask questions in English. 6. I try to learn about the culture of English speakers.

Your personal information: Name/ Age :_________________________ / ________ Gender :F/M Occupation :_________________________ Experiences in learning English Language: 1. English course: __________year(s) Level:__________________ 2. Other institutions (public schools or at university):_________year(s)

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SILL (Worksheet) Part A 1. _____ 2. ______ 3. ______ 4. ______ 5. ______ 6. ______ 7. ______ 8. ______ 9. ______ Part B 10. ______ 11. ______ 12. ______ 13. ______ 14. ______ 15. ______ 16. ______ 17. ______ 18. ______ 19. _____ 20. ______ 21. ______ 22. ______ 23. ______ Part C 24.______ 25. ______ 26. ______ 27. ______ 28. ______ 29. ______ Part D 30. ______ 31. ______ 32. ______ 33. ______ 34. _____ 35. ______ 36. ______ 37. ______ 38. ______ Part E 39. ______ 40. ______ 41. ______ 42. ______ 43. ______ 44. ______ Part F 45. ______ 46. ______ 47. ______ 48. ______ 49. ______ 50.______