INTRODUCTION 1.

Heat Transfer
In the simplest terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with only two things, namely temperature and flow of heat. Temperature is the thermodynamic property which represents the amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy from place to place. On microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to kinetic energy of molecules. The greater a materials temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its constituent molecules (manifested both in linear motion and vibration modes). It is natural for regions containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this energy to regions with less kinetic energy. Several material properties serve to modulate the heat transferred between two regions at different temperatures. Examples include thermal conductivities, specific heat, material densities, fluid velocities, fluid viscosities, surface emissivity and more. Taken together, these properties serve to make the solution of many heat transfer problems an involved process. The transfer of heat is normally from a high temperature object to a lower temperature object. Heat transfer changes the internal energy of both systems involved according to First law of Thermodynamics.

Fig.1.1 Different modes of Heat Transfer

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Heat transfer mechanism can be grouped into three broad categories:1. Conduction 2. Convection 3. Radiation Conduction and radiation are fundamental physical mechanism while convection is really conduction as affected by fluid flow.

1.1 Conduction
Conduction is heat transfer by means of molecular agitation within a material without any motion of the material as a whole. If one end of a metal rod is at a higher temperature, then energy will be transferred down the rod toward the colder end because the higher speed particles will collide with the slower ones with a net transfer of energy to the slower ones. For heat transfer between two plane surfaces, such as heat loss through the wall of a house, the rate of conduction heat transfer is:

Q/t= kA (Thot - Tcold)/d

Fig.1.2 Conduction heat transfer

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1.1.1 Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction

The necessary condition for conduction to take place is the presence of temperature gradient. The relationship between the rate of heat flow and temperature gradient can be established using Fouriers law.

It states that the rate of heat flow due to conduction in any direction is directly proportional to the temperature gradient present in that direction.

So for the rate of heat flow in X direction we can write

=
Introducing the constant of proportionality

= -K

Where, Qx= the rate of flow of energy in x direction ( j/s or watt) A = the area normal to the direction of heat flow ( dt/dx = temperature gradient in x direction (k/m or ) )

K= constant of proportionality and is called thermal conductivity of the material (w/m-k or w/m- )

The negative sign shows that heat always flow in the direction of decreasing temperature. Hence the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow is negative. In Cartesian coordinate system for the heat flow in x direction the Fouriers equation is = -K

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In the cylindrical or spherical system for the radial heat flow we can write = -K

1.1.2 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the property of material which indicates the of the of the material to conduct heat Rearranging Fouriers equation we get

Thus thermal conductivity is defined as the rate of flow of heat flux obtained because of unit temperature gradient.

1.2 Convection
Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as air or water when the heated fluid is caused to move away from the source of heat, carrying energy with it. Convection above a hot surface occurs because hot air expands, becomes less dense, and rises. Hot air is likewise less dense than cold air and rises, causing convection currents which transport energy. Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by the movement of fluids or gases. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Two types of convective heat transfer may be distinguished: Free or natural convection: when fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that result from the density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. In the absence of an external source, when the fluid is in contact with a hot surface, its molecules separate and scatter, causing the fluid to be less dense. As a consequence, the fluid is displaced while the cooler fluid gets denser and the fluid sinks. Thus, the hotter volume transfers heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid.

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Forced convection: When a fluid is forced to flow over the surface by an external source such as fans, by stirring, and pumps, creating an artificially induced convection current.

Q/t= hA (Tsurface Tsurrounding)

Where,

Q is the thermal energy in joules. h is the heat transfer coefficient (assumed independent of T here).

Fig.1.3 Convective heat transfer Convection can also be classified on the basis on flow condition. They are: Internal Flow: Internal flow occurs when a fluid is enclosed by a solid boundary such when flowing through a pipe. In pipes, turbulent flow has been traditionally assumed to occur at values of the Reynolds number of about 2300. But that value depends on the smoothness of the pipe. The fluid velocity is zero at the wall and maximum at the center line. External Flow: An external flow occurs when a fluid extends indefinitely without encountering a solid surface. An example of external flow is fluid flowing along a flat surface in which the boundary layer is small relative to the distance to any other surface. The flow region is bounded by a solid surface on one side and

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viscous flow on the other. Though in theory the fluid velocity increases from 0 at the wall to a free stream value at infinity, in reality it reaches approximately the free stream velocity relatively close to the wall. Laminar flow can be present up to large Reynolds numbers based on distance from the leading edge. Both of these types of convection, either natural or forced, can be internal or external because they are independent of each other. The bulk, or the average fluid temperature, is a convenient reference point for evaluating properties related to convective heat transfer.

1.3 Radiation
Radiation heat transfer is concerned with the exchange of thermal radiation energy between two or more bodies. Thermal radiation is defined as electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of 0.1 to 100 microns (which encompasses the visible light regime), and arises as a result of a temperature difference between 2 bodies. No medium need exist between the two bodies for heat transfer to take place (as is needed by conduction and convection). Rather, the intermediaries are photons which travel at the speed of light.

Fig.1.4 Radiation

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LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Hydraulic Diameter

Equations for flow inside ducts and tubes are generally given in terms of the diameter. But practically, a duct may have any cross-section. Hence the duct cross-section must be converted to an equivalent circular cross-section so that the equations can be used for any duct. This diameter of this equivalent circular cross-section is known as hydraulic diameter. It is given by, Dh = 4A/P Where, A = cross-sectional area of the duct P = wetted perimeter of the duct

2.2 Velocity Boundary Layer

In a number of cases, we come across flow over various surfaces. These are examples of external flow and the simplest form is flow over a flat surface. The flat surface introduced in the flowing fluid disturbs the uniform flow field and now, the flow does not remain as free stream flow. It becomes necessary to consider the viscous effects, during the analysis of the case. From this point of view the flow field is divided into two regions. Near the surface: It is known as boundary layer region. Away from the surface: It is known as free stream region. On the basis of the extent of influence of viscous forces in the above regions, we can make some simplifying assumption which will enable us to solve the differential equation of motion. The assumption made is based on a concept known as velocity boundary layer.

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When the fluid flows over a flat plate, at the leading edge, all layers of fluid have the same velocity. But, because of frictional resistance, the layer adjacent to plate comes to rest. The velocity of other layers increases with their distance from the plate and at certain distance it attains maximum value (which is equal to free stream velocity). This region normal to the surface, in which the velocity gradient is present, is known as velocity boundary layer or hydrodynamic boundary layer. The thickness of velocity boundary layer ( ) is defined as the distance normal to the surface in which velocity of layers increases from zero to 99% of the free stream velocity. Velocity boundary layer

Fig.2.1 Velocity Boundary Layer The nature of fluid flow inside the boundary layer depends upon the distance from the leading edge of the plate. Accordingly we can define different regions as: Region of laminar boundary layer: Up to a certain distance from the leading edge, the flow of fluid within the boundary layer is laminar. Hence the region is known as laminar boundary layer. In this region, thickness of boundary layer increases with distance from leading edge. Region of transient boundary layer: Downstream of the laminar boundary layer region, the turbulence gets initiated. The flow no longer remains laminar. The

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thickness of boundary layer decreases abruptly. It is known as transient boundary layer. Region of turbulent boundary layer: Beyond the transient boundary layer region, the flow becomes fully turbulent. The boundary layer seems to be completely vanished. But it is observed that there exists a thin layer over the surface, in which, the flow is laminar. It is known as laminar sub-boundary layer. The thickness of laminar sub-boundary layer is very small and remains constant along the direction of flow. Boundary layer thickness is given by: For laminar flow, = 4.64*x/ = 5*x/
x x

(approximate von-Karman equation)

(exact Blasius equation)

For turbulent flow, = 0.37*x/(Re)0.2

2.3 Thermal Boundary Layer

Heat will flow between a wall and the fluid adjacent to it when a temperature gradient is established between the wall and the fluid. Near the wall the fluid velocity increases from zero at the wall to the bulk velocity, sometimes not too distant from the wall relative to the radius of curvature. Likewise, the temperature changes from that at the wall to that in the free stream. The result is that the fluid temperature adjacent to the wall is assumed to be equal to the surface temperature of the wall at the interface and is equal to the bulk fluid temperature at some point in the fluid. The distance over which the temperature change occurs is called the thermal boundary layer. A momentum boundary layer also is present if the fluid is flowing past the wall. The momentum (hydrodynamic) boundary layer and the thermal boundary layer can affect each other. The distances over which the

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velocity changes from zero to the free stream velocity and the temperature changes from the wall temperature to free stream temperature are often different. The thickness,
t

of thermal boundary layer is typically defined as the distance y from

the plate surface at which the temperature difference between the plate and the fluid vanishes by 99%. is measured at

= 0.9

Fig.2.2 Thermal Boundary Layer.

Thermal boundary layer thickness,

t/

is given by

= 1/(1.026*Pr0.33)

From a corrosion standpoint, the wall temperature or more specifically, the temperature at the wall-fluid boundary is the important parameter driving corrosion. The fluid temperature and even the average temperature in the wall could be vastly different. The two temperatures are related through an equation of the form Q= hA( Tw Tfs)

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Where, Q is the heat transferred through the wall, A is the area through which the heat is transferred, Tfs is the free stream or bulk temperature, Tw is the wall temperature at the fluid-wall boundary, and h is the heat transfer coefficient. The science of heat transfer enables "h", the heat transfer coefficient, to be estimated from the fluid properties and fluid dynamics. Different types of flow conditions which can prevail in a boundary layer. These are:

Laminar Flow
Laminar flow, sometimes known as streamline flow, occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between the layers. At low velocities the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another. There are no cross currents perpendicular to the direction of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluids. In laminar flow the motion of the particles of fluid is very orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe walls.[3] In fluid dynamics, laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion and low momentum convection. The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important parameter in the equations that describe whether flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow. When the Reynolds number is much less than 1, Creeping motion or Stokes flow occurs. This is an extreme case of laminar flow where viscous (friction) effects are much greater than inertial forces.

Fig.2.3 Laminar flow condition.

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 Transitional Flow
Transitional flow, whereby the motion of a fluid changes from laminar to turbulent flow, was successfully identified by Reynolds. It is of considerable importance in determining pressure drop and heat transfer in convective flow.
Predictions are unreliable in the transitional flow regime. In turbulent flow

vortices, eddies and wakes make the flow unpredictable. Turbulent flow happens in general at high flow rates. Shear stress for turbulent flow is a function of the density.

Fig.2.4 Transition flow condition.

Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to laminar flow, in which the fluid moves in smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction. The flow of wind and rivers is generally turbulent in this sense, even if the currents are gentle. The air or water swirls and eddies while its overall bulk moves along a specific direction. Most kinds of fluid flow are turbulent, except for laminar flow at the leading edge of solids moving relative to fluids or extremely close to solid surfaces, such as the inside wall of a pipe, or in cases of fluids of high viscosity (relatively great sluggishness) flowing slowly through small channels.

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Fig.2.5 Turbulent flow condition.

2.4 Characteristic Length

Flow over a flat plate: In this case the dimension of the surface along the direction of fluid is taken as characteristic length. Flow through a duct: In this case the hydraulic diameter of duct is taken as characteristic length. L = Dh = 4*Acs/wetted perimeter Wetted perimeter is the perimeter of cross-section which is associated with the heat transfer surface.Acs is the area of cross-section normal to the direction of the fluid.

2.5 Dimensionless Numbers

2.5.1 Prandtl Number (Pr)
The Prandtl number, usually written as Pr or NPr, is a dimensionless group that provides a measure of the relative thicknesses of the hydrodynamic boundary layer to the heat transfer boundary layer. The value is the quotient of the kinematic viscosity divided by the thermal diffusivity. The thermal diffusivity is itself the product of the thermal

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conductivity of the fluid divided by the product of the density and heat capacity of the fluid. In mathematical terms,

Where, is the kinematic viscosity (cm2/s), is the thermal diffusivity (cm2/s), is the absolute viscosity (g/cm-s), is the density (g/cm3), Cp is the heat capacity (cal/g-deg), k is the thermal conductivity (cal/deg-cm-s).

The physical interpretation of Nusselt number is that it is the ratio of heat transfer rate by convection to heat transfer rate by conduction. Nu = . The higher the diffusivity, the farther into the fluid the effect is felt. Large Prandtl numbers tend to be associated with liquids, small Prandtl numbers tend to be associated with liquid metals, and Prandtl numbers near one tend to be associated with gases.

2.5.2 Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number, usually written a Re or NRe, is a dimensionless group that shows the ratio of convective fluid transport to diffusive fluid transport in the direction of flow. The value is the product of the density, fluid velocity, and characteristic length (e.g. the pipe diameter) divided by the absolute viscosity. In mathematical terms,

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Where, is the density (g/cm3), v is the velocity (cm/s), d is the characteristic dimension (cm) is the absolute viscosity (g/cm-s). Certain values of the Reynolds number demark the boundary between laminar and turbulent flow. Geometry determines the value of that Reynolds number. These values depend somewhat on roughness. The Reynolds number is important in analyzing any type of flow when there is substantial velocity gradient (i.e. shear.) It indicates the relative significance of the viscous effect compared to the inertia effect. The Reynolds number is proportional to inertial force divided by viscous force. The flow is laminar when Re < 2300 transient when 2300 < Re < 4000 turbulent when 4000 < Re

2.5.3 Nusselt Number

The Nusselt number usually written as Nu or NNu is a dimensionless group that shows the relative sizes of the convective heat transfer coefficient in the fluid to the thermal conductivity of the fluid. It includes a characteristic dimension of the geometry, for example the diameter of a pipe, the hydraulic radius of an annulus or the distance from the front of a flat plate. The value is the quotient of the product of the convective heat transfer coefficient and the characteristic dimension divided by the thermal conductivity. In mathematical terms,

Where, h is convective heat transfer coefficient (cal/cm2-s-deg), l is the characteristic dimension (cm),

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k is the thermal conductivity (cal/deg-cm-s). The physical significance of Prandtl number is that it is the ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity. Pr = =

It provides a measure of relative effectiveness of momentum and energy transport by diffusion in velocity and thermal boundary layers, respectively. This number is often calculated from a correlation with the Reynolds number and Prandtl number. In physical terms, this dimensionless group shows the ratio of the heat transfer by convection to heat transfer by molecular conduction.

2.5.4 Rayleigh Number

In fluid mechanics,the Rayleigh number for a fluid is a dimesionless number associated with buoyancy driven flow (also known as free convection or natural convection).When the Rayleigh number is below the critical value for that fluid,heat transfer is primarily in the form of conduction; when it exceeds the critical value , heat transfer is primarily in the form of convection. The Rayleigh number is defined as the product of the Grashoff number, which describes the relationship between buoyancy and viscosity within a fluid, and the Prandtl number, which describes the relationship between momentum diffusivity and thermal diffusivity. Hence the Rayleigh number itself may be viewed as the ratio of buoyancy and viscosity forces times the ratio of momentum and thermal diffusivities. For free convection near a horizontal wall, this number is; Ra= Gr.Pr

Where, Gr= Grashoff number Pr= Prandtl number

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2.5.5 Archimedes Number

An Archimedes number Ar used to determine the motion of fluids due to density differences is a dimensionless number in the form:

Where,
g = gravitational acceleration = density of the fluid, kg/m3 = density of the body, kg/m3 = dynamic viscosity , kg/ms L = characteristic length of the body, m

When analyzing potentially mixed convection of a fluid of a liquid, the Archimedes number parameterizes the relative strength of free and forced convection by representing the ratio of Grashoff number and the square of Reynolds number. This represents the ratio of buoyancy and inertial forces, which stands in for the contribution of natural convection. When Ar >>1, natural convection dominates and when Ar<<1, forced convection dominates.

2.6 Entrance Length

A fluid need some length to develop the velocity profile after entering the pipe or after passing through components as bends, valves, pumps, turbines or similar.

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The entrance length can be expressed with the dimensionless Entrance Length Number expressed as El = le / d Where, El = Entrance Length Number le = length to fully developed velocity profile (m, ft) d = tube or duct diameter (m, ft)

Entrance Length Number for Laminar Flow The Entrance length number correlation with the Reynolds Number for laminar flow can be expressed as: Ellaminar = 0.06 Re

Entrance Length Number for Turbulent Flow The Entrance length number correlation with the Reynolds Number for turbulent flow can be expressed as: Elturbulent = 4.4 Re1/6

2.7 Dimple Theory

FORCED convection laminar flows in parallel-plate channels have been widely studied in recent decades. This problem is encountered in applications such as compact heat exchangers and electronic equipment packages that are involved with space or weight limitations. In most parallel-plate channels, the flow is laminar due to small channel dimensions and low fluid velocities and as a result heat transfer coefficient is very low. A typical method to enhance this insufficient heat transfer rate is to install transverse ribs normal to the main flow. These ribs interrupt the hydrodynamic boundary layer periodically, add surface area, generate secondary flows and vortexes, and increase flow velocity by decreasing the channel width. It is clear that the enhancement in heat transfer

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rate is extremely dependent on the arrangement of the ribs and to some extent, on the geometric properties of them. The inward protruding elements generally increase pressure drop drastically. Thus, in recent years, in design of thermal systems, there has been an increasing tendency to attach arrays of transverse cavities pointing outward onto the walls of parallel-plate channels. The reason is that the increase in undesirable pressure drop in dimpled channels is generally lower compared to the ribbed ones and this is due to more self structured motion of the fluid in cavities. Heat transfer in these dimpled channels is enhanced due to periodic interruptions of thermal boundary layers and also improvement in lateral mixing by disruption of the shear layer, separation of the bulk flow, formation of recirculating flows, and thus destabilization of the transversal vortices in the dimples. There are plentiful studies on fluid flows and heat transfer characteristics in the parallel plate channels with periodically dimpled parts. The influence of channel height, showed that when this value is larger than the dimple depth, the dependence of heat transfer enhancement on channel height can be ignored. Heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop are lower in dimpled channels. There exists an optimum value for the ratio of cavity depth to cavity print diameter in which the largest heat transfer rate from the wall is achieved.

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LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1. .A.Witry, M.H Al-Hajeri, All A Bondok (2003) studied fluid flow and heat transfer in patterned roll-bonded aluminum plate radiators. The Aluminum roll-bonding technique widely used in manufacturing the cooling compartments for domestic refrigeration units is one of the cheapest methods for heat exchanger manufacturing for internal flow, heat transfer augmentation caused by the repetitive impingement against the dimple obstructions renders such geometries equal to those of aerospace industry pin-fins whilst lowering pressure drops due to cross-sectional areas.

3.2. Ph. Grenard ; V. Quintilla-Larroya ; E. Laroche (2007) studied Heat Transfer on a Dimpled Surface with CEDRE code. The numerical study performed with the CEDRE code, developed at ONERA, to predict heat transfer on a dimpled surface placed on one wall of a rectangular channel. Various models of turbulence are tested on three basic configurations. The comparison between numerical results and experimental Nusselt profiles shows that the k model implemented in CEDRE is the most appropriate to predict heat transfer. A parametric study is performed with this turbulence model to determine the effects of Reynolds number, dimple depth and dimple shape on heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop.

3.3. Ph. Grenard ; V. Quintilla-Larroya (2007) studied Numerical Study of Heat Transfer on a Dimpled Surface with CEDRE code. They conclude that influence of dimple depth and shape in term of structural behaviour for the materials.

3.4. Mohammad A. Elyyan (2008) studied Heat Transfer Augmentation Surfaces

Using Modified Dimples/Protrusions. He presented direct and large eddy

simulations of a wide range of heat augmentation surfaces roughened by modified dimples/protrusions.

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3.5. J. Turnow, N. Kornev (2009) studied Vortex-jet mechanism in a Channel with spherical Dimples for heat transfer augmentation. They conclude that Proper Orthogonal Decomposition Analysis reveals dominating structures inside dimples. 3.6. Jorge R. Lara, Mark T. Holtzapple (2009) studied heat transfer in dimpled-sheet heat exchangers with hydrophobic coating. Heat measured in vertical transfer coefficients were

dimpled-sheet heat exchangers. The dimpled sheets were

mounted in a sealed two-chamber apparatus with condensing saturated steam on one side and boiling liquid water on the other. The steam-side heat transfer mechanism was condensing saturated steam with either filmwise or dropwise condensation.The plate was made of dimpled 0.030-in- thick naval brass 464 that was roughened on the liquid side to promote nucleation. The metal surface was either bare (filmwise

condensation) or coated with a robust, inexpensive proprietary hydrophobic coating (dropwise condensation). Steam shearing on the condensing surface enhanced the overall heat transfer coefficient by 1.6 times and forced liquid convection increased it by additional 1.4 times. Interestingly, excessive shearing steam reduced the overall heat transfer coefficient. Presumably, this occurred because a film formed that

increased the thermal resistance across the plate and disrupted the dropwise condensation mode.

3.7. Hossein Shokouhmand , Mohammad A. Esmaeili,(2011) studied Numerical Simulation of Conjugated Heat Transfer Characteristics of Laminar Air Flows in ParallelPlate Dimpled Channels . The results showed an increase in strength of vortexes in cavities as the relative depth approaches to the value of 0.2. Because of the formation of these vortices, an enhancement in the local wall heat flux is observed especially in the downstream of each dimple.

3.8. Sandeep S. Kore, Satishchandra V. Joshi, Narayan K.Sane (2011) studies heat transfer and friction coefficient by dimpled surface. The aspect ratio of rectangular channel is kept 4:1 and Reynolds number based on hydraulic diameter is varied from 10000 to 40000.

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EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
3

1 2 5

4 6

Fig.4.1(a) Experimental Set-Up

4. COMPONENTS
1. Flow Control Valve 2. Blower 3. Duct Covered With Insulation 4. Plate 5. Digital Temperature Indicator 6. Plate Heater 7. Digital Wattmeter 8. Dimmer-stat

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Fig.4.1 (b) Actual Experimental Set-Up

COMPONENT DETAILS
4.1. FLOW CONTROL VALVE The flow control valve regulates the flow or pressure of air. A ball type flow control valve is used in the experiment. Ball valve is a valve with a spherical disc, the part of the valve which controls the flow through it. The sphere has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is in line with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. Ball valves are durable and cheap and usually work to achieve perfect shut off. The flow control valve used in the experiment is ball valve with plastic body. Its internal diameter is 40 mm.

Fig.4.2 Flow Control Valve

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4.2. BLOWER A blower is a mechanical device for moving air with a big increase in pressure. These blowers increase the speed of air stream with the rotating impellers. The centrifugal fan uses the centrifugal power generated from the rotation of impellers to increase the pressure of air/gases. When the impellers rotate, the gas near the impellers is thrown-off from the impellers due to the centrifugal force and then moves into the fan casing. As a result the gas pressure in the fan casing is increased. The gas is then guided to the exit via outlet ducts. After the gas is thrown-off, the gas pressure in the middle region of the impellers decreases. The gas from the impeller eye rushes in to normalize this pressure. This cycle repeats and therefore the gas can be continuously transferred. Centrifugal fans accelerate air radially, changing the direction of the airflow. They are sturdy, quiet, reliable, and capable of operating over a wide range of conditions. Specifications: Type Make Current Power Discharge - Centrifugal type blower. - Kulkarni Power Tool Ltd. - 1.6 Amps - 350 Watts - 1710 liters per mins

Fig.4.3 Blower

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4.3. DUCT The duct is used to isolate the air given out by the blower. It is made up of galvanized iron sheet. Thermal conductivity (k):-18 W/m-K. Insulation on the duct is provided so as to reduce the leakage of heat as well as air from the duct. Polyurethane foam of thickness 20 mm is used to insulate the area near the slot in the duct as higher temperature will prevail in that region because of the plate heater. On the rest of the duct, glass wool blanket of thickness 30 mm is used which entirely encloses the duct and reduces the leakage of heat. Thermal conductivities : Glass-wool Polyurethane foam - 0.04W/mK - 0.023W/mK

Fig.4.4 Duct 4.5. PLATE It is the main component of the experiment. The heat transfer rate is to be measured from the plate. The material used is Mild Steel for the plate. Mild steel is used because of its good thermal conductivity and lesser cost. Melting point temperature 1300 oC Thermal conductivity -54W/m-K

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Specific heat capacity Dimensions

-620J/Kg-K - 150 x 150 x 18 (in mm)

Fig.4.5.1 Geometry of flat plate surface.

Fig.4.5.2 Geometry of dimple surface.

4.6. DIGITAL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR Temperature indicators are used to display the temperature which is measured by the thermocouple. The digital temperature indicator is calibrated before using in the experiment. An 8-channel temperature indicator has been used in the experiment. It consists of ports where the thermocouples ends are connected and temperature is recorded of other ends junction. Max. Operating Temperature 1400 oC

Fig.4.6 Digital Temperature Indicator

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4.7. ELECTRIC PLATE HEATER The plate heater is used to heat the MS plates to the desired temperatures. It is based on Joules effect. It consists of highly resistive coil of some alloys such as nichrome, tungsten etc. When electric current is passed through this, heat is produced due to the resistance of coil. It is given by: Heat produced = I2Rt Where, I = current(in amperes ) R = resistance (in ohm) t = time (in sec)

Specifications: Heating Element Voltage Power - Nichrome coil. - 220 Volts - 800W

Fig.4.7 Electric Plate Heater

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4.8. DIGITAL WATTMETER A digital electronic wattmeter/energy meter samples the voltage and current thousands of times a second. For each sample, the voltage is multiplied by the current at the same instant; the average over at least one cycle is the real power. The real power divided by the apparent volt-amperes (VA) is the power factor. A computer circuit uses the sampled values to calculate RMS voltage, RMS current, VA, power (watts), power factor, and kilowatt-hours. It is used to measure the power supplied to the plate heater. Maximum power rating - 1500 W

Fig.4.8 Digital Wattmeter

4.9.Dimmerstat The dimmer-stat is used to control the output voltage given out to the plate heater. By changing the voltage, the power output of the plate heater can be adjusted. . It has a large copper winding with variable resister attached to it. By moving the knob we can vary the voltage The Dimmer-stat used is standard 10 Amp and have a range of voltage variation from 0-260V. Thus with this we can get a good control over the power being supplied to the heater.

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Fig.4.9 Dimmerstat 4.10. THERMOCOUPLE Thermocouples are widely used for measuring temperatures that can not be easily measured by using a thermometer. Thermocouples are made by joining two dissimilar metals. The joint generates small amount of electric potential. The voltage is in the millivolt (1/1000th of a volt) range. The hot joint goes into a sheath i.e. tube with a closed end. The dissimilar wires come out the other end, where they are connected to a circuit for indicating temperature. They are cheap, interchangeable and have standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. Specifications: Thermocouple type - P type

Range of thermocouple - 0 oC to 1450 oC

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Fig.4.10 Thermocouple

4.11. ANEMOMETER Anemometer basic principle is a thin metal wire on fluid, electricity flow heating wire, make its temperature higher than fluid temperature, so will wire wind speed program called "hotline". When fluid flows along vertical direction when metal wire, metal wire will take part of, the metal wire heat temperature drop. According to forced-air convection heat transfer theory, can be used to deduce hotline dissipating heat with fluid speed v qq in relation between deposit. Standard hotline probe by two root stents tensioner a piece of short and thin metal wire composition. Wire usually use platinum and rhodium, w and melting point, high ductility good metal.

Fig.4.11 Anemometer

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PROCESS SHEET
5 The fabrication of the set up consists of following steps:(a) Manufacturing of duct GI sheet of 0.45 gauge and dimensions of 1200mm x 650mm is used as a base material for the duct. The sheet is given a rectangular cross section of dimensions 205 mm x 105 mm with the help of edge folding machine. Holes of 5 mm diameter are drilled at the ends of the rectangular cross section of the duct on which rivets are used so as to fasten two open ends of the duct. Another GI sheet is used to make a nozzle which provides passage of air from the blower to the duct. The length of the nozzle is 350 mm. The nozzle has a rectangular cross section at the duct side and circular cross section whose diameter is 60 mm at the blower side. It is attached to the duct with the help of rivets. A square slot is cut with the help of a snip tool at the bottom of the duct. The slot is made to insert the plates and heater assembly in the duct. Area of the slot provided is 102mm x 102mm. It is leveled with the help of hammer so as to remove any sharp edges from the surface. Two holes of 5 mm diameter are drilled on either side of the slots so as to take out the thermocouple connections from the plate surface.

Fig.5.1 Sheet Metal Generation of Duct

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Insulation on the duct is provided so as to reduce the leakage of heat as well as air from the duct. Polyurethane foam of thickness 20 mm is used to insulate the area near the slot in the duct as higher temperature will prevail in that region because of the plate heater. On the rest of the duct, glass wool blanket of thickness 30 mm is used which entirely encloses the duct and reduces the leakage of heat.

(b) Manufacturing of dimple plate A mild steel plate of 300mm x 150mm x 18 mm is taken and it is divided into two equal square parts each having an area of 150mm x 150mm with the help of a welding machine. Buffing process was used to improve the surface finish as well as to remove minor rust from the plate surface. The plates were grinded with the help of grinding machine to remove any sharp edges from the plate which was left after the metal cutting process. On one plate, spherical dimples i.e. spherical surface indentations are provided while the other plate is left as it is. Nine dimples are used in a grid of 3 x 3 uniformly distributed over the entire surface of the plate. The radius of curvature of each dimple is 15 mm and its depth is 6mm. Dimples on the surface are created with the help of VMC (Vertical Machining Centre) machining process. The machining was done at a depth of 0.5mm per cutting cycle because of which the machining tolerances are small and it gives a better surface finish of the dimples. (c) Plate and heater assembly The heater used is a plate heater of dimensions same as that of the dimple plate i.e. 150mm x 150mm. The dimple plate is directly kept on the plate heater. An insulating material (wood, in this case) is provided beneath the plate heater. The plate, heater and the insulating material is clamped together and used as a single assembly. This assembly is inserted in the slot which is made on the duct.

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(d) Blower The blower outlet is inserted in the duct assembly inlet. A flow control valve is provided on the blower inlet so as to control the discharge of the blower. (e) Connections The wattage of the plate heater is varied with the help of a dimmer-stat. The heater is connected to a digital wattmeter which is further connected to the dimmer-stat. The digital wattmeter displays the power given to the plate heater by dimmer-stat. Thermocouples are used to measure the temperatures inside the duct. One thermocouple is used to measure the inlet temperature of the air in the duct. Its beaded end is placed near the blower. Similarly another thermocouple is used to measure the outlet temperature of air of the duct. Four thermocouples are used to measure the mean surface temperature of the plates. A calibrated digital temperature indicator is used to display the measured temperature by the thermocouples. The blower, digital wattmeter, digital temperature indicator and dimmer-stat are connected individually to the main supply of 230 Volts.

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Numerical Simulation
6.1 Introduction to CFD Computational system dynamics is the analysis of the systems involving fluid flow, heat transfer and associated phenomenon such as chemical reactions by means of computerbased simulation. The technique is very powerful and spans a wide range of industrial and non-industrial applications areas. Some examples are: aerodynamics of aircrafts and vehicles, hydrodynamics of ships, combustion, turbo machinery, electrical and electronic engineering, chemical process engineering, external and internal environment of buildings, marine engineering, environmental engineering, hydrology and oceanography, metrology, biomedical engineering etc. More recently the methods have been applied to the design of microchannels, multiphase analysis. Increasingly CFD is becoming a vital component in the design of industrial products and processes. The ultimate aim of development in the CFD field is to provide a capability comparable to other CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering) tools such as stress analysis codes. The main reason why CFD has lagged behind is the tremendous complexity of the underlying behavior, which precludes a description of the fluid flows this is at the same time economical and sufficiently complete. The availability of affordable high performance computing hardware and the introduction of user friendly interference have led to a recent upsurge of interest and CFD is poised to make an entry into the wider industrial community in the 1990s. Clearly the investment costs of a CFD capability are not small, but the total expense is not normally as great as that of a high quality experimental facility. Moreover, there are several unique advantages of CFD over experimental-based approaches to fluid systems design. 1. Substantial reduction of lead times and costs of new design. 2. Ability to study systems where controlled experimental are difficult or impossible to perform. (e.g. very large systems)

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3. Ability to study systems under hazardous conditions at and beyond their normal performance limits. (e.g. safety studies and accident scenarios) 4. Practically unlimited level of detail of results. In contrast CFD codes can produce extremely large volumes of results at virtually no added expense and it is very cheap to perform parametric studies, for instance to optimize equipment performance. 6.2 Basics in CFD CFD codes are structured around the numerical algorithms that can tackle fluid flow problems. In order to provide easy asses to their solving power all commercial CFD packages include sophisticated user interfaces to input problem parameters and to examine the results. Hence all code contains three main elements: 1. Pre-processor 2. Solver 3. Post-processor 6.2.1 Pre-Processor Pre-processing consists of a flow problem to a CFD program by means of an operator-friendly interface and the subsequent transformation of this input into a form suitable for use by the solver. The user activities at the pre-processing stage involve: 1. Definition of the geometry of the region of interest: the computational domain. 2. Grid generation-the sub-division of the domain into a number of smaller, nonoverlapping sub-domains: a grid (or mesh) of cells (or control volumes or elements). 3. Selection of the physical and chemical phenomenon that need to be modeled. 4. Definition of fluid properties.

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5. Specification of appropriate boundary conditions at cells, which coincide with or touch the domain boundary. The solution to a flow problem (velocity, pressure, temperature etc) is defined at nodes insides each cell. The number of cells in the grids governs the accuracy of a CFD solution. In general, the larger number of cells the better solution accuracy. Both the accuracy of a solution and its cost in terms of necessary computer hardware and calculation time are dependent on the fineness of the grid. Optimal meshes are often nonuniform: finer in areas where large variations occur from point to point and coarser in region with relatively little change. Efforts are under way to develop CFD codes with a (self-) adaptive meshing capability. Ultimately such programs will automatically refine the grids in the areas of rapid variations. A substantial amount of basis development work still needs to be done before these techniques are robust enough to be incorporated into commercial CFD codes. At present it is still up to skills of the CFD user to design a grid that is suitable compromise between desired accuracy and solution cost. Over 50% of the time spent in industry on a CFD project is developed to the definition of the domain geometry and grid generation. Up-to-date pre-processors also give the user access to libraries of material properties for common fluids and a facility to invoke special physical and chemical models (e.g. turbulence models, multiphase model, radiative heat transfer, combustion models) alongside the main equations.

6.2.1.1 Grid generation

Introduction The partial differential equation that governs fluid flow and heat transfer are not usually amenable to analytical solutions, except for very simple cases. Therefore, in order to analyze fluid flows, flow domains are split into smaller subdomains (made up of geometric primitives like hexahedra and tatrahedra in 3D, and quadrilaterals and triangles in 2D) and discretized governing equations are solved inside each of these portions of the domain. Typically, one of three methods is used to solve the approximate version of the

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system of equations: finite volumes, finite elements, or finite differences. Care must taken to ensure proper continuity of solution across the common interfaces between two sub domains, so that the approximate solutions inside various portions can be put together to give a complete picture of fluid flow in the entire domain. Each of these portions of the domain are known as elements or cells, and the collection of all elements is known as mesh or grid. The origin of the term mesh (or grid) goes back to early days of CFD when most analyses were 2D in nature. For 2D analysis, a domain split into elements resembles a wire mesh, hence the name. An example of a 2D analysis domain (flow over a backward facing step) and its mesh are shown in pictures below.

Figure 6.1 2D analysis domain and its mesh The process of obtaining an appropriate mesh (or grid) is termed mesh generation (or grid generation), and has long been considered a bottleneck in the analysis process due to the lack of a fully automatic mesh generation procedure. Specialized software programs have been developed for the purpose of mesh and grid generation, and access to a good software package and expertise in using this software are vital to the success of a modeling effort.

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Mesh classification As CFD has developed, better algorithms and more computational power has become available to CFD analysts, resulting in diverse solver techniques. One of the direct results of this development has been the expansion of available mesh elements and mesh connectivity (how cells are connected to one another). The elements in a mesh can be classified in various ways - the easiest is based upon the dimension and type of the elements. Common elements in 2D are triangles or rectangles, and common elements in 3D are tetrahedra or bricks. The most basic form of mesh classification is based upon the connectivity of the mesh: structured or unstructured.

Structured Meshes A structured mesh is characterized by regular connectivity that can be expressed as a two or three dimensional array. This restricts the element choices to quadrilaterals in 2D or hexahedra in 3D. The above example mesh is a structured mesh, as we could store the mesh connectivity in a 40 by 12 array. The regularity of the connectivity allows us to conserve space since neighborhood relationships are defined by the storage arrangement. Additional classification can be made upon whether the mesh is conformal or not. Unstructured Meshes An unstructured mesh is characterized by irregular connectivity is not readily expressed as a two or three dimensional array in computer memory. This allows for any possible element that a solver might be able to use. Compared to structured meshes, the storage requirements for an unstructured mesh can be substantially larger since the neighborhood connectivity must be explicitly stored. Element-Based Classification Meshes can also be classified based upon the dimension and type of elements present. Depending upon the analysis type and solver requirements, meshes generated could be 2-

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dimensional (2D) or 3-dimensional (3D). Common elements in 2D are triangles or rectangles, and common elements in 3D are tetrahedra or bricks. As noted above, some connectivity choices limit the types of element present, so there is some overlap between connectivity-based and element-based classification. For a 2D mesh, all mesh nodes lie in a given plane. In most cases, 2D mesh nodes lie in the XY plane, but can also be confined to another Cartesian or user defined plane. Most popular 2D mesh elements are quadrilaterals (also known as quads) and triangles (tris), shown below.

Figure 6.2 2D mesh shapes 3D mesh nodes are not constrained to lie in a single plane. Most popular 3D mesh elements are hexahedra (also known as hexes or hex elements), tetrahedra (tets), square pyramids (pyramids) and extruded triangles (wedges or triangular prisms), shown below. It is worth noting that all these elements are bounded by faces belonging to the above mentioned 2D elements. Some of the current solvers also support polyhedral elements, which can be bounded by any number and types of faces. Since all 3D elements are bounded by 2D elements, it is obvious that 3D meshes have exposed 2D elements at boundaries. Most of the meshing packages and solvers prefer to club exposed elements together in what is known as a surface mesh (for the purposes of applying boundary conditions, rendering meshed domains and visualizing results). A surface mesh does not have to be 2D, since volume meshes may conform to domains with non-planar boundaries. Many meshing algorithms start by meshing bounding surfaces of a domain before filling the interior with mesh nodes (such algorithms are also known as boundary to interior algorithms). For such algorithms, generation of good quality surface meshes is of prime importance, and much research has been done in the field of efficient

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and good quality surface mesh generation. Since surface meshes are geometrically somewhere between 2D and 3D meshes, they are also sometimes known as 2.5D meshes.

Figure 6.3 3d mesh shapes Prism Meshing A prism layer mesh is composed of orthogonal prismatic cells that usually reside next to wall boundaries in the volume mesh. They are required to accurately simulate the turbulence and heat transfer. The thickness, number of layers and distribution of the prism layer mesh is determined primarily by the turbulence model used; typically, for wall function based models, one to three layers are used, while for low Reynolds number and two-layer schemes, anywhere from 15 to 25 layers is normal. An example volume mesh showing two prism layers next to the wall boundaries is shown below: Prior to the core mesh being created, a subsurface is generated at the specified prism layer thickness values, in effect "shrinking" (for internal flows) or "expanding" (for external flows) the starting surface. The core mesh is built using this subsurface. The

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Figure 6.4 Prism Meshing prism layer mesh is then generated by extruding the cell faces from the core mesh back to the original starting surface. 6.2.1.2 Implementation of Boundary Conditions All CFD problems are defined in terms of initial and boundary conditions. It is important that the user specifies these correctly and understands their roles in the numerical algorithm. In transient problems, the initial values of all flow variables need to be specified at all solution points in the flow domain. The most common boundary conditions in the discredited equations of the finite volume method are as following: a. Inlet b. Outlet c. Wall d. Hot wall temperature e. Prescribed pressure f. Symmetry

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At inlet boundary, the distribution of all flow variables needs to be specified. Outlet boundary conditions may be used in conjunction with the inlet boundary conditions. If the location of the outlet is selected far away from geometrical disturbances, the flow often reaches a fully developed state where no change occurs in the flow direction. In such a region, we can place an outlet surface and state that the gradient of all variables (except pressure) are zero in the flow direction. It is normally possible to make a reasonably accurate prediction of the flow direction far away from obstacles. The pressure field obtained by solving the pressure correction equation does not give absolute pressure (Patankar 1980). It is common practice to fix the absolute pressure at one inlet node and set the pressure correction to zero at that node. Having specified a reference value the absolute pressure field inside the domain can now be obtained. 6.2.2 Solver The method used for numerical solution in the commercial CFD code Fluent is finite volume method. Basically the solver performs the following steps: 1. Approximation of the unknown flow variables by means of simple functions. 2. Discretization by substitution of the approximations into the governing flow equations and subsequent mathematical manipulations. 3. Solution of the algebraic equations. Finite Volume Method The finite volume method was originally developed as a special finite difference formulation. The numerical algorithm consists of the following steps 1. Formal integration of the governing equations of fluid flow over all the (finite) control volumes of the solution domain. 2. Discretization involves the substitution of a variety of finite-difference-type approximation for the terms in the integrated equation representing flow processes

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such as convection, diffusion and sourced. This converts the integral equations into a system of algebraic equations. 3. Solution of the algebraic equation by an iterative method. The first step, the control volume integration, distinguishes the finite volume method from all other CFD techniques. The resulting statements express the (exact) conservation of relevant properties for each finite size cell. This clear relationship between the numerical algorithm and the underlying physical conservation principles forms one of the main attractions of the finite volume method and makes its concepts much simpler to understand by engineers than finite element and spectral methods. The conservation of the general flow variable , for example a velocity component or enthalpy, within a finite control volume can expressed as a balance between the various increase or decrease it. CFD codes contain discretization techniques suitable for the treatment of the key transport phenomena, convection and diffusion. The complexity and the size of the set of the equations depend on the dimensionality of the problem, the number of grid node and descretization practice. Although any procedure can be used to solve the algebraic equations, and the available computer resources set a powerful constraint. There are two families of solution for linear algebraic equations: I. Direct method II. Indirect or iterative method Simple methods of direct methods are Cramers rule matrix inversion and Gaussian elimination. The number of operations of the solution of a system of N equations with N unknowns by means of a direct method can be determined beforehand and is of the order of N3. The simultaneous storage of all N2 coefficients of set of equations in the core memory is required. processes tending to

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Iterative methods are based on the repeated applications of relatively simple algorithm leading to eventual convergence after a sometimes large-number of repetitions. Wellknown examples are the Jacobin and Gauss-Siedel point-by-point iteration methods. The number of operations, typically on the order of N per iteration cycle, cannot be predicted in advance. Stronger still, it is not possible to guarantee convergence unless the system of equations satisfies fairly exacting criteria. The main advantage of iterative solution methods is that only non-zero coefficient of the equations need to be stored in core memory. 6.2.3 Post - Processor As in pre-processing a huge amount of development work has recently taken place in the post-processing field. Owing to the increased popularity of engineering workstations, many of which have outstanding graphics capabilities, the leading CFD packages are now equipped with versatile data visualization tools. These include: a. Domain geometry and grid display b. Vectors plots c. Line and shaded contour plots d. 2D and 3D surface plots e. Particle tracking f. View manipulation (translation, rotation, scaling etc) g. Color postscript output More recently these facilities may also include animation for dynamic results display and in addition to graphics all codes produce trusty alphanumeric output and have data export facilities for further manipulation external to the code. As in many other branches of CAE the graphics output capabilities of CFD codes have revolutionized the communication of ideas to the non-specialist.

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Computer graphics is used as an essential tool by the computational fluid dynamicist to display the results of a CFD calculation 1. XY plots: on the 2D graph, they represent the variation of one dependent variable versus another independent variable. 2. Contour plots: A disadvantage of xy plots is that they usually do not illustrate the global nature of a set of CFD results all in one view. On the other hand, contour plots do provide such a global view. A contour line is a line along which some property is constant. 3. Vector and streamline plots: a vector plot is display of a vector quantity (in CFD usually velocity) at discrete grid points, showing both of each vector is located at the respective grid points. The streamlines are excellent tools for examining the nature of a flow. 4. Scatter plot: in a scatter plot, a symbol (circle, square etc) is drawn at discrete grid points in flow, where the magnitude of some scalar quantity (pressure, temperature etc) indicated by either the size of the symbol, its shading, its colors. 5. Mesh plot: mesh plots consist of lines connecting grid points 2D or 3D grids.

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6.3 Advantages of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 1. CFD compliments EFD and theoretical fluid dynamics. 2. Alternative cost effective means of simulating real fluid flow (lower energy consumption also). 3. Significant reduction of lead-time in design and development. 4. Simulate flow conditions not reproducible in model tests (weather forecasts, extremely high pressure and temperature etc). 5. Provide more detailed and comprehensive information. 6. CFD is increasing more cost effective than wind tunnel testing.

6.4 Limitations of CFD 1. Physical Modeling: Turbulence, non-Newtonian fluid, initial and boundary data representation. 2. Geometry Modeling: Roughness, geometry details, multi- phase interface. 3. Numerical Modeling: Truncation and round off errors, convergence and stability, resolution of a wide range of length and time scale. Typical Practical Problems: Complex geometry, complex physics, more powerful computers, more memory capacity, more accurate discretization scheme, user- friendly pre-processing and post-processing software.

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EXPERIMENTATION
7.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The experimental set up is assembled and all the electrical connections are made as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). After checking all electrical connections power supply is switched on. The controller on the dimmerstat is operated to increase the voltage supplied to the plate heater from zero to a certain value so that the power input to the plate heater is set at 50 W. The console on the digital wattmeter displays the power input to the heater. The temperature of the plate is continuously monitored until the plate reaches steady state. After the plate attains the steady state, switch on the blower. With the help of flow control valve, control the discharge of air from the blower for required speed over dimple plate. Temperatures of different thermocouples are continuously recorded at a regular interval of 10 min till the steady state is reached. After the steady state is reached, temperatures of different thermocouples are recorded from the temperature indicator display and power rating from wattmeter is recorded. Flow control valve is adjusted to take observation at next higher speed . Again wait till the next steady state is attained. After this the power supplied to heater is changed to 60 W by using dimmerstat and whole procedure is repeated again.

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7.2 OBSERVATION TABLE

7.2.1 Flat plate
Sr. No. Input Power (Watts) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.4 11 12 13 60 14 0.8 15 16 50 0.8 0.4 Air Velocity (m/s)

Time (mins) 10 20 25 30 10 20 25 30 10 20 25 30 10 20 25 30

Tin (oC) 44 46 47 47 44 45 47 47 47 49 50 50 45 47 49 50

Tout (oC) 46 48 49 50 48 49 50 50 50 52 52 53 50 52 53 53

T1 (oC) 114 104 99 99 108 102 101 100 114 108 106 105 114 108 106 105

T2 (oC) 117 104 100 99 109 101 98 98 116 109 105 105 116 109 106 105

T3 (oC) 118 105 102 101 109 104 102 101 117 111 107 107 117 111 108 107

T4 (oC) 115 103 100 99 108 103 101 101 113 109 105 105 113 109 105 105

Tmf (oC) 45 47 48.5 48.5 46 47 48.5 48.5 48.5 50.5 51 51.5 48.5 50.5 51 51.5

Tavg (oC) 116 104 100.2 5 99.5 108.5 102.5 100 100 115 109.2 5 106.2 5 105.5 115 109.2 5 106.2 5 106.5

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7.2 Dimple Plate

Sr. No. Input Power (Watts) 1 Air Velocity (m/s)

Time (mins) 10 20

Tin (oC) 45 46 48 48 44 46 47 47 46 47 49 50 46 47 48 49

Tout (oC) 47 50 52 52 49 50 51 51 50 53 54 54 50 52 54 54

T1 (oC) 112 103 98 97 105 101 99 99 120 107 103 103 112 106 104 104

T2 (oC) 117 104 98 98 108 104 101 99 119 107 105 105 113 109 107 105

T3 (oC) 118 105 100 99 107 103 101 100 121 109 104 102 115 108 105 103

T4 (oC) 113 103 97 97 108 102 99 98 123 109 105 105 119 109 105 105

Tmf (oC) 46 48 50 50 46.5 48 49 49 48 50 51.5 52 48 49.5 51 51.5

Tavg (oC) 115 103.75 98.25 97.75 107 102.5 100 99 120.75 108 104.25 103.5 114.75 108 105.25 104.25

2 0.4 3

25 30
50

10 20
0.8

25 30 10 20
0.4

10

11

25 30
60

12

13

10 20
0.8

14

15

25 30

16

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

8.1 COMPUTATIONAL METHODOLOGY

The computational package, ANSYS CFX, was used for the numerical model. It is a 3D solver of the Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes equations based on the finite volume formulation. Triagonal cells are used to discretize the problem domain with a structured mesh. Grid points are distributed in a non-uniform manner with a higher concentration near the walls due to higher variable gradients expected in these locations. The convergence criterion is that the residual variations of the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations become less than 10-5.The numerical model is validated by solving the velocity and temperature fields in dimple plate with smooth surfaces, constant inlet velocity and equal wall temperatures.

8.1.1 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

a) Meshing: Triagonal element is used for the meshing of both the plate surface and duct. Further refinement of the dimple as well as flat plate surface has been done to enhance the flow of the air inside. S No. 1. 2. Plate Configuration Flat Inline Dimples Domain Fluidzone Plane Fluidzone Plate Nodes 60588 81954 88893 115721 Element 326790 342454 476440 616901

Table 8.1. Mesh Report At all walls: Since the Velocity Component, u and v both are zero at the walls for no-slip conditions, the walls are considered as adiabatic.

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At the plate surface: Since the velocity component, u and v both are zero at the walls for no-slip conditions. The object is assumed to be isothermally heated. Boundary Condition at Inlet: Velocity of air =0.4 m/s =105 Pa Static air Temperature =20oC Pressure Boundary Condition at outlet: Opening (Open to atmosphere) Static Temp =areaAve(T)@outlet Relative pressure =0 Pa

To study the heat transfer characteristics of the flow in duct, the average values of wall heat flux and Nusselt number should be computed in each configuration. The average wall heat flux is computed by the following equation:

Where qw(x) is the wall heat flux and is defined based per unit area of the wall and L is the total length of the duct. In a dimple plate with smooth surfaces, wall heat flux has a maximum value at the inlet and decreases along the wall in an exponential manner as the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers develop. Flow patterns and heat transfer characteristics have been studied numerically for flows over plate containing symmetrical arrays of spherical cavities 8.1.2 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION:

Fig 8.1 Contour plot for temperature variation for dimple plate and flat plate respectively.

Figure 8.1 shows the temperature variation of the air along the dimple after attaining steady state condition. It can be seen that the temperature of the air inside the dimple

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surface has more temperature than that of the air above. The maximum local heat flux happens at the downstream of each dimple which is due to large vorticities in these zones. As seen in the figure on the left, the temperature gradient along the Y-axis is greater as compared to that on the right due to formation of secondary flows and thicker boundary layer.

Fig 8.2 Graph for temperature variation along the duct for dimple plate and flat plate respectively.

Fig 8.2 shows that moving along the length of the duct, initially temperature remains constant until the air stream strikes the dimple plate where it constantly rises and when the air stream hits the dimple the temperature drops suddenly. With the air stream moving past each dimple, temperature is dropped while absorbing a substantial amount of heat, air stream moving past the dimple plate, its temperature hikes.
1.7.2 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION:

Fig 8.3. Velocity vector plot for dimple plate and flat plate respectively.

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Fig 8.3 shows the velocity vector of the air in the dimple surface. The velocity of the air is less in dimple. It is because of the formation of vortices inside the dimple surface.

Fig 8.4. Graph for Velocity variation along the duct for dimple plate and flat plate respectively.

Fig 8.4 shows that the air velocity inside the duct starts to decrease initially due to boundary layer formation and viscous effects. But as the air comes in contact with the dimple surface its velocity increases due to formation of vortices and turbulence in case of the dimple plate as can be observed in the figure on the above left. While on the flat plate the velocity is first decreased and after crossing the plate surface, the velocity increases marginally due to creation of the convective currents moving from the lower layers to the above layers.

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SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

9.1 Given Barometric Pressure, P = 700 mm Hg = 93059.0132 Pa Ambient Temperature,T = 32 0C = 305 K Specific heat capacity of air,Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K Cross-sectional Area of the duct, A = 0.205 x 0.105 = 0.0225 m2 Area of Flat Plate = 0.15 x 0.15 = 0.0225 m2 Area of Dimple Plate = 0.0311656418 m 2 Characteristic Gas Constant for air, R = 287 J/kg-K

9.2 Formulae Used 1. Density of air at ambient temperature, = 2. Hydraulic Diameter, Dh = where, Acs = surface area of the plate normal to heat dissipation 3. Mass flow rate of air, = Av where, v = velocity of air at outlet of the duct 4. Average temperature of plate, T avg = 5. Average temperature of air over the duct, T mf = 6. Heat carried away by the air, Qc = Cp(Tout Tin) 7. Heat dissipated by the plate,Qd = hAcs(Tavg Tmf)

Now, it is assumed that the entire heat dissipated by the plate is absorbed by the air flowing over the plate i.e. Qc = Q d

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8. Reynolds Number, Re = where,

= Dynamic viscosity of air at the given operating conditions

9. Nusselt number, Nu

i.

For internal laminar flow, Nu = 1.86 ( ) ( )

where, D = Hydraulic diameter of the duct L = Length of the duct b = Dynamic viscosity of air at bulk-stream temperature w = Dynamic viscosity of air at wall temperature ii. For internal turbulent flow,

Nu = 10. Effectiveness of Dimple plate, =

9.3 CALCULATIONS:1. Density of air at ambient temperature, = = = 1.066kg/m3

2. Hydraulic Diameter, Dh =

= 0.13887m

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A. For Flat Plate i. Average temperature of plate, T avg = 99.5 0C ii. Average temperature of air over the duct, T mf = 48.5 0C iii. Mass flow rate of air, = Av = kg/s iv. Heat carried away by the air, Qc = Cp(Tout Tin) = = 0.002767 kW = 27.67 W = 0.00917826 = = = =

v.

Now, Heat dissipated by plate,Qd = hAcs(Tavg Tmf) = = Qc On solving, we obtain = 23.15 W/m2K

vi.

Reynolds Number, Re = where, =

= kg/m-s@ 48.5 0C

=2927.68

Since Re > 2300, hence the flow is turbulent( transitional). vii. Nusselt Number, Nu = = = 116.08

where, k = 0.027695 W/m-K @ 48.5 0C

viii.

Entrance length number, El =

= 16.642

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B. For Dimple Plate i. Average temperature of plate, T avg = 97.75 0C ii. Average temperature of air over the duct, T mf =
0

= 50

C = 0.00917826

iii.

Mass flow rate of air, = Av = kg/s Heat carried away by the air, Qc = Cp(Tout Tin) = = 0.003689 kW = 36.89 W

iv.

v.

Now, Heat dissipated by plate,Qd = hAcs(Tavg Tmf) = = Qc On solving,we obtain = 24.796 W/m2K = kg/m-s@ 50 0C =2927.68

vi.

Reynolds Number, Re = where, =

Since Re > 2300, hence the flow is turbulent( transitional).

vii.

Nusselt Number, Nu =

= 123.864

where, k = 0.027695 W/m-K @ 48.5 0C

viii.

Entrance length number, El =

= 16.642

4. Effectiveness of Dimple Plate , =

= 1.0711

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RESULT TABLES

10.1 Flat Plate

Input Power Air Velocity(m/s) 0.8 50W 0.4 0.8 60W 0.4 55.34 27.67 55.34 27.67 Q(Watts) CFD 48.18 25.17 45.79 23.89 h(W/m2K) Experimental 46.51 23.15 43.36 21.23 5855.368 2927.684 5839.42 2919.71 239.47 120.921 222.45 112.27 Re Nu

10.2 Dimple Plate

Input Power 50W Air Velocity(m/s) 0.8 0.4 60W 0.8 0.4 73.79 36.89 73.79 36.89 Q(Watts) CFD 49.32 25.97 46.27 24.64 h(W/m2K) Experimental 47.83 24.796 44.885 22.873 5850.046 2923.69 5839.4 2918.39 239.53 115.74 223.59 106.265 Re Nu

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CONCLUSIONS

1. The entire experiment on the apparatus was performed successfully and effectiveness of dimple plate for different sets of input parameters were evaluated. 2. It is observed from the experimental results that the convective heat transfer coefficient is enhanced with increase in air velocity. This can be attributed to the fact that with increasing velocity the relative strength of the vortices and turbulence effects increase by a substantial amount thereby increasing the heat transfer rate from the heated plate to the air blown over it. 3. Also it is evident from the variation of h with respect to input power that the convective heat transfer coefficient diminishes with increase in input power provided. The reason for this decline is the local decrease in density of air because of which there is significant decline in the heat dissipation capacity of the air. 4. As compared to the flat plate, there is marginal yet significant rise in the convective heat transfer coefficient of air for the dimple plate which can be explained on the basis of improved turbulence and vortex strengths on the dimple surface which is somewhat fended by the decrease in velocity over the dimples. 5. To support and validate the results obtained from the experiment, CFD simulation of the experiment was performed successfully and those results were compared with that obtained from the experiment.

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SOURCES OF ERROR AND PRECAUTIONS

Although everyone tries to conduct any experiment without any errors and glitches but there are some inadvertent errors which just cant be avoided. Every care was put into consideration while performing the experiment but still there remained some unavoidable errors which are listed right below:1. Heat losses through the sidewalls:- Although Polyurethane Foam(PUF) and Glass wool were packed on the G.I. sheet duct still we observed that the side walls gets heated due to the convection currents and conductive heat transfer (and some radiation also) which was entirely unnecessary. From these walls there is loss of heat due to convection, conduction and radiation. Thus, the total heat loss= Radiative heat loss + Convective heat loss = UA(Ts Ta) + A(Ts4 Ta4) Where, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient ( which takes into consideration both the convective heat loss effects and conductive heat loss effects) A = Area of four walls Ts = Surface temperature of the insulated duct Ta = Ambient temperature = Boltzmanns Constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4 = Emissivity of the surface with respect to the atmosphere

2. Leakages through the voids: - Although every care was taken to ensure there remains no void but there remained voids. Hence, due to high velocity and

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pressure differences there occurred leakages of air which is also responsible for the loss of heat.

3. The major problem encountered during and after the experiment while performing calculations was with the sensitivity of the temperature controller used in the experiment. The least count of the temperature controller should have been atleast of the order of 10-1 oC.

4. The soldering used to adhere the contacts of the thermocouples with the plate pose some thermal resistance to the contacts. Hence, the temperatures recorded during the testing may be less than what it is actually.

5. Sufficient time must be provided to obtain the steady state while conducting the experiment.

6. Manual errors should be avoided like when listing down readings from the dimmerstat, parallax should be avoided and care must be taken while recording the temperature.

7. All the fans must be switched off so that the air currents does not deter with the air currents from the blower.

8. No contact with the plate should be made during the progress of experiment for the sake of safety and to avoid intervention.

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REFERENCES
TECHNICAL PAPERS 1. Numerical Study of Heat Transfer on a Dimpled Surface with CEDRE code; Ph. Grenard ; V. Quintilla-Larroya; 2007. 2. Vortex-jet mechanism in a Channel with spherical Dimples for heat transfer augmentation; J. Turnow, N. Kornev ; 2009. 3. Numerical Simulation of Conjugated Heat Transfer Characteristics of Laminar Air Flows in Parallel-Plate Dimpled Channels. ; Hossein Shokouhmand , Mohammad A. Esmaeili ; 2011. 4. Heat transfer and friction coefficient by dimpled surface ; Sandeep S. Kore, Satishchandra V. Joshi, Narayan K.Sane ; 2011. 5. Heat Transfer Augmentation Surfaces Using Modified Dimples/Protrusions; Mohammad A. Elyyan ; 2008.

BOOKS

1. Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer by Theodore L.Bergman. 2. Princple of heat transfer by Frank Kreith and Mark S. Bohn. 3. Heat Transfer by P.K.Nag(2003),Tata McGraw Hill Publications
4. A Text-Book of Heat Transfer by J.P.Holman(2002), PrenticeHall Publication 5. Computational Fluid Dynamics by John D. Anderson, Tata McGraw Hill Publications 6. Computational Fluid Mechnanics and Heat Transfer by Richard H. Pletcher

WEBSITES 1. www.engineeringtoolbox.com 2. www.efunda.com 3. www.wikipedia.com 4. www.scribd.com

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