Radiacion Al Inetrior de Los Vehiculos

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The Autonomous Recognition of Left Behind Passengers in Parked Vehicles

Christian Fischer
University of Wuppertal
2011-01-0582
Published 04/12/2011
Thomas Fischer
Delphi Delco Electronics Europe GmbH
Bernd Tibken
University of Wuppertal
Copyright 2011 SAE International doi:10.4271/2011-01-0582
ABSTRACT
The unattended left behind of children in parked vehicles is one of the major causes of lethal or serious injuries to children in non-traffic accidents in the U. S. For this reason Delphi is interested in the development of a low cost left behind occupant recognition so that its safety division launched the evaluation of different approaches for a reliable detection system in 2008. This contribution discusses the sensor evaluation, experiments under different conditions and the classification via data mining algorithms based on two potential approaches. The first one uses high sensitive analogue accelerometers at the car chassis and the second one is based on a pressure mat in the seat. Occupants inside the vehicle produce vibrations at the car chassis which can be monitored by the accelerometers. The needed electronic and different experimental results are explained in regard to an autonomous left behind recognition. Subsequently the experiments with the pressure mat are discussed. This system is appropriated for the determination of the physiological parameters of the seated occupant and is based on a reengineered series product - PODS-B. Its signal processing and the extracted signals are described and the relevance for the following classification paragraph becomes emphasized. Finally the gained information of the evaluated sensing elements is used to rate four different classification methods (k-NN, SVM, J48, PNN). The results are discussed and the proper classifiers are highlighted. Out of this the further development steps are defined and the benefit of the applications is characterized.
INTRODUCTION
Several researches [1,2,3] determined that hyperthermia (heat stroke) is an underestimated risk which can lead to serious injuries or even to death. In the U. S., between 1998 and 2009, 444 left behind children in cars died due to hyperthermia [3]. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) initiated a research [1] which shows that hyperthermia is the second leading cause of death for children in non-traffic fatalities in the U. S. (19.6 %); the first one is backover (49.5 %). Most of these tragedies could be prevented by not leaving children unattended in motor vehicles and 14 states in the U. S. already reacted with a law that prohibits the unattended left behind of children in cars [4, 5]. Most of the car owners/drivers do underestimate how fast and high the temperature inside a vehicle can increase on a normal summer day. A research by Jan Null (San Francisco State University) [3] illustrates the situation and shows how fast a standard vehicle's interior can heat up (Fig. 1,2,3). This simulation describes a parked vehicle at a parking lot on a common summer day. At the beginning an ambient temperature of 80 F is given (Fig. 1). One hour later the passenger compartment is heated up to 123 F (Fig. 2). Figure 3 summarizes the trend of the average difference between the vehicle's interior and the ambient temperature.
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Figure 1. Car temperature at the beginning [3]. The first critical point is reached 10 minutes after the launch of the experiment-based simulation [3]. With an ambient temperature of 80 F it would lead to a temperature inside the vehicle of 100 F which is the beginning of fever for human beings. If there is no possibility to open windows, drink or activate the air condition, every minute inside the car becomes more and more uncomfortable. After 20 minutes the interior temperature reaches the critical body temperature of 109 F which leads to death if the dwell time is too long. The raise of the vehicle's interior temperature is a non-linear function over time and depends on several conditions like car body and interior color or the kind of glass that is used for the windows (e. g. tinted). One of the biggest factors is the color of the passenger compartment's interior [3]. Children are the most endangered occupants, because their bodies abet a fast heat up.
Figure 3. Rising temperature inside the vehicle's passenger compartment [3]. The first reason is that the childish body is still learning to control its core temperature and the second reason is based on a physiological condition called surface-area-to-volume ratio (SA:V). The
(1) of an object describes the ratio of its body surface area to its volume. It lowers with the raise of the volume of an object. The surface of a human being is correlated to its absorbed heat or cold, therefore objects with more volume (adults) need a longer time to be heated up than objects with less volume (children) under the same conditions. Out of it the risk of serious injuries due to external heat influences is even higher for children. Unattended children and older grown-ups are not able to help themselves out of this health threatening situation; a left behind detection would be able to call assistance. Initiated by the described circumstances and requests by customers Delphi's safety division started the development of a left behind occupant recognition in 2008. The presented approach describes the use of accelerometers directly mounted at the car chassis to fulfill the task of a left behind occupant detection. An additional sensing element is evaluated in regard to improve the detection reliability of the target system. At the beginning a short explanation of the used test car and its vibration characteristics in the observed frequency domain is given. Afterwards the tremor of human beings as vibration source is characterized. Based on this, the accelerometer assembly and its signal processing are explained. Also the compensation of external disturbances by passing heavy traffic is exemplarily shown. The second sensing element is based on a series produced silicon oil filled bladder mat (PODS-B) which normally measures the applied loading force on the equipped seat. A modified use of
Figure 2. Car temperature after one hour [3].
the bladder, its signal processing path and the extracted physiological signals become characterized. For the extraction of a pulse equivalent value the Hilbert transform is shortly explained and applied to the monitored pressure information. The given laboratory assemblies are tested under different conditions (e. g. changing tire pressure, running engine) and the monitored data is analyzed in regard to an autonomous recognition via data mining algorithms. This is the basis for the following classification paragraph. First the compared algorithms (k-NN, SVM, J48 and PNN) and their characteristics are specified. The use of the feature extraction to compress the sensor information leads to a correlationbased ranking (CFS) of the feature space. Finally the results of four classifiers (k-NN, SVM, J48 and PNN) on three different sensing combinations are compared and further development areas are defined.
tire and its mass (C1, m1) build the basis for the suspension (C2, k2) and the proportionate mass of a quarter of the car chassis (m2). On top is the passengers mass (m3) seated on the passenger seat represented by its spring and damper constants (C3, k3). Many investigations into the occurring natural frequencies and their effects on the passengers were done by car manufacturers.
INVESTIGATED SENSING APPROACHES ACCELEROMETERS AT THE CAR CHASSIS

In prior experiments [6, 7] it was discovered that information about the occupancy status of a vehicle can be extracted from its chassis vibrations measured with accelerometers. Figure 4 displays schematically the main components and their locations at the test car. The chosen locations of the three accelerometers have different positions in reference to the center of mass of the car which is nearby the position of the data acquisition (marked in Fig. 4). It is the pivot point of the vibrating system. Figure 5. Mass-spring-damper abstraction of a quarter of a car [11]. The main frequencies up to 15 Hz are summarized in figure 6. The natural frequency of human beings also represents the frequency range of the highest sensitivity to external vibrations of a person [11]. A seat's transfer function has an attenuating character above 5 Hz. The frequency characteristics of the mentioned system support the propagation of the vibration produced by an occupant.
Figure 6. Occurring natural frequencies of a car up to 15 Hz [11]. Figure 4. Accelerometer locations at the test vehicle [8]. In a strict abstraction every vehicle can be represented by mass-spring-damper systems to gain information of the possible natural frequencies of the observed system [9, 10]. Figure 5 shows the schematic of one tire and its suspension in a mass-spring-damper abstraction. The spring constant of the Preliminary tests with a setup car resulted in a measurable signal produced by a person seated in the parked car. This is based on a phenomenon which is medically known as human tremor. It is an unintentional, rhythmic, oscillating muscle movement which cannot be suppressed by the individual itself [12]. This and the fact that it is provided by every
healthy person makes it interesting for the development of a left behind occupant detection.
signals to prepare the extraction of the occupancy information of the observed vehicle.
ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS AT THE CAR CHASSIS

Based on this assembly, different scenarios for occupancy and parking conditions were defined and tested (e. g. parking situations, tire pressure, vehicle loading). The tests confirmed the prior theoretical considerations about the vehicle's vibration behavior and pointed the actual system boundaries out. Most interesting were the tests with different occupants in the vehicle. A decrease of the signal magnitude in correlation with the decline of the muscle mass of the test person (Adult Child Baby) was observed. In case of a motionless sleeping infant seated in its child seat a temporary signal loss was monitored (approx. 10 % of all sleeping baby measurements). A partial signal loss can be compensated by longer measuring periods or a confidence filter at the end of the classification decision to get a more stable and reliable system answer. Another critical situation for a vibration-based occupant detection is while external disturbances interfere. In the case of the requested application this is given by passing heavy traffic directly nearby the parked car. This led to a misinterpretation of the spectra in the frequency domain (cp. Fig. 8). To determine the disturbances by passing heavy traffic several signal transforms are used, like the Wavelet Transform (WT) or the Short-Term Fourier Transform (STFT). In figure 10 the tremor produced frequency is constant over time, instead of this the disturbances produced by passing heavy traffic (Fig. 9) show peaks sharp in time. Based on the given experimental setup and the gained results of several tests the use of a second input by another sensor was studied. This approach presents a potential second sensor for the requested occupant classification task by using a silicon filled bladder mat. This limits the observed range of our classification approach up to 15 Hz. Founded on this information different experimental setup vehicles were built up. The mentioned system consists basically of three high sensitive analogue accelerometers directly mounted to the car chassis which are located at the front, mid and rear of the car (Fig. 3). They convert the vibration signals of the car chassis into analogue voltages with a resolution of 1,200 mV/g (g= 9.81 m/s2). Before they are simultaneously digitized by a 16-Bit Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC) the signals become amplified and band-pass filtered (pass-band approx. 150 Hz). With a sample rate of 1,024 samples per second over a sampling period of 10 seconds the ADC provides a time discrete vector per sensor for the further processing of the signals. Digital filters preprocess the gained time-domain
Figure 7. Frequency spectrum of a human tremor directly measured at the body of a test person [13]. Figure 7 displays the frequency spectrum produced by a healthy human tremor which is taken directly at the body of a test person [13]. The most important information in figure 7 is that the tremor produces a peak at approximately 4 Hz. A healthy human being has got a signal frequency between 4 and 12 Hz [12]. Medically the normal human tremor frequency spectrum is classified as mid- or high-frequency tremor (Table 1) and considers frequencies between 4 and 15 Hz. Table 1. Medical classification of human tremor frequencies [12, 14].
PRESSURE SENSING IN THE SEAT

The second sensing unit is based on the Passive Occupant Detection System (PODS-B, Fig. 11). This system is designed to classify the occupant seated in the front passenger seat for potential airbag suppression [15]. It normally consists of a pressure sensor, bladder assembly, seat belt tension sensor and an Electronic Control Unit (ECU). The sensing system detects the loading force on the equipped seat and classifies the seat as empty or the occupant as an adult or infant/child. This information is used to disable parts of the airbag in case of a detected child seated in the front passenger seat to reduce the potential for inflation-induced injuries or fatalities to children. PODS-B is developed to
Figure 8. Spectra at a very busy road (top: Empty Car, bottom: Occupied Car) [7].
Figure 9. Accelerometer signal of the empty vehicle in STFT domain (see Fig. 8) [8]. fulfill the requirements of the advanced airbag regulation defined by the FMVSS 208 (Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard for Occupant Crash Protection) [15] and it is a series product since 2001. In this operation mode only the DC information of the pressure signal is processed by the ECU. Nevertheless also the AC signal provides further information about the occupant on the seat that can be used to extract heartbeat and respiration movement as shown in [16]. For the use in the mentioned application the seat belt tension sensor and the ECU are not needed. Instead of the ECU a special data acquisition unit, which was specially designed for the extraction of the physiological parameters, is used. It consists
Figure 10. Accelerometer signal of the occupied vehicle in STFT domain (see Fig. 8) [8].
Figure 11. PODS-B assembly. mainly out of different band-pass filters and amplifiers. The preprocessed pressure information is analogue-to-digital converted with a sample-rate of 1,024 samples per second over a measurement period of 10 seconds. Afterwards a second stage of signal processing by digital filters and transformations takes place to get a heartbeat and respiration rate equivalent frequency value. These were prepared with preliminary measured heartbeat and respiration movement which were monitored directly at test persons and the available medical frequency ranges (Table 2). Table 2. Medical frequency range of heartbeat and respiration [17].
Figure 12 shows the breathing magnitude of a sleeping nine month old child. This signal was taken by a laser sensor unit which measures the movement of the chest due to respiration. The average period length is approximately 2.5 s long and
Figure 12. Respiration movement of a sleeping infant sensed by a laser distance sensor (0.4 Hz
24 breaths per minute) [8].
Figure 13. Heartbeat measured with an accelerometer directly at the carotid artery of a test person (1.06 Hz minute) [8]. shows a peak at 0.4 Hz in the frequency domain which is equal to 24 breaths in a minute. The range of breaths per minute is between 12 and 70 breaths. Out of this a frequency range of 0.2 to 1.2 Hz has to be observed. The heartbeat was also taken from a test person to get more information about the characteristics of the expected signal. The monitored person had a rest pulse of 64 beats per minute (Fig. 13). A range between 45 and 200 beats per minute for healthy human beings has to be expected (Table 2). This means that a signal between 0.75 and 3.3 Hz is a reasonable signal for a heartbeat rate. Equipped with this information
64 beats per
about the expected signals several tests with a laboratory assembly took place.
EXTRACTED INFORMATION OUT OF THE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

An extracted respiration movement from the bladder shows similar characteristics (Fig. 14) as mentioned in the prior paragraph. The extraction of the heartbeat was a more challenging task. The signal extracted from the bladder by several filters shows heartbeat equivalent peaks. These peaks were confirmed by an optical pulse sensor at the finger of the test person. The monitored signals are very similar to ECG (electrocardiogram) signals [18]. ECG signals and the extracted heartbeat signals are more complex signals than the
Figure 14. Extracted heartbeat signal from the bladder pressure signal (1.23 Hz 74 beats per minute); PSD of origin pressure signal provides no pulse equivalent value (bottom-right graph) [8]. signals due to breathing movement. To extract a frequency value that is comparable to the pulse, the envelope curve is calculated by using the Hilbert Transform [19, 20]. The Hilbert transform is given by peak is produced at approximately 11 Hz. It is passed by the heartbeat band-pass filter (pass-band: 1030 Hz) and this is the reason why it does add noise to the extracted heartbeat information. Figure 15 displays the extracted envelope curve while the engine runs and the time-domain (left) and also the frequency-domain (right) graph are superposed by the engine. Nevertheless the peak in the spectrum provides information about the heart rate (1.56 Hz 94 beats per minute).
(2) With the help of the Hilbert transform an analytic function (3) can be constructed out of the non-complex time domain signal x(t).
RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATED SENSING APPROACHES

In the previous paragraph the different sensing elements, the expected signals and the gained information out of measurements at an experimental setup car were described. An extraction of heartbeat and respiration movement from a bladder pressure sensor was implemented and the gained signals are comparable to the expected signals which were monitored directly at test persons. The extraction of a pulse equivalent frequency was realized by the use of the Hilbert transform and it can also be applied while the diesel engine is running. Accelerometers mounted to the car body sense vibration signals produced by human tremor. The monitored tremor signals are not directly similar to the ones mentioned in medical publications. This is also founded in the fact that the medical tremor researches measure the signals at the body of the test person whereas the signal path in this approach consists of different mass-spring-damper systems (car seat, car chassis, suspension etc.). The mentioned differences change the appearance in the frequency spectrum, but they do not have an important effect on the value of the frequency peaks produced by the tremor and the following recognition. For an autonomous classification by a computer or an embedded system with a microcontroller the use of data mining algorithms is needed. In the next section four different classification methods are evaluated in reference to a left behind occupant recognition.
(4) is the amplitude function of the analytic signal x+(t) and describes also the envelope function of the signal x(t). This transform does not gain additional information, but it extracts a pulse equivalent frequency value (Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 - top right). For the recorded signals of the pressure sensor such a transform is needed. Without the extraction of the envelope curve the interpretation of the time domain signal leads not to a pulse equivalent frequency value (Fig. 14 - bottom right). Figure 14 displays the error in the frequency domain without the use of the envelope curve (bottom right) in contrast to the correct extracted frequency information (top right) out of the envelope curve. The experimental setup and the extraction of the pulse information via Hilbert were confirmed under different circumstances like a running diesel engine while measuring the front passenger seat. A running diesel produces strong vibrations that also disturb the pressure signals. With an idle-running speed of the engine the first
Figure 15. Extracted heartbeat via the Hilbert transform while the diesel engine is running (Peak at approx. 1.56 Hz per minute).
94 beats
MACHINE LEARNING FOR OCCUPANCY CLASSIFICATION

The signature of the human tremor [12, 13], heartbeat [18] and respiration rate in the Power Spectrum Density (PSD) varies in the number of peaks, their amplitude and frequency values. A simple threshold decision on these values would not provide the accuracy that an every day system needs for a reliable alert function. Because of this it is necessary to train a classifier based on several features (a. k. a. attributes) extracted out of the incoming signals. In this approach a kNearest-Neighbor (k-NN), a Support Vector Machine (SVM), a decision tree based on J48 (based on C4.5 by Ross Quinlan) and a probabilistic neural network (PNN) are compared. For a better understanding of these decision-making algorithms a short explanation is given. The k-Nearest-Neighbor (k-NN) method is classified as lazy learning algorithm [21]. This means that there is no previous training of the classifier needed like it is for others e. g. support vector machines. In case of k-NN, k is the number of nearest neighbors which are considered for the identification of the new measurement's membership (Fig. 16). With the known group membership of the neighbors the probability of the membership for the unknown measurement is determined. This is applied by a majority decision which can be weighted by several distance metrics. The used one in this contribution is the Euclidean distance (Eq. 5)
Figure 16. Principle of classification by k-NN (k=3) [7]. but others like the Mahalanobis distance can also be used. Without the distance weighting an odd k is normally chosen to avoid an impasse [22]. The correct choice of the number of considered neighbors is the main factor for the performance of the k-NN classification [23]. For small k's this algorithm becomes a high sensitivity to disturbances. On the other hand a big k considers too many objects which leads to nonrepresentative decisions. In case of the presented application the best k was chosen by analyzing the accuracy for a k between 1 and 10 (Winner: k = 3). One disadvantage of this classification technique is the increasing need of system requirements for large data sets. The representative measurements have to be saved for the decision finding process, because there is no training phase which extracts a rule. But this method is still considered for the ranking because of its fast decision finding in our experimental approach.
(5)
Another data mining algorithm is given by the Support Vector Machine (SVM) [21]. Its origin is the deterministic optimization and was developed by Vladimir Vapnik and Aleksei Chervonenkis in the 1960s. This decision making process is more complex than the k-NN, but the increasing performance of today's computers makes it possible to calculate support vector machines with more complex kernel functions than only linear ones, which can solve more difficult classification tasks. Before the support vector machine can be applied, it has to be trained. The target function of linear learning is generally defined as
A compromise between the classification by SVM and k-NN is given by the decision tree [21]. Decision trees use a predictive model which maps observations about an object to conclusions about the object's target group/value [21]. It is based on a trained multi-threshold system (Fig. 18).
(6) It describes a scalar product of the new point and the plus an offset . For a binary weighting vector classification the decision is found with the help of the signum function [24, 25] (Eq. 7).
Figure 18. Principle of a decision tree for binary classification. The decision making process begins at a start point and at every conjunction a characteristic feature is compared. A threshold decides which the next compared feature is. This procedure is done until a leaf is reached. Every leaf represents a class. In this contribution a decision tree called J48 is applied which is founded on the C4.5 algorithm developed by Ross Quinlan. After a decision tree is built it becomes pruned to reduce the number of nodes and so reduce the complexity of the tree to the minimum needed level. Past this training phase new data is sorted by the created decision rules until it ends in a leaf node that represents the most possible class for the new measurement. This requires less system performance than the calculation for a complex SVM. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are more biological related methods and the last considered data mining algorithm in the presented contribution.
(7) The SVM is a supervised learning algorithm therefore it has to be trained before a classification is possible. As a result of this training phase a support vector for a subsequent decision process is provided. This vector describes the maximum margin hyperplane between the data sets (Fig. 17).
Figure 17. Principle of SVM in two-dimensional space for a binary classification [7]. A target function (Eq. 6) that provides the maximum margin to both groups is called optimal separating hyperplane. One reason for the rising popularity of support vector machines is the possibility of using non-linear kernels to solve non-linear problems, but in this contribution only a linear kernel is applied. Figure 19. Four layer artificial neural network [7]. These methods are often used in pattern or image recognition applications, because they can build a decision model for very complex non-linear problems. Figure 19 shows a
schematic of a neural network. Many versions of neural networks are available; the used one in this contribution is the Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN). The probabilistic neural network estimates the probability density functions for each class based on the training samples. During the learning (training) process of the network the connections between the neurons get weighted, biased or even deleted. At the end a probabilistic density function for each class depending on the input layer is trained. The decision layer uses the largest vote to predict the target class. Although this classifier is tested in this contribution it would not be applied in an automotive application. Neural networks can achieve high accuracy but the internal process of decision making can not be directly traced. Because of this uncertainty the automotive industry does not use neural networks, especially not for safety devices. For the evaluation of the classifier performance on a given data set many opportunities are available. A common method is the k-fold cross-validation [21]. In a k-fold crossvalidation, the data is randomly split into k mutually exclusive subsets of approximately equal size. The classifier is tested on one of the k subsets and trained by using the remaining k-1 sets. This is executed k times and the results can be summarized in a confusion matrix (Table 3). Table 3. Confusion matrix.
spectra analysis [29, 30]. The gained compressed information of the measurement is combined to one feature vector, and the dimension of the vector (number of attributes) describes the dimension of the classification space. For a reliable classification a lot of measurements under different conditions had to take place to be able to reconstruct a general rule for decision. To ensure that the interpretation of the distance in the feature space gains only information about the separability the attribute vectors are normalized, otherwise the large spread between the features could lead to a misinterpreted separation. The dimension of 196 features provides a large classification space, but it does not lead to a perfect classifier. Too many features can decrease the accuracy of the decision made by the used algorithm, because of occurring ambiguity. This and also the interest in small feature spaces to reduce the needed amount of system requirements induced a ranking of all features to gain the smallest space with the highest separation. The used attribute evaluator is a Correlation-based Feature Selection (CFS). It filters the attributes on good correlation to the membership and worse correlation to the other attributes. To create a qualified subset out of the given feature pool, the first best of the evaluated features are chosen in a forward direction search through the ranked attributes. This leads to an enormous reduced dimension of the classification space and to a stable or increasing accuracy with decreasing processing time.
The confusion matrix categorizes the data in the known correct membership in the first row. In our case 1 represents an occupied and 0 an empty test vehicle. The first column from the left marks the states 1 or 0 predicted by the used classifier. Correct classified measurements are displayed as true positives and true negatives, so that an
(8) out of this table can be calculated. Due to the described sample rate of 1,024 samples per second and a used sample period of 10 seconds, one measurement produces 5 time series each of them 10,240 items long. These arrays provide also unnecessary information, so that a feature extraction [26] on the data is done, which compresses the needed information to a useable amount. The array of 510,240 items per measurement is transferred to a vector with 196 values (features) per measurement. This is realized by the use of transforms like FFT, STFT, Wavelet Transform [27, 28], Hilbert Transform [19, 20] and statistical computations like bispectral analysis and other higher order Figure 20. Different Measurement Configurations. Based on the data of measurements under several conditions (more than 1,500, Fig. 20) with the introduced setup car, the different stages of classifier evaluation took place. After the extraction and normalization of the features, a CFS ranking was applied and every new feature set was evaluated in a 10fold cross-validation. This process led to a feature space of 22 features (CFS minimum 80 %) for the combined information of both sensing elements with an average classification accuracy of 99.51 % with k-NN. The fusion of the
information of the two sensing elements is realized in the attribute space. Figure 21 displays the comparison of the different sensing combinations and the four classification algorithms on equal sized feature spaces.
examination some signals are exemplarily displayed and discussed. An identification of disturbances due to passing heavy traffic is shown and the actual system boundary sleeping infant in child seat - is determined. With the second sensing approach, based on the PODS-B system, the extraction of heartbeat and respiration movement was shown. Subsequently the used classifier evaluation methods are explained and a feature extraction and the ranking of the classification space are illustrated. On this basis four different classifiers are applied and their performance on more than 1,500 measurements with the test car is compared. The best results are achieved by the k-Nearest-Neighbor algorithm. Only the support vector machine gained comparable accuracies and on the accelerometer-based feature space it was even 0.1 % better than the k-NN. Both sensing systems will be considered in the future, but the accelerometers are the preferred sensors for the left behind occupant recognition in parked cars because of their ability to monitor the whole car. The gained bladder information of heartbeat and respiration of the seated occupant is more interesting for the surveillance of the occupant's/driver's health state. Because of this it will be tested if the information of these physiological parameters is still available during driving situations to implement a Driver State Monitor (DSM). One of the next steps in the further development process of the left behind occupant recognition will be the implementation of the accelerometer, its signal processing and a reliable classifier into an embedded environment to reach the next stage of a series product development. These considerations also include the realization of a single sensor system which will reduce the noise due to the signal path length.
Figure 21. Classifier accuracy on the possible sensing combinations. The classification based on the information of only one sensing element led to an average accuracy of 99.8 % in case of the sensing bladder mat and to an average accuracy of 97.84 % in case of the accelerometers as input and a classification by k-NN. This is an improvement to prior researches [6, 7] of approximately 10 % which was achieved by new features and the recursive ranking and selection of the used feature space. The second leading classifier for the mentioned application is given by the support vector machine (SVM). It delivers stable results (approx. 99.2 %) on the classification space based on bladder and combined features. Only the decision finding on the accelerometer data is less accurate (97.91 %). The additional tested PNN provides its best result on the acceleration feature space (approx. 95.7 %). Worst accuracy can be observed in context with the decision tree based on the bladder data (90 %). The k-NN based classification on the bladder data achieved the highest accuracy, but at the moment only the front passenger seats in the U. S. are equipped with these sensors. Persons that are not seated on a seat with a bladder mat are not seen by the system, whereas the accelerometers can monitor the whole car. Even persons lying motionless on the backseat of the test vehicle were detected.
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CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

The presented approach shows that the recognition of left behind occupants in parked cars can be realized by using both or even one of the introduced sensing elements. It describes both sensors and their processed signals until the recorded time series are transformed into a set of features. During this
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CONTACT INFORMATION
Christian Fischer cfischer@uni-wuppertal.de Thomas Fischer thomas.fischer@delphi.com
Bernd Tibken tibken@uni-wuppertal.de
HT Hilbert Transform J48 Decision Tree based on C4.5 by Ross Quinlan k-NN k-Nearest Neighbor
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by Delphi Delco Electronics Europe GmbH in Wuppertal, Germany.
DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS
AC Alternating Current ADC Analogue-to-Digital Converter ANN Artificial Neural Network CFS Correlation-based Feature Selection DC Direct Current DSM Driver State Monitor ECG Electrocardiogram ECU Electronic Control Unit FFT Fast Fourier Transform FMVSS 208 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard for Occupant Crash Protection FN False Negative FP False Positive WT Wavelet Transform SVM Support Vector Machine STFT Short-Term Fourier Transform SA:V Surface-Area-to-Volume ratio TP True Positive TN True Negative NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration PNN Probabilistic Neural Network PODS-B Passive Occupant Detection System, generation B PSD Power Spectral Density
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Radiacion Al Inetrior de Los Vehiculos

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The Autonomous Recognition of Left Behind Passengers in Parked Vehicles

Figure 2. Car temperature after one hour [3].

INVESTIGATED SENSING APPROACHES ACCELEROMETERS AT THE CAR CHASSIS

ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS AT THE CAR CHASSIS

PRESSURE SENSING IN THE SEAT

24 breaths per minute) [8].

EXTRACTED INFORMATION OUT OF THE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATED SENSING APPROACHES

MACHINE LEARNING FOR OCCUPANCY CLASSIFICATION

CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

Bernd Tibken tibken@uni-wuppertal.de

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