Life Processes

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Biology : Chap-Life Processes
LIFE PROCESSES
It is very difficult to define life and living beings. Life is a self regulated complex system of molecules where chemical reactions are going on all time that lead to its maintenance, growth, responsiveness and reproduction. Living beings are organized self regulated discrete entities which exhibit the various characteristics of life. Self sustained movements are a major criterion which distinguishes living beings from the nonliving ones. Movements are taking place all the time. Movements. Changes in position are called movements. Living beings show both visible and invisible movements. Visible movements are changes in position of body parts which can be detected by human eyes. Animals shown two types of visible movements, locomotion and movement of body parts. In locomotion an organism moves from one place to another. Running of dog. Flying of a bird and swimming of fish are movements of locomotion. They are performed by animals for obtaining food, shelter and mate. Cud chewing by cow, shouting and gesturing by a man n street are movements of body parts. They are carried out in connection with a particular function. Some of these continue even in sleep, e.g., breathing, heats beat. Plants do not shown locomotion. They are fixed. Visible movements are slow with the exception of plants like Mimosa pudica (Sensitive Plant, Touch-me-not) which show folding of leaves on being touched. Breathing movements are absent in plants. They shown bending movements toward slight and water. Sunflower head move from east to west along with the sun. leaves orientate to receive optimum light. Invisible movement are those changes in position which cannot be observed by human senses because they occur at the molecular level, e.g., entry of nutrients into cells or release of wastes from them. Molecular structures are made of molecules. They take part in biosynthetic activity for repair and replacement. Energy required for functioning of protoplasmic structures is also obtained from molecules. Wastes are last molecular in nature. Organization of cells into tissues, tissues into organs and organs into organ systems is dependent upon the movement of molecules. Therefore, molecules must move into and out of them all the time. Viruses are also made of molecules. However they show molecular movements only inside their host cells. Outside the host cells, molecular movement is absent in viruses. Therefore, viruses are considered to lie at the borderline between the living and the nonliving . WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES Life processes are those basic functions of living beings which are essential for their survival. They are the same in all types of living forms whether unicellular or multicellular, plants or animals. 1
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1. Maintenance. All living beings are made of protoplasmic structures. They have to be kept in functional state whether and organism is active or inactive. Functional state of protoplasmic structures is maintained only if they are kept in dynamic state with breakdown and build-up processes going on simultaneously. 2. Metabolism. It is the sum total of all chemical reactions which occur in a living being due to interaction amongst its molecules. All functions of organisms are due to metabolism. Metabolism. Metabolism has two components, anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism or constructive metabolism consists of buildup reactions where complex molecules are formed from simpler ones, e.g., formation of glycogen from glucose or proteins from amino acids. Energy is required for anabolic reactions. Catabolism or destructive metabolism consists of breakdown reactions where complex substance are broken down into simpler substance e.g., respiration (breaks glucose into carbon dioxide and water). 3. Nutrition. It is required by all living beings for providing energy and body building materials. Body building materials are usually carbonsbased so that food sources are also carbon based. They are of course, varies. Plants manufacture their own food in the process of photosynthesis. Animals obtain food from outside. Food obtained from outside is first broken down into simpler soluble substance for absorption. Inside the cells, the simple substance are converted into various complex biochemicals to form components of protoplasm. Some biochemicals function as respiratory substrates. 4. Respiration. Every living being required energy for working of body machinery, its maintenance, repair, replacement and biosynthesis. Energy is obtained by breakdown of carbon based molecules in the process of respiration. Oxidation reduction are common chemical reactions involved in respiratory breakdown of molecules. Most organisms use oxygen obtained from outside for the process of respiration. 5. Growth. It is irreversible increase in body size that occurs in young organisms prior to reaching maturity. Planes have the ability to continuously grow. Growth is possible if buildup reactions (anabolism) are more abundant than breakdown reactions (catabolic reactions). For this, the organisms must prepare or obtain for materials more than their requirement for maintenance. 6. Exchange of Materials. There is a regular exchange of materials between the living organisms and their environment. Living beings obtain nutrients, water and oxygen form their environment. They give out undigested materials, carbon dioxide and waste products. Singlecelled organisms have the entire surface in direct contact with the environment. They do not possess any specific structure for intake and expulsion of materials. Diffusion, facilitated transport and active transport are involved for movement of substances across the cell membrane. In muticellular organisms specialised structures have been formed for different functions e.g., ingestion, exchange of gases. 7. Transportation. In multicelluar organisms all the cells are not in direct contact with the environment. They have specific structures for exchange of gases, ingestion and digestion of food materials. However, every cell of the body has to be provided with food, water and oxygen. Similarly, carbon dioxide and wastes have to be taken away form every cell. Therefore, a mechanism of transportation is found. It is found. It is circulatory system in animals and vascular tissues in plants. 8. Excretion. A number of wastes products are formed as byproducts of metabolism. They are usually toxic and are removed from the body. The process of removal of waste products form the body is called excretion. 9. Irritability. Every living organism is aware of its surrounding. It responds to changes in the environment. The branch of biology that deals with the stuffy of life process, activities and body functions is called physiology (Gk, physisnature, logosstudy). NUTRITION (L. NUTRIRETO NOURISH) Nutrition is the process of intake of food, its digestion, absorption, distribution to different parts and assimilation. Food is the material substance which is used by living organisms for obtaining energy and raw materials to produce biochemicals required for body building and regulation. The different components of food that have distinct functions like providing energy, materials for body maintenance, regulation and metabolism are called nutrients. They are of three main types energy foods (e.g., carbohydrates, fats), body building foods (e.g., proteins, some minerals and carbohydrates) and protective or regulatory foods (e.g., vitamins and minerals). IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION/FOOD 1. Energy. Food provides energy. Energy is required by the body all the time, whether asleep, taking rest or doing work. It is because biosynthetic activities are going on without break. Heart is always beating. Breathing movements never stop. Food eaten by a person has to be digested and absorbed. Excretory products are being produced. 2. Body Structure. All body components are built up of materials obtained from food.
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3. Growth. Food is used in building protoplasm required for formation and enlargement of cells that take part in growth of the organism. 4. Repair. Food provides materials for replacement and repair of worn out or damaged structures. 5. Regulators. Hormones and enzymes are formed form ingredients of food. They regulate metabolism and body functions. 6. Resistance. Defence system of the body is formed from raw materials got form food. 7. Reproduction. Food provides materials to form reproductive structures. Types of nutrition There are two main types of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic. Green plants, some protists and able to manufacture their of food from inorganic raw materials with the help of energy obtained from outside. They are autotrophic and nutrition performed by them is called autotrophic or halophytic nutrition. Animals, fungi, protozoans and many prokaryotes obtain food readymade from outside sources as they cannot synthesis their own food. They are called heterotrophs and the mode of nutrition carried out by them is termed as heterotrophic nutrition. AUTOTROPHIC OR HOLOPHYTIC NUTRITION It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms are able to build up their own inorganic food from inorganic raw materials with the help of energy. The organisms performing autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs. (Gk, autosself, trophe nourishment). Autotrophic nutrition is of two types, chemosynthesis and photosynthesis. In chemosynthesis (Gk, chemeia chemical, synthesis-putting together) the energy used in synthesis of organic food is obtained by oxidation of substances presents in the surrounding medium, e.g., Nitrobacter (nitrifying bacterium), Ferro bacillus (iron bacterium). In photosynthesis the energy is got from solar radiations trapped with the help of pigments like chlorophyll. Photosynthesis (Gk. Photoslight, synthesisputting together) Photosynthesis is a biochemical process of manufacture of organic food from carbon dioxide and water with the containing cells. Oxygen is liberated. Simple carbohydrate or sugar (e.g., glucose) is the main product from which other organic substances are formed (Fig. . .). excess of glucose is stored as starch to function as internal energy reserve to be used as an when required. It is similar to storage of glycogen as energy reserve in our body. Most of the photosynthesis occurs in leaves which are green in colour due to chlorophyll. Small amount of photosynthesis also takes place in young green stems. IMPORTANCE 1. Organic food. Photosynthesis is the only process which produces organic food from inorganic raw materials. All organisms of the world are dependent upon this organic food. Plants, which manufacture food, are called producers. Others, which are directly or indirectly dependent upon plants for food, are known as consumers. 2. Energy. Photosynthesis converts solar energy into chemical energy. The whole living world uses this chemical energy for all products of photosynthesis. 3. Fuels. Wood, coal, petroleum and natural gas are all products of photosynthesis. 4. Carbon Dioxide. Respiration and combustion add carbon dioxide into environment. By using dioxide, photosynthesis helps in maintaining the concentration of the gas in the environment. 5. Oxygen. It supports life and combustion on earth and is, therefore being continuously consumed. Photosynthesis is the only process known to release oxygen into the atmosphere. 6. Useful Articles. A number of plant products produced as a result of photosynthetic activity are used daily life, e.g., timber, oil, fibers, drugs, resins, rebber, etc. BASIC REQUIREMENTS Photosynthesis has four basic requirements chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, water and light. They are also called raw materials of photosynthesis
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1. Chlorophyll. Plants possess pigment molecules for absorption of light energy. There are three types of photosynthetic pigments green chlorophylls, orange coloured carotenes and yellowish xanthophylls. Chlorophylls are of two main types, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. chlorophyll a is called primary photosynthetic pigment as it takes part in conversion of light energy into chemical energy. Other pigments absorb light energy of various wavelengths and hand over the energy to chlorophyll a molecules through resonance. Photosynthetic pigments occur in green coloured cell organelles called chloroplasts. In a cross sections of a leaf, chloroplasts are found as green dots in the palisade and spongy cells of mesophyll. Epidermis is devoid of chloroplasts except for guard cells of stomata. A chloroplast has a double membrane envelope, a crystallo-colloid matrix of stroma and a number of membrane covered flattened sacs called thylakoids. Thylakoids are small and stacked at places to form grana (singular granum). They are connected to one another by interregnal or stroma thylakoids. Thylakoids are centres of light reactions as photosynthetic pigments are located in their membranes. Dark reaction occurs in the stroma region. Leaf is even otherwise most suitable for photosynthesis as has stomata for exchange of gases and vascular supply for bringing in water and taking out manufactured food materials. Most of the experiments of photosynthesis are based on the fact that starch is the end product of photosynthesis. It develops a blue-black colour with iodine solution (I+KI solution). Starch is, however, temporarily stored in leaves. It is converted in to sucrose and transported to various parts of the plant for use and storage. Leaves become completely destrached within - days after the stoppage of photosynthesis. 2. Carbon Dioxide. Land plants obtain it from atmosphere while aquatic plants absorb the same from water. Atmosphere contains about 0.036 % carbon dioxide. It enters the leaves through stomata. Stomata function as turgoroperated valves. Their guard cells are thicker on the inner side and thinner on the outer side.
+
K + ion influx causes them to swell up and get
curved out and produce a pore in between. Efflux of K ions causes closure of stomata. Stomata generally remain open during the daytime. As carbon dioxide is used internally in photosynthesis, more of it diffuses from outside. During day time the leaves can also use small quantity of carbon dioxide produced internally through respiration. Requirement of carbon dioxide is only for the day when photosynthesis is occurring. At night the carbon dioxide evolved in respiration remains unutilized. During evening and early morning, when light intensity is low, the rate of photosynthetic utilization of carbon dioxide may just balance respiratory release of the gas. At this the leaves neither obtain carbon dioxide from out side nor release the gas. The light intensity wherein the photosynthesizing organ neither absorbs carbon dioxide nor release the same is called compensation point. During night when carbon dioxide is not required for photosynthesis, the stomata are closed (Fig. . ) to avoid loss of water through transpiration. Precautions. (i) Destarch the plants completely. (ii) Seal the edges of bell jars properly so that carbon dioxide does not diffuse into them from outside. (iii) Handle the leaves carefully. (iv) Take the precautions of the iodinestarch test like killing in boiling water, decolourising the leaves in hot alcohol, care against alcohol catching fire and washing the decolourised leaves in hot water. 3. Water. Land plants absorb water from soil through their roots. The absorbed water is transported to photosynthetic areas through xylem. Minerals are also transported along with water. They are used in synthesis of different organic substances like sulphur in proteins, phosphorus in lost through transpiration. Only a small quantity of water used in photosynthesis as hydrogen donor. For this, water splits into its components with the help of light energy. The phenomenon is called photolysis of water. Oxygen is evolved
energy 2 H 2O 4 H + + 4e + O2 enzymes
4. Light. It is the source of energy for photosynthesis. Light is visible part of the electromagnetic radiations. It has a wavelength of nm. Photosynthetic ally active radiations or PAR are nm. Natural source of light is sun but 4
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artificial light can also provide energy to plants for their photosynthesis. Plants absorb light mostly in violetblue and red parts of visible light. Violetblue light carries more energy as compared to ref light. Plants growing under shade of others receive mostly green and some violet light. They have lower rates of photosynthesis. Light has tow functions, photolysis of water and excitation of chlorophyll to emit electrons. Photolysis of water produces oxygen, protons and electrons. Electrons and protons (Hydrogen ions) help in producing ATP and NADPH 2 , popularly called assimilatory power. MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis is formation of organic food from carbon dioxide and water with the help of sunlight inside chlorophyll containing cells. Oxygen is produced as by product.
Chlorophyll 6CO2 + 12 H 2O C6 H12O6 + 6 H 2O + 6O2 Sunlight
Oxygen comes from water. Hydrogen of water is used to reduce carbon dioxide to form carbohydrate
light energy 2 H 2O 2 H 2 + O2 chlorophyll
energy CO2 + 2 H 2 [CH 2O] + H 2O
Carbohydrate Actually, photosynthesis occurs in two steps, photochemical and biochemical. 1.Potochemical phase (Light of Hill Reaction). The reactions of this phase are driven by light energy. They are of two typesphotolysis of water and formation of assimilatory power. (a) Photolysis of water. Light energy splits up water into two components. The step requires an oxygen evolving complex formerly called Zcomplex) having manganese ions. Calcium and chlorine are also required.
OEC 2 H 2O O2 + 4 H + + 4e Mn.Ca .CI '
(b) Formation of Assimilatory Power. Electrons released by photolysis of water are picked up by chlorophyll a molecules. On absorption of light energy, each chlorophyll a molecule throws out an electron with gain of energy. This is primary reaction of photosynthesis which converts light energy into chemical energy. Electrons travel along an electron transport system, releasing energy in the process. The energy is used in the formation of ATP (adeno sine triphosphate) from ADP and inorganic phosphate. Synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) with the help of light energy is called photophosphorylation. ADP + Pi + energy ATP The electrons ultimately activate NADP (nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate) and make it combine with hydrogen to form NADPH .
NADP + 2e + 2 H + NADPH + H + ( NADPH 2 )

Both ATP and NADPH together form assimilatory power. 2. Biosynthetic Phase (Dark or Blackman's Reaction). It is actually light independent reaction which can occur both in light as well as in dark. It requires the energy and reducing power contained in assimilatory power. of light reaction. Common pathway of biosynthetic phase is Calvin cycle. Carbon dioxide combines with ribulose biphosphate in the presence of enzyme ribulose biphosphate carboxyls or rubisco. It produces two molecules of phosphoglyceric acid (PGA).
rubisco RuBP + CO2 2 PGA
In the presence of ATP, phosphoglyceric acid is reduced by
NADPH 2 to form glyceraldehyde phosphate (GAP).
PGA + ATP + NADPH 2 GAP + NADP + Pi

A part of glyceraldehyde phosphate is changed into dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The two condense and form glucose. Ribulose biphosphate is regenerated to combine with carbon dioxide again. Glucose undergoes condensation to form starch. Synthesis of carbohydrates during photosynthesis is a mechanism to meet energy requirements. Plants also require a number of other inorganic raw materials or minerals from soil for building other biomolecules, e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, magnesium etc. Nitrogen is required for building proteins and many other compounds. Phosphorus is required for synthesis of nucleotides.
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Minerals are absorbed in the form of ions, e.g.,

NO3 or NO2 for nitrogen. Some bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen
into organic compounds. Part of them can also be picked up by plants. Differences between Light and Dark Reactions Light Reaction Dark Reaction Light. It is required for the reaction. It is light independent. Conversion. The reaction converts light energy into chemical The reaction uses chemical energy in building energy. organic substance. Chlorophyll. It is essential for the reaction. Chlorophyll is not required directly. Occurrence. It occurs in thylakoids of chloroplasts It occurs in stroma part of chloroplasts. Its main product is starch. Products. Its products are ATP and NADPH . Oxygen. Oxygen is liberated as a by product. It does not produce oxygen Electron Transport. Light reaction involves movement of There is no involvement of an electron transport electrons along a transport chain chain. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION It is a mode of nutrition in which the organisms obtain readymade organic food from outside sources. The organisms that depend upon outside sources for obtaining organic nutrients are called heterotrophs (Gk. Hetero or heterosother, troph or trophenourishment). As the organic nutrients are complex and insoluble, they are first broken down into simpler soluble substance with the help of digestive enzymes. The process us caked digestion. Heterotrophs are also called consumers (as they consume food prepared by others) in contrast to autotrophs which are known as producers (as they prepare organic food from inorganic sources). Difference between Autotrophic Autotrophic Nutrition Food. It is self manufactured. External Energy. An external source of energy is required for synthesis of food. and Heterotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition Food is obtained readymade from outsideAn external source of energy is not required. The required energy is present in the food obtained friun outside. Inorganic Substances. They constitute the raw materials for Inorganic substances are not much required. manufacturing food. Digestion. It is absent. An external or internal digestion is required for conversion of complex organic materials into simpler and soluble ones. Chlorophyll. It is present for trapping light energy. Chlorophyll is absent. Status. Organisms performing autotrophic nutrition function as Organisms performing heterotrophic nutrition producers. function as consumers. Examples. Green plants, some bacteria, some protista. Animals, many protista and monerans. TYPE OF HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION Heterotrophic nutrition is of three types saprophytic, parasitic and holozoic. . Saprophytic or Saprotrophic Nutrition. It is a mode of heterotrophic nutrition in which food is obtained from organic remains like dead organisms, excreta, fallen leaves, broken twigs, food articles, etc. Organisms performing saprophytic nutrition are called saprophytes (Gk. sapro or saprosrotten, phyte or phytonplant) or saprotrophs (Gk. sapros-rotten, trophe-nourishment). Saprophytes pour digestive enzymes over the external organic 6
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substrate. The enzymes cause breakdown of complex organic compounds into simpler and soluble substances which can he absorbed by the saprophytes. Saprophytes perform external digestion (digestion outside the body). Most of the saprophytes are fungi (e.g., Mushrooms, Morels, Bread moulds. Yeast), several bacteria, a few animals (e.g., Chilomonas) and plants (e.g., Neottia, Monotropa). Saprotrophic nutrition of animals is called saprozoic nutrition. IMPORTANCE (i) Scavenging. Saprophytes function as scavengers as they remove the organic remains and create space for the newel generations of organisms. In the absence of saprophytes the whole earth would have been littered with organic remains with no space left for the newer generations. (ii) Biogeochemicals. Saprophytes bring about circulation of biogeochemicals. Biogeochemicals are inorganic substances which are absorbed from the environment by producers to synthesise food. They are limited in supply. Unless and until biogeochemicals are made available to producers, further manufacturing of organic food will stop. Saprophytes act un organic remains and release a major portion of biogeochemicals back into environment during their external digestion. (iii) Spoilage of Food. Saprophytes attack all types of exposed food articles (e.g., bread, jam, pickle, milk, vegetables, fruits) and spoil the same. (iv) Food Poisoning. Some saprophytes secrete toxins over the food. It results in food poisoning, e.g., bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. . Parasitic Nutrition. It is a mode of heterotrophic nutrition in which a living organism flourishes by obtaining food from another living organism. The living organism which obtains food and shelter from another organism is called parasite (Gk. porn-other, site or sitos-food). The organism which provides food and shelter to a parasite is known as host. The parasites which cause diseases are known as pathogens. Parasites belong to all groups of organisms. Plasmodium (Malaria), Trypanosome (Sleeping Sickness) and Leis mania (Kala Azar) are protozoan parasites. Ascaris (Common Roundworm), Taenia (Tapeworm) and Wuchereria (Filarial worm) are worms that live inside human body and cause ailments. Leech, Bedbug and Mosquito are temporary or periodic external parasites which visit host periodically in order to obtain nourishment. Human Louse is a permanent external parasite. An external plant parasite is Cuscuta (Amarbel). It is a nongreen plant that sends haustoria or sucking roots into host plant for obtaining food and water. A number of fungi and bacteria are parasites. Difference between Saprophyte and Parasite Saprophyte Parasite Mode of Nutrition. Nutrition is got from organic remains. Nutrition is obtained form another living organism called host. External Digestion. Saprophytes perform external digestion External digestion is absent. in order to solubilise the food materials. Sucking Organs. They are absent. Many parasites possess sucking organs. Ingestion. Only digested food is taken The ingested food can be predigested, semidigested or undigested. Disease. It does not cause disease. It often produces disease or aliment in the host. Food. It may spoil food. It robs the host of food. Ecological Role. It has ecological role in scavenging the earth A useful ecological role is absent. At time it may 7
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of dead organic and release of trapped biogeochemicals. spread a disease in epidemic form. Holozoic Nutrition. It is a mode of heterotrophic nutrition which involves intake of solid pieces of food. Since solid food is taken in, holozoic nutrition is also called ingestive nutrition. Holozoic nutrition (Gk. holo-whole, zoon-animal) is found in animals and protozoan protests. The food may consist of another animal, plant or its parts. Depending upon the source of food, holozoic organisms are of three types herbivores, carnivores, omnivores. Herbivores (L. herba-plant, vorare-to eat). They are holozoic organisms which feed on plants or plant parts, e.g., Cow, Buffalo, Deer, Goat, Rabbit, Grasshopper, Elephant, Squirrel, Hippopotamus. Carnivores (L. carne-flesh, vorare-to eat). They are animals which feed on other animals. Carnivores are also called predators as they hunt, kill and feed on their preys, e.g., Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Snake, Hawk. Omnivores (L. omnt's-all, vorare-to eat). They are holozoic organisms which feed on both plant and animal materials, e.g., Cockroach, Ant, Pig, Crow, Rat, Bear, Dog, Humans. A fourth category of holozoic organisms is detrivores. Detrivores (L, detritus-dead, vorare-to eat) are animals which feed on dead bonding of other animals. They are also called carrion feeders or scavengers, e.g.. Vulture, Hyaena, Kite. Difference between photosynthetic (Holophytic) and Holozoic Nutrition Photosynththetic/Holophytic Nutrition Holozoic Nutrition
Occurrence. It is found in green plants, some protozoans and It is found in animals and some protozoan bacteria. protests. Raw Materials. Only inorganic raw materials are taken from Readymade food of organic materials is taken outside. from outside. Type. It is absorptive type of nutrition. Organic Food. It is self manufactured. Chlorophyll. It is present for trapping light energy. It is ingestive type of nutrition. Organic food is got from outside. Chlorophyll is absent.
Sunlight. Sunlight is essential for this type of nutrition. Sunlight has no role for this type of nutrition. Examples. Grass, Mango, Wheat, Sunflower. Humans, Deer, Lion, Cockroach. STEPS IN HOLOZOIC NUTRITION There are five steps in holozoic nutrition ingestion, digestion,, absorption, assimilation and egestion. 1. Ingestion (L. ingestus taken in). It is taking in of solid food with the help of temporary or permanent mouth. Different animals use different organs for catching, holding and putting the food into mouth. Cutting and tearing the solid food into small pieces is common for ingestion. 2. Digestion. The ingested food consists of complex insoluble organic substances. The conversion of complex insoluble food ingredients into simple absorbable form is called digestion. It is a catabolic process which occurs with the help of digestive enzymes. Digestion can be intracellular or intercellular. Intracellular. digestion is found in protozoan protists (e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium), simple animals and certain cells of higher animals (e.g., macrophages. monocytes). Here the ingested food particle is digested in a food vacuole. In higher animals the ingested food is taken to a digestive tract where digestive enzymes are poured over it. As it occurs outside the cells, the digestion is intercellular or extracellular, e.g., fish, frog, lizard, lion, human. 3. Absorption. The digested food is absorbed from the digestive tract and transported to all body parts. It is picked up by all the living cells. 4. Assimilation. Inside the living cells, the absorbed food materials fm used in obtaining energy and formation of new components for repair and growth of cells. Assimilation is an anabolic process as it takes part in synthesis of proteins, polysaccharides, fats and other macromolecules. 5. Egestion (L. egestus-discharge). The whole of ingested food is seldom digested. The undigested components of food are thrown out of the body as faecal matter. The process is called egestion. Differences between Ingestion and Egestion Ingestion Egestion 1. Process. Ingestion is the process of taking in of food. It is the throwing faecal matter out of the body. 8
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2. Steps. It involves catching, and putting the food into body through mouth. 3. Components. Ingested food consists of both digestible and matter.

It involves piling up of faecal matter and its elimination through anus, cloaca or other opening. Faecal matter consists only of indigestible materials.
HOW DO UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS CARRY OUT THE PROCESS OF HOLOZOIC NUTRITION Protozoan protists carry out holozoic nutrition through intracellular digestion. They are generally omnivores as they feed on microscopic algae, bacteria, other protozoa and particles of decaying organic matter. Some protists can ingest food particle from any point on the surface (e.g., Amoeba) while others have fixed points for the same (e.g., Paramoecium), Protozoans like Amoeba capture food with the help of temporary finger-like processes called pseudopodia. Protozoans like Paramoecium have small hair-like processes called cilia. Beating of cilia creates current in water that pushes food particle through cytostome or cell mouth. The process of ingestion of solid food particle by a cell or unicellular organism is called phagocytosis.
As soon as Amoeba comes in contact with a food particle or prey, it throws pseudopodia all around the same. The tips of encircling pseudopodia fuse and the prey comes to lie in a vesicle or phagosome. This method of intake of food is called circumvallation. Amoeba can also ingest food by other methods like import, circumfluence and invagination. A lysosome fuses with phagosome to produce a food vacuole, also called gastriole or temporary stomach. Food vacuole does not remain stationary. It circulates in cytoplasm due to cyclosis or streaming movement of cytoplasm. Reaction of food vacuole is acidic at first and alkaline later on. Digestion of food occurs with the help of digestive enzymes brought by lysosome. It changes complex insoluble substance of food into simpler absorbable substance. The latter diffuse into the surrounding cytoplasm. The old food vacuole with heavier undigested material reaches the rear ten, passes to the surface fuses with surface membrane and throws out the undigested materials. The process is called egestion. Paramoecirim has a definite cytopyge or cell anus. NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS Human beings are omnivorous in nutrition. Like other multicultural animals, humans have a digestive system for nutrition. Digestive system is a group of organs and associated digestive glands that take part in ingestion of food, its crushing digestion, absorption of digested materials and egestion of indigestible matter. The digestive organs form a continuous canal called alimentary canal. It contains a number of digestive glands of its own. Three types of external glands also pour their secretion into alimentary canal. They are salivary glands, liver and pancreas. Alimentary canal (L. alereto nourish) is a tubular passage extending from mouth to anus through which food passes during its digestion and absorption. It is about meters in length. Alimentary canal consists of mouth, buccal cavity, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. 1. Mouth. It is a transverse slit or aperture that occurs in between the nose and the chin, mouth is bounded by two soft, movable sensitive lips, upper and lower. Lips are covered by skin on the outside and mucous membrane on the inner side. They help in holding the food. Lops also aid in phonation (speech). 2. Buccal or Oral Cavity (L. buccacheek). It is anterior part of alimentary canal that extends from mouth to pharynx and lies between two jaws, upper (fixed) and lower (movable). It has palate on upper sine, throat and tongue on the lower side and cheeks on the sides. Both the jaws contain teeth in semicircular rows or arches.
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(i) Tongue. It is a muscular, sensory, movable and protrusibIe flat structure which is attached posteriorly over the lower jaw. Tongue bears taste buds for tasting the quality of foodsweet interiorly, salt anterio-laterally, sour antero-posteriorly and bitter posteriorly. It moves food in the buccal cavity for crushing under teeth, mixing with saliva and pushing the food during swallowing. Tongue cleans the teeth. It also aids in phonation (speech). It functions as a movable spoon during drinking. (ii) Teeth. Teeth are hard structures which are partially embedded in sockets of jaw bones (thecodont). They are made of ivory like substance called dentine. The exposed part, of teeth or crowns are covered by a shining substance called enamel. Enamel is the hardest substance of the body. Teeth are used for tearing, cutting and crushing. Each jaw has teeth of four types (heterodont) : Type Shape Function Number in Each Jaw incisors Chisel-shaped Biting Canines Dagger-shaped Tearing (little used in humans) Per-molars Cusped broad edged Grinding Molars Cusped broad edged Grinding Humans have two sets of teeth (diphyodont), deciduous and permanent. Deciduous or milk teeth occur in infants. They start appearing at the age of - months and are completed by the age of two years. Milk teeth are in number. From years, the deciduous or milk teeth are lost and replaced by permanent teeth that are in number. The last molars are called wisdom teeth as they appear late at the age of - years. The dental formula is
One half of upper jaw 2 1 2 3 i , C , pm , m One half of lower jaw 2 1 2 3

(iii) Salivary Glands. Three pairs of salivary glands (saliva secreting glands) open into buccal cavity. They are parotid (below ears), sub-maxillary lat the angles of lower jaw) and sublingual (below tongue). About 1.0 1.5 litres of near neutral saliva is poured into buccal cavity each day. Saliva consists of mucus, water, lysozyme and enzyme ptyalin. (i) Due to presence of mucus and water, saliva makes the food soft and slippery for easy crushing and formation of bolus. Watering of mouth at the sight of a delicious dish or during eating a favourite dish is due to excessive secretion of saliva. (ii) Lysozyme is antimicrobial enzyme which kills bacteria by cleaving their walls (Withers et at, ). (iii) The digestive enzyme ptyalin or salivary amylase acts on starch and glycogen of cooked food and changes the same into sweet sugar called maltose. Bread tastes sweeter if chewed for longer period because of this conversion. Normally - % of starch is converted into dextrins and maltose by the action of salivary amylase. Starch
ptyalin Maltose + Dexitrins
(iv) Saliva cleans the teeth, (v) It provides solvent for dissolving chemicals present in the food for knowing the taste of food. (vi) It keeps the buccal cavity, lips and tongue moist for proper phonation (speech). Dental Caries. It is localised softening and destruction of enamel and dentine of teeth forming cavities that reach the pulp. Dental caries is also called dental decay. It is caused by bacterium Streptococcus mutans. It feeds on food particles especially sugars and produces acids. The acids are able to demineralise enamel and dentine (through dissolution of calcium salts) so as to soften the same. Growing on food particles Steptococcus mutans multiplies rapidly and forms a dental plaque. The plaque covers the teeth. Its bacteria secrete the acids that cause dental caries. Saliva which normally neutralises the acid and kills the bacteria is unable to protect the teeth because of the plaque. Brushing of teeth after meals removes the plaque. Bacteria are unable to multiply and produce acids. However, if plaque formation is allowed to persist, softening of enamel and dentine will allow the microorganisms to reach the pulp of the teeth. This results in inflammation and infection that resulting in acute pain, total decay and falling of teeth. Action of Food in Buccal Cavity. Food is moistened, crushed and partially digested in buccal cavity due to action of salivary amylase on starch, At the end it is rolled into a small ball or bolus. 1 . Pharynx. It is a funnel-shaped common passage of respiratory and digestive tracts which is also connected with middle ear. At the end of mastication nasal chambers are closed by the raising of uvula while glottis or opening of trachea is closed by the raising of larynx to come in contact with epiglottis. Masticated food enters pharynx in the form of bolus. Soon the muscles of pharynx contract to push the food into oesophagus. The act of pushing food into oesophagus is called swallowing (deglutition). 2 . Oesphagus (Food Pipe). It is a narrow muscular distensible tubular part of alimentary canal that connects pharynx with stomach. It passes through neck, thorax and diaphragm. Length is about cm. Oesophagus does not contain digestive glands. However, its wall secretes mucus for lubrication of passing food. Action of salivary amylase (ptyalin) over starch 10
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continues in oesophagus. In oesophagus the food is pushed towards stomach by a wave of alternate contraction and expansion called peristalsis. Peristalsis occurs all along the rest of the alimentary canal and helps in pushing the food forward. 3 . Stomach. It is a large J-shaped, widest, thick walled but distensible and muscular organ of the alimentary canal which lies in the left upper part of abdomen below diaphragm. It has a large number of branched and tubular gastric glands. The secretion of gastric glands is called gastric juice. Not only the presence of food, the sight, smell or even touch of favourite food can initiate secretion of gastric. Wall of the stomach undergoes periodic contraction. This churns the contained food and mixes it thoroughly with gastric juice. Gastric juice contains HCI, mucus, pepsin, gastric lipase and rennin. Pepsin and rennin are secreted in their inactive states of pepsinogen and prorennin. HCI (hydrochloric acid) has five functions (i) It softens the food (ii) HCI makes the food acidic (pH - ) for proper functioning of pepsin. (iii) HCI stops the action of salivary amylase. (iv) It kills germs and bacteria so as to disinfect food. (v) HCI converts inactive pepsinogen and prorennin into active pepsin and rennin. Pepsinogen Prorennin
HCI Pepsin HCI Rennin
Pepsin is a major enzyme of gastric juice which functions in acidic medium (pH 2.0 3.5 ). It hydrolyses proteins into soluble fragments called proteoses and peptones. The enzyme gastric lipase is active in infants. It partially breaks down fat into its components. Rennin is also active only in infants. It curdles the milk by converting soluble milk protein casein into insoluble protein called paracasein. As a result milk stays in stomach for longer period for the pepsin to act on it. Protein
pepsion Peptones + Proteoses rennin Paracasein
Casein
(insoluble) In stomach the food stays for - hours depending upon type of foodcarbohydrate rich ( - hrs), protein rich ( - hrs), fat rich ( - hrs). During this period it is changed into partially digested pulpy mass called chyme. Chyme passes in small amounts into duodenum part of small intestine through a pyloric valve (at the end of stomach) guarded by sphincter (circular muscle). Water, glucose, alcohol, drugs and some minerals are absorbed in stomach. Excessive secretion of gastric juice, especially HCI causes corrosions in the wall of stomach to form open depressions called peptic ulcers. Bacterium Helicobacter pylori resides in these ulcers. Peptic ulcers are highly painful. 4 . Small Intestine. It is the longest part of the alimentary canal which is about metres in length and 2.5 3.5 cm in diameter. It is extensively coiled to get accommodated in small space. Small intestine is known so because of its lesser diameter as compared to that of large intestine. It is the seat of major digestion and absorption. For this it possesses a number of intestinal glands. The secretion of intestinal glands is called succus enteric us. The first part of small intestine also receives secretion of liver and pancreas. Intestinal wall is thrown up into numerous folds having finger-like projections called villi. Villi increase the surface area for absorption of digested food. Intestinal glands are mostly present at the bases of villi. Small intestine is differentiated into three parts - duodenum, jejunum and ileum(i) Duodenum. It is proximal part of small intestine which receive partially digested acidified food from stomach. Duodenum forms a U - shaped loop with stomach. It is about cm in length. Duodenal glands secrete an alkaline mucus containing juice that helps in neutralizing the chyme and protect the wall from corrosion. A common hepatopancreatic duct opens into duodenum. It is formed of a common bile duct from liver and gall bladder and a pancreatic duct from ancreas. Common bile duct brings a yellowish green bitter liquid or bile from gall bladder ( times more concentrated) and liver. Bile is alkaline due to presence of alkaline inorganic salts (mostly bicarbonates of Sodium and Potassium). Other components of bile are bile pigments (green biliverdin and yellowish bilirubin) and bile salts (sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate). A digestive enzyme is absent, (i) Bile neutralises the acidity of chyme and protects duodenal wall from corrosion, (ii) It makes the food alkaline for action of pancreatic juice. (iii) It prevents purification of food. (iv) A major function of bile is to break fat into fine globules for action of lipase of pancreatic juice. Breaking of fat into fine globules is called emulsification. Pancreatic juice is the major digestive juice of the body. It is slightly alkaline- The juice contains three main enzymes trypsin, amylase and lipase. Trypsin is proteolysis enzyme which functions in alkaline medium. It is secreted in inactive form of trypsinogen. Trypsin breaks down proteins, proteoses and peptones to form peptides. Pancreatic lipase (steapsin) is the main fat digesting enzyme. It acts on emulsified fat to form fatty acids and glycerol. Pancreatic amylase (amylopsin) acts on starch, glycogen, dextrins and other complex carbohydrates to form maltose and other similar sugars. Starch + Dextrins Maltose
amylase
Fat Fatty acids + Glycerol

lipase
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Proteoses + peptones
tryp sin Peptides
Liver. It is the largest gland of the body which weighs about . kg or / weight of the body. Liver lies in right upper side of abdomen. It is soft and reddish brown in colour. Liver has two lobes, larger right lobe and smaller left lobe. A pear shaped yellowish green sac or gall bladder is attached on the inferior surface of right lobe. Gall bladder concentrates and stores bile. Bile is secreted by liver. Liver has some functions. The most important ones are (i) Storage of glycogen. (ii) Removal of amino group ( NH 2 ) group from surplus amino acids and combining it with CO2 to form urea. (iii) Formation of glucose from excess organic acids, (iv) Storage of iron. (v) Storage of vitamins A, D, E , B12 . (vi) Synthesis of vitamin A from carotene, (vii) Secretion of blood anticoagulant named heparin. (viii) Synthesis of blood or plasma proteins, fibrinogen and pruthrombin. (ix) Destruction of some worn out blood carpuscles (major destruction by spleen.) (x) Decomposition of haemoglobin released from broken down red blood carpusches. (xi) Secretion of bile. (xii) Detoxification of harmful chemicals. (xiii) Elimination of pathogens and foreign particles through phagocytic cells called Kupffer's cells. Pancreas . It is the second largest gland of the body which is heterocrine in nature. Pancreas is a diffused gland of - cm length that lies in the loop of duodenum and below the stomach. Pancreas secretes a digestive fluid called pancreatic juice. The secretion is major digestive juice of the body as it has enzymes for hydrolysing all types of food ingredients. The enzymes are trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, nucleases, pancreatic lipase and pancreatic amylase. Pancreas also produces two types of hormones, insulin and glucagon. Insulin is essential for utilisation of glucose by cells and its conversion into glycogen for storage. Glucagon is required for conversion of glycogen into glucose. Difference Between Pepsin and Trypsin Pepsin Trypsin 1 . Component. It is component of gastric juice. It is component of pancreatic juice. 2. Inactive State. It is produced in the inactive state of Trypsin is produced in the inactive state called pepsinogen. trypsinogen. 3. Activation. The enzyme is activated by HCI of gastric The enzyme is activated by enterokinase of intestinal juice. juice. 4. Region of Activity. It is active in stomach. It is active in duodenum and jejunum.
5.Medium. It functions in acidic medium. It functions in alkaline medium. (ii) Jejunum. It is middle coiled part of small intestine which is 1.5 2.0 metres in length. It has abundant digestive glands producing major part of intestinal juice or succus entericus. Jejunum is the seat maximum digestion. Enzymes of intestinal juice complete the process digestion, e.g., erepsin or peptidases (peptides
amino acids), invertase or sucrase (sucrose glucose +

fructose), maltase (maltose
glucose), lactase (lactose or milk sugar
glucose + galactose).
Peptides Sucrose Maltose Lactose
erep sin Amino acids
Invertase Glucose + Fructose maltase Glucose + Glucose
lactase Glucose + Galactos
(iii) lleum. It is the distal coiled part of small intestine. The length is about metres. Digestive glands are fewer. However, villi are most abundant. Major function of ileum is absorption of digested food. Villi are suited for this function. A villus has one lymph vessel or lacteal, a number of blood capillaries and a covering of epithelial cells specialised for absorption. Absorption occurs by passive transport, active transport and cotransport. The absorbed fat is taken away by lacteal while other materials are taken up by
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blood capillaries for transport to the regions of storage and use. Glucose is stored as glycogen in liver and muscles. It also reaches every cell for absorption. Amino acids are absorbed by individual cells for assimilation. Excess amino acids are deaminated by liver Fat is stored in adipose tissue. It is also absorbed by individual cells in small quantity. 1. Large Intestine. It is a distal region of alimentary canal which is 1.5 1.8 metres long and - cm in diameter. It receives a semi fluid mixture of undigested matter, mucus and water. Large intestine does not contain digestive glands. It is specialised to solidify the undigested matter to form faecal matter. Some heavy and toxic chemicals are poured over this faecal matter by wall of large intestine. Bacteria present in large intestine produce vitamins K and B which are also absorbed here. Large intestine has three parts caecum, colon and rectum. (i) Caecum. It is a small pouch of about cm diameter that lies at the junction of small and large intestine. Caecum gives out a narrow blind tubular lymphoid outgrowth of - cm length. It is called vermiform appendix. Both caecum and vermiform appendix are vestigial organs* in humans. Infection of vermiform appendix causes acute pain in the lower right part of abdomen. It is called appendicitis. Infected appendix is removed surgically without much delay. The practice is called appendectomy. (ii) Colon. It is longest, inverted U-shaped part of large intestine. Colon bears alternate sac-like swellings called haustra. There are four parts ascending, transverse. undiscerning and sigmoid. Colon absorbs water from undigested food and converts it into faecal mater. A number of bacteria reside in colon and feed on undigested matter. Some of them secrete B- and Kvitamins. Gas formation of alimentary canal is mostly due to these bacteria. (iii) Rectum. It is last part of large intestine which is broader than colon. The length is - cm. As the faecal matter collects in colon, the feeling of defecation occurs. Rectum proper posture helps in pushing the faecal matter into rectum from where it is eliminated or egested through an opening called anus. Normally the opening is guarded by anal sphincter. RESPIRATION Respiration (L. respirare- to breathe) is a biochemical process of stepwise oxidative breakdown of organic compounds inside living cells releasing small packets of energy at various steps. It is, therefore, catabolic and exergonic process. The organic compounds that undergo oxidative breakdown in respiration are called respiratory substrates. The most common respiratory substrate is glucose. Another related sugar is fructose. Glucose is formed by hydrolysis of storage carbohydrate like starch in plants and glycogen in animals. Energy liberated during oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate is partly stored in ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The rest is dissipated as heat.
enzymes C6 H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6 H 2O + 38 ATP out of
kcal/
kJ.
Energy stored in ATP is used in carrying out different biological functions required for survival and maintenance of organisms like contraction in muscles, conduction in nerves, maintenance of protoplasmic structures, cyclosis, membrane permeability, biosynthesis, etc. ATP functions as energy currency in various cellular activities. It is built up from ADP and inorganic phosphate, when energy is available. ATP undergoes hydrolysis to liberate inorganic phosphate and energy where the latter is required. The energy available from breakdown of last phosphate bond is 30.5 kJ or 7.3 kcal/mol.
energy ATP ATP or ADP ~ (g) ADP + (P) + Energy
ADP + (P)
Easily available respiratory substrate is essential for liberation of energy required for body activities. If you have not taken food the whole day, you will feel weak and lazy because of the reduced availability of respiratory substrate and hence insufficient amount of energy. Rate of breathing also indicates the amount of energy being liberated. At rest an adult breathes - /min, adolescent - /min while children breathe at a rate of - /min. During activity, the rate of breathing increases.
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IMPORTANCE OF RESPIRATION
1. Survival. No organism can survive without respiring continuously. It is because respiration liberates energy. Energy is required for every life process. 2. Maintenance of Temperature. Part of energy is liberated as heat. It helps in maintaining body temperature. Excess heat is passed out in exhaled air. 3. Excretion. Some volatile waste products and CO2 are passed out during exhalation. 4. Acid-Base Balance. Regular exhalation of
CO2 maintains the acid-base balance of the body.
5. Intermediates. Respiration produces a number of intermediates that produce different biochemicals of the body. 6. Back Flow of Blood and Lymph. Flow of venous blood and lymph is maintained by respiratory movements of abdomen and thorax. 7. Exchange of Gases. It carries oxygen to the cells and take out carbon dioxide from the same. Difference between Respiration and Combustion Respiration Combustion 1 . Cellular, It is a cellular process which occurs inside living It is a non-cellular process. cells. o 2 . Temperature. Temperature does not rise above Combustion produces temperature of C. C. 3 . Control. It is under biological control. It is an uncontrolled process. 4 . Steps. It is a multistep reaction. It is single step reaction. 5 . Enzymes. A number of enzymes take pan in reaction. No enzyme is involved. 6 . Energy. It is released in small packets in several It is released in large amount in one step. steps. 7 . Heat and Light. About % of energy is liberated as heal. Whole energy is produced as heat and light. Light is not produced. 8 . Storage of Energy. % of liberated energy is stored as ATP There is no storage of energy. molecules. 9 . Intermediates. Several intermediates are produced. No intermediates are produced. 10 . Oxidation. It is terminal where oxygen combines with Oxidation is direct where every ox disable atom is hydrogen of reduced coenzymes. oxidised without relation to presence of hydrogen. STEP OR RESPIRATION In higher animals, reparation consists of the four stepsbreathing external respiration, internal respiration and cellular respiration. Breathing is the bringing of oxygen rich fresh are to reparatory surface and taking off carbon dioxide rich foul air to the outside. External respiration is the exchange of respiratory gases over the respiratory surface. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases at the tissue level and their transport to and from the respiratory surface. Cellular respiration is the actual breakdown of respiratory substance that occurs inside the living cells. Direct respiration occurs in those cases where there is direct exchange of gases between the cells organism and its environment, e.g., plants amoeba and some lower animals. Breathing respiration occurs in animals where a transport system is involved in carrying gases between the cells and the respiratory surface. Respiratory gases. They are gases which are either being consumed or liberated during respiration. Respiratory gases are also called metabolic gases. They are oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is the gas used in oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate. It is, therefore, a reactant. Carbon dioxide is a product of respiration. Water is also a product of respiration. Respiration and photosynthesis They are complementary as well antagonistic processes where the end product of one process function as raw materials for the other process.
photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6 H 2O + energy C6 H12O6 + 6O2 respiration
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Photosynthesis is a build-up or anabolic process that forms organic substances from inorganic materials with the help of light energy. It is, therefore, an endergonic process.
6CO2 + 6 H 2O + 686 kcal C6 H12O6 + 6O2

Respiration is exactly opposite of photosynthesis. It is a breakdown or catabolic process in which a respiratory substrate is broken down to release energy. It is, therefore, an exergonic process.
C6 H12O6 6CO2 + 6 H 2O + 686 kcal or kJ .

Photosynthesis occurs during daytime. However, its rate is several times the rate of respiration so that during daytime there is net absorption of carbon dioxide and net release of oxygen by photosynthetic cells. Respiration continues in all the ceils and at all the times, even in photosynthetic cells. At compensation point, the rate of photosynthesis just equals the rate of respiration so that there is no net exchange of gases. It occurs at low light intensity as well as low CO2 availability. Differences between Photosynthesis and Respiration Photosynthesis Respiration 1 . Metabolism. Photosynthesis is a synthetic or anabolic process. Respiration is a breakdown or catabolic process. 2 . Energy Relations. It is an endergonic process. It is an exergonic process. 3 . Energy Conversion. It converts light energy into chemical It liberates chemical energy which is used as energy. such or changed into other forms of energy4 . Timing. Photosynthesis occurs during the daytime when light Respiration occurs all the lime. is available. 5 . Cells. It occurs only in green cells. It occurs in all types of living cells. 6 . Carbon Dioxide. It absorbs carbon dioxide. Respiration liberates carbon dioxide. 7 . Oxygen. Photosynthesis liberates oxygen. Respiration consumes oxygen. 8 . Raw Materials. They are carbon dioxide and water They are glucose and oxygen. 9 . End Products. They are glucose, other organic substances and End products are carbon dioxide and water. oxygen 10. Weight. There is net gain of weight. There is net loss of weight. EXCHANGE OF GASES IN PLANTS Like other living organisms, plants also exchange gases with their environment. Both metabolic or respiratory gases, carbon dioxide and oxygen, are involved in respiration as well as photosynthesis. However, plants do not possess any transport system for the gases. The gases move entirely by diffusion. For this, the cell membranes are permeable to them. Intercellular spaces occur throughout the plants for reducing the distance of diffusion between cells and air. Intercellular spaces are also connected with one another so that deep seated cells and tissues are also able to exchange gases with the environment. Being fixed in nature, the energy requirement and hence the rater respiration of plants is slow as compared to animals. Different parts of the plants respire at different rates. Respiration is rapid in meristematic regions (stem tips, root tips, cambia), floral buds, growing fruits and germinating seeds. It is slower in mature regions. However, all plants must respire continuously. Plants often die in water logged soils because the soil is unable to supply sufficient oxygen to roots. Young Roots. In young roots the gaseous exchange occurs directly between the soil air and the living cells since root hairs and epiblma cells are permeable to gases. Older Roots and Stems. In older roots and stems, the surface tissues are impermeable to gases. They have permanently open pores called lenticels. Each lenticel contains a mass of loosely arranged complementary cells that enclose number of intercellular spaces. Exchange of gases occur through them. Leaves and Young Stems. Leaves and young stems are ideally to quick exchange of gases. The organs have a covering of nearly impermeable epidermis for reducing loss of water. The epidermis bears a number of aerating pores called stomata (singular stoma or stomate, Gk. Stoma mouth) Each aerating or stomatal pore is bordered by a pair of guard cells. In most of the plants, the guard cells are kidney or bean shaped with inner walls being thicker and less elastic than the outer walls. Guard cells contain chloroplasts which are absent in other epidermal cells. Opening and closing of stomata is regulated. 15
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Guard cells have mechanism to increase their osmotic concentration by withdrawing K ions from surrounding epidermal cells. Such guard cells also withdraw water from surrounding cells and become turgid. The turgid guard cells swell up. As the outer wall is thin and elastic, thick cells bend outwardly more than the inner region where wall is thick. However, some bending also occurs here. As the inner walls of the two guard cells bend outwardly, a pore is created between them. During closure of stomata, the guard cells send out K ions. Water also passes out. As the turgidity decreases, the guard cells contract. Their thick inner walls come to touch each other. The pore gets closed. When the stomata are open, gases diffuse into and out of the leaf as per their concentration gradient. A gas which has come from outside first reaches substomatal chambers. From here, it diffuses to all the intercellular air spaces present in between the mesophyll cells. If the stomata are open during night, oxygen from outside will diffuse into the leaves and young stems while carbon dioxide will diffuse out. It is due to respiratory gas exchange. Here each living cell picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. However, during the day reverse gaseous exchange occurs despite the occurrence of respiration in each and every cell. It is because of the very high rate of photosynthesis as compared to respiration. During daytime oxygen diffuses out of the leaves and young stems while carbon dioxide passes from environment into them. BREATHING Breathing is a physical process of bringing in of fresh air for obtaining oxygen and taking out of foul fresh for elimination of carbon dioxide. The surface where exchange of gases occurs is called respiratory surface. The organ having respiratory surface is known as respiratory organ, e.g., lungs in human beings, gills in fish, skin in earthworm, trachea in insects. The respiratory organs have three common features ; (i) Large Surface Area. There is a large respiratory surface that is either in contact with environment directly or receives air or water from outside. (ii) Thin Permeable Membrane. The respiratory surface has thin permeable wall for quick diffusion and exchange of gases. (iii) Abundant Blood Supply. Except in tracheal system, the respiratory surface has abundant blood supply due to presence of a network of blood capillaries. This helps in quick diffusion and transportation. Additional structures are associated with respiratory organs to help them perform their functions, e.g., diaphragm, muscles, rib case, nasal chambers, etc. All the organs connected with bringing in of fresh air to the respiratory surface and expulsion of foul air from the body are collectively called respiratory system. Difference between Breathing and Respiration Breathing Respiration 1 . Definition. Breathing is taking in of fresh air and giving It is oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate. out of foul air. 2 . Nature. It is a physical process. It is a biochemical process. 3 . Energy. Breathing consumes energy. Respiration produces energy. 4 . Enzymes. No enzymes are required. It is an enzyme mediated process. 5 . Cellular. Breathing is an extra-cellular process. Respiration is an intracellular process. 6 . Resemblance. Mode of breathing is different in different Mechanism of respiration is the same in all types of 16
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organisms. EXCHANGE. OF GASES IN ANIMALS organisms.
A variety if methods are used for exchange of gases in animals. Specific respiratory organs are absent in lower animals and protozoan protists. Skin is used as respiratory surface in some lower animals as well as amphibians. Respiratory organs include gills, tracheae and lungs. . Cell Surface Gaseous Exchange. Exchange of gases occurs between cell surface or plasma membrane and the surrounding medium in protozoan protists, e.g.. Amoeba, Paramoecium. They are unicellular organisms. Porifers (e.g., sponges) and coelenterates (e.g.. Hydra) are multicultural animals where every cell is in contact with the surrounding water. Exchange of eases occurs through diffusion across the cell surface. In flatworms and roundworms a regular respiratory surface is absent. Exchange of gases occurs through diffusion across the body surface from where it continues inwardly to every cell. However, diffusion is unable to meet the respiratory requirement of individual cells in large sized multicellular animals. For example, diffusion of an oxygen molecule from lung to human toe would take three years. Therefore, a system of internal transport of gases is found in multicellular animals. . Gaseous Exchange Through Skin (Cutaneous Respiration). Skin functions as a respiratory surface without being organised into a respiratory organ in Earthworm, Leech, Nereis, Frog and other amphibians. Here skin is thin, vascular, moist, glandular and permeable to gases. Exchange of gases occurs between blood and environment over a thin layer of water kept over the surface of the skin. Besides skin, mucous membrane of buccopharyngeal cavity also takes part in gaseous exchange in Frog. . Gaseous Exchange through Tracheal system (Tracheal Respiration). It occurs in insects and some other arthropods. They have a network of tubes called tracheae (singular trachea). Tracheae communicate with outside air through lateral holes of the body called spiracles. Each trachea is branched and rebranched to from very fine tubules called tracheoles. Tracheae and their branches are supported by chitinous rings called taenidia. Tracheoles are without supporting rings. They open into tissue fluid through fine end cells. Inspiration occurs earn the abdominal museles contract. Relaxation of abdominal muscles causes exhalation or expiration of foul air. Blood or haemolymph has no role in exchange of gases. Gaseous Exchange through Gills (Branchial Respiration) Gills are respiratory organs in several aquatic animals like Prawn, Crab, Mussel, Tadpole and fishes. External gills occur in Tadpole, Prawn, Mussel and Crab. Fishes have internal gills. In bony fishes four pairs of gills are found in two branchial chambers, each covered by an operculum. Operculum has a hole for passage of water. A gill has rakers for filtering water. A gill has two rows of gill filaments with each filament made of many leaf like gill lamellae richly supplied with blood capillaries. In fishes, water enters through mouth, reaches pharynx and then gill chambers. Here it is filtered in rakers and passed through gill lamellae where exchange of gases occurs. Oxygen from water enters blood while carbon dioxide of blood diffuses out in water. Water carrying carbon dioxide passes out of gill chamber through the pore in operculum.
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Gaseous Exchange Through Lungs (Pulmonary Respiration). It occurs in all land vertebrates, even those who have become aquatic secondary, i.e., amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals. The respiratory surface is represented in the form of alveoli. A lung has numerous alveoli. Each alveolus has an internal surfactant that prevents its collapsing. The wall of the alveolus has a bunch of blood capillaries. Air enters alveoli during inhalation. Oxygen of inhaled air diffuses into blood while carbon dioxide of the blood passes out into alveoli. Foul air is passed out of lungs during exhalation. RESPIRATION IN HUMAN BEINGS Human beings perform pulmonary respiration. Human respiratory system consists of respiratory tract, a pair of lungs and accessory organs that bring about breathing. The accessory organs are thorax, rib cage, diaphragm and their muscles. Thorax is upper air tight chamber of the body which is bounded by rib cage on the sides, diaphragm on the lower side and neck on the upper side. Diaphragm is a muscular partition between thorax and abdomen. It can straighten and become curved upwardly by contraction and relaxation of phrenic muscles. Rib cage consists of vertebral column on the back (thoracic vertebrae), ribs on the sides and sternum in front. The ribs have obliquely placed muscles that can move the rib cage as well as the whole thorax outwardly and upwardly for increasing its girth. Respiratory tract is meant for carrying fresh air to respiratory surface and taking out foul air from the same. It has a number of components like external nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches inside the lungs. External Nostrils. They are two large openings which form the proximal part of respiratory tract. The external nostrils or external nacres occur above the mouth at the tip of nose. They lead internally into nasal chambers or nasal cavities. Nasal Cavities (Nasal Chambers). They are two chambers or cavities which lie above the buccal or oral cavity and are separated from the same by a bony plate. Anterior part of nasal cavities contain hair for filtering out large dust particles. Inner parts have olfactory epithelium over the roof for perceiving odour. The sides and floor appears pinkish due to presence of a large number of blood capillaries. The pseudo stratified epithelium of this region has mucus secreting glands, ciliated and conciliated cells. This region functions as air conditioner. It changes temperature and moisture of the incoming air at par with that of the body. Mucus contains lysozyme and other antimicrobial agents for killing the microbes. Dust particles are also trapped in the mucus. Beating of cilia push the contaminated mucus towards the external nostrils. Nasal cavities open into pharynx with the help of internal nostrils or internal nares (singular naris). The latter can be closed with the help of uvula. Pharynx. It is the common passage for respiratory and digestive systems. Larynx (Voice Box). Pharynx opens into anterior wider part of trachea called larynx. The opening is called glottis. A small leaf-like cartilaginous flap called epiglottis covers the glottis during swallowing. Incomplete covering by epiglottis during swallowing causes coughing. Internally larynx contains two vocal cords which vibrate when air passes in between them. The vibrations are converted into speech with the help of palate, buccal cavity, tongue and lips. Position of larynx is indicated externally in males in the throat region by a protuberance called Adam's apple.
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Trachea (Wind Pipe). It is a tube that arises from the base of larynx, passes through neck and reaches upto the middle of thorax. Trachea is - cm long and - cm broad. It is supported by incomplete C-shaped cartilaginous rings. Internally trachea is lined by ciliated and mucus secreting epithelium for trapping finer dust particles and microbes and pushing them towards the anterior end through beating of cilia. Bronchi. Trachea divides into two branches called bronchi. There is short, straight right bronchus and a slightly longer oblique left bronchus. Each bronchus enters the lung of its side, branches and rebranches. Bronchi and their branches bear incomplete or C-shaped cartilaginous rings for support. They are also lined internally by ciliated and mucus secreting epithelium. Branches of bronchi ultimately produce very fine tubes called bronchioles. Bronchioles do not possess supporting cartilaginous rings. Finer bronchioles give rise to alveoli or alveolar sacs. Epithelial lining of alveoli and fine bronchioles do not possess cilia and mucus glands. They possess cells which secrete a surfactant (dipalmityl lecithin-protein complex) for preventing their collapse during exhalation. Alveoli are polyhedral to rounded to rounded sacs having extremely thin single layered wall invested closely with blood capillaries. Alveoli are actual sites of gaseous exchange. Differences between Tracheloes and Bronchioles Tracheoles Bronchioles 1 . Branches. They are finer branches of air tubes or They are finer branches of bronchi. tracheae. 2. Location. Tracheoles lie freely in the body cavity. Bronchioles occur inside the lungs. 3. Tissue Fluid. They communicate directly with tissue fluid. 4. Ends. Tracheoles are closed at their tips. 5. Wall. Tracheole wall is made of a protein called trachein. They do not have any connection with tissue fluid. Bronchioles end in alveolar ducts. Bronchiole wall is made of epithelium and muscles.
6. Examples, Insects and some other Arthropods. Vertebrates. Lungs. They are a pair of pinkish to greyish, conical, spongy and elastic sacs that occur in the thoracic cavity, one on each side. Each lung is covered by two membranes or pit-lira, internal visceral and outer parietal. They form a fluid-filled thin sac called pleural sac. The pleural sac (i) Protects the lungs from mechanical shock and injury, (ii) Keeps the lung surface moist. (iii) Provides frictionless movements to lungs. Thoracic cavity is air tight and the pleural sacs of the lungs are in contact with its inner lining. Left lung is -lobed and larger. Right lung is three lobed but shorter. Each lobe is further divided internally into segments and segments into lobules. A lobule receives a bronchiole. Lobule is further divided into a large number of alveoli. The two lungs are estimated to have about million alveoli. Alveoli provide a large surface area for gaseous exchange. It is m . HOW BREATHING TAKES PLACE (Mechanism of Breathing) Breathing or the process of taking in fresh air and releasing foul air can be easily observed because thorax shows alternate expansion and contraction. It is involuntary though it can be prevented for a brief period. Rate of breathing is controlled by 19
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respiratory centre of brain. Expansion of thorax causes fresh air to be drawn in. Contraction of thorax causes foul air to be expelled. Therefore, breathing consists of two steps, inspiration and expiration. Inspiration or Inhalation. It is bringing of fresh air into lungs for exchange of gases. During inhalation, thoracic cavity enlarges due to two types of aspiratory muscles, phrenic and external intercostals. Phrenic muscles straighten the diaphragm by moving its curved part downwards. It increases length of thorax. Contraction of external intercostal muscles pushes the rib cage in outward and upward direction. It increases girth of thorax. Being air tight, increase in size of thoracic cavity causes expansion of lungs. It decreases air pressure in the lungs. As a result outside air rushes into lungs through external nostrils, nasal cavities, internal nostrils, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles to alveoli. While passing through respiratory tract, the incoming air is (i) Filtered by hair present in anterior part of nasal cavities. (ii) Cleansed of dust and microbes throughout respiratory tract y lysozyme, mucus and cilia. (iii) Air conditioned (bringing temperature of inhaled air to that of body) with the help of blood capillaries present below nasal epithelium. (iv) Moistened by water vapours from wet epithelium. Exchange of Gases. It occurs in the alveoli. Fresh air has high concentration of oxygen and a very low concentration of carbon dioxide. As a result oxygen diffuses from alveolar air to blood present in capillaries around the alveoli. Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveolar air. Percentage of Gases in Different Steps of Breathing Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen Water Vapours Inhaled Air Variable 20.84 0.04 .1 Alveolar Air Saturated 13 5.3 (after exchange) Exhaled Air Saturated 79.3 . .
15 7
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Expiration or Exhalation. It is throwing out or expulsion of foul air from the lungs after exchange of gases. Expiration or exhalation is a passive process caused by relaxation of in spiratory muscles. Relaxation of phrenic muscles causes the diaphragm to bulge into thorax resulting in shortening of thoracic cavity. Relaxation of external intercostal muscles pulls the rib cage inwardly and downwardly. It reduces the girth of thorax. Reduction in size of thoracic cavity causes compression of lungs. This leads to expulsion of air from lungs to the outside through respiratory tract consisting of alveoli bronchioles bronchi trachea larynx pharynx internal nostrils nasal cavities external nostrils. Differences between Inhalation and Exhalation Inhalation/Inspiration Exhalation/Expiration 1 . Action. Inhalation is bringing in of fresh air from outside. It is passing out of foul air to the outside. 2 . Rib Cage. It is pushed outwardly and upwardly. It is pulled inwardly and downwardly. 3 . Diaphragm. It contracts and becomes nearly Hat. It relaxes and becomes dome-shaped. 4 . Thoracic Cavity. It increases in size. 5 . Air Pressure. Air pressure decreases in lungs. 6 . Respiratory Muscles. They contract to bring about inhalation. It decreases in size. There is increase in air pressure in the lungs. They relax to cause exhalation.
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7 . Type of Process. Inhalation is an active process. 8 . Result. Air rushes from outside and causes inflation of lungs.

Exhalation is a passive process. Air is expelled from lungs causing their deflation.
9 . Oxygen. Inhaled air has an oxygen concentration of Exhaled air has an oxygen concentration of 20.84 % . 15.7 % . 10 . Carbon Dioxide. Its concentration in inhaled air is
0.04 % . Its concentration in exhaled air is 4.0 % .
WHAT HAPPEN! TO OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE? External Respiration. It is exchange of gases that occurs at the respiratory surface. Oxygen has a higher partial pressure in the alveolar air then inside the blood circulating over the alveolar surface. Carbon dioxide has higher partial pressure in blood as compared to alveolar air. Therefore, oxygen diffuses into blood while carbon dioxide passes out of the blood. % of oxygen combines with hemoglobin of red blood corpuscles to form oxyhaemoglobin. Only % of oxygen dissolves in blood plasma. Difference Between Respiration in Plants and Animals Plant Respiration Animal Respiration 1 . Rate. Rate of respiration is slow. It is quite fast. 2 . Respiratory Surface. Plants lack a respiratory surface. A respiratory surface is generally present. 3 . Respiratory Organs. They are absent. They are commonly present. 4 . Transport. A gas transport system is absent. A transport system is present to carry respiratory gases. 5 . Anaerobic Respiration. Common product of anaerobic Common product of anaerobic respiration is respiration is alcohol. lactic acid. 6 . Oxygen. Most of the oxygen required is produced internally. It is obtained from outside. 7 . Carbon Dioxide. Most of it is consumed internally. The whole of it is expelled out. called the and used tissue with
Internal Respiration. Blood containing oxygen or oxyhaemoglobin is oxygenated blood. From lungs the oxygenated blood passes into heart through pulmonary veins. It reaches the left part of the heart which pumps same to the whole body. In body tissues, oxygen separates from hemoglobin diffuses into individual cells through the tissue fluid. Inside the cells oxygen is up in oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate. It releases energy. Carbon dioxide is produced in the process. It diffuses into blood through fluid. It is more soluble in water. In blood % of carbon dioxide combines haemoglobin to fan carbaminohaemoglobin. The remaining travels as sodium bicarbonate ( %) and carbonic acid in the plasma to reach lungs. Carbon monoxide has very high affinity for haemoglobin. The product is carboxyhaemoglobin. It cannot carry oxygen. It is cause of death in closed heated by burning coal or wood. Cell Respiration. It is the actual biochemical process of enzymatic breakdown of respiratory substrate inside the cells. Energy is liberated Cellular respiration can be aerobic or anaerobic. AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
rooms
Sachs ( ) discovered that respiration can occur with or without oxygen. Therefore, there are two types of respiration, aerobic an anaerobic. Aerobic Respiration (Gk. aer-air, twos-life)
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It is a multistep complete oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate into carbon dioxide and water with the help of oxygen acting as a terminal oxidant. Aerobic respiration is the usual mode of respiration in all higher organisms and most of the low organisms. The reason is that it yield maximum amount of energy.
enezymes C6 H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6 H 2O + 686 kcal or 2870 kJ
The energy is stored in some molecules of ATP. Aerobic respiration occurs in two steps of ATP. Aerobic respiration occurs in two steps glycolysis and Krebs cycle. Glycolysis (Gk. glykys-sugar, lysis breakdown) .Glycolysis or EMP (Embden, Meyerhof and Parnas) pathway is the first step of respiration which is common to both aerobic and anaerobic modes of respiration. It occurs in cytoplasm. Respiratory substrate 'is double phosphorylated before it undergoes lysis to produce -carbon compound glyceraldehyde phosphate. NADH 2 and ATP are produced when glyceraldehyde is changed to pyruvate. The net reaction of glycolysis is :
enzymes C6 H12O6 + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + 2 NaD + 2C3 H 4O3 + 2 ATP + 2 NADH 2 in cytoplasm pyruvic acid
Krebs Cycle (Krebs, ). It is also known as citric acid cycle or tricarboxlic acid cycle (TCA cycle). Pyruvic acid or pyruvate enters mitochondria It undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to produce acetyl CoA , carbon dioxide and NADH 2 . Acetyl
CoA enters Krebs cycle. Here two decarboxylations. four dehydrogenations and one phosphorylation or ATP synthesis
occur.
oxidatuve Pyruvate + NAD + + CoA Acetly CoA + NADH 2 + CO2 decarboxylations
Acetyl CoA + 3NAD + + FAD CoA + 3NADH 2 + FADH 2 + 2CO2 Kerbs cycle NADH 2 and FADH 2 liberate electrons and hydrogen ions. They are used in building up ATP molecules and activating
oxygen molecules to combine with hydrogen for forming water. Water formed in respiration is called metabolic water. As oxygen is used at the end of Krebs cycle for combining with hydrogen, the process is called terminal oxidation. The overall equation of aerobic respiration using glucose as substrate is
in cytoplasm in mitochondria Glu cos e Pyruvate CO2 + H 2O + Energy (38 ATP ) noO2 required O2 required
Anaerobic Respiration (Gk. an-without, aer-air, bios-life) It is a multistep breakdown of respiratory substrate in which at least one end product is organic and which does not employ oxygen as an oxidant. Anaerobic respiration occurs in many lower organisms, e.g., certain bacteria, yeast. In human body it occurs regularly in red blood cells and during heavy exercise in muscles (striated muscles). Anaerobic respiration occurs entirely in the cytoplasm. It has two steps. The first step is glycolysis. Here, respiratory substrate glucose breaks down into two molecules of pyruvate, ATP and NADH 2 . Pyruvate is converted into ethyl alcohol (C2 H 5OH ) in Yeast and certain bacteria. It is changed to lactic acid
(CH 3CHOH .COOH ) in muscle cells when oxygen utilisation is faster than its
availability as during vigorous exercise. It creates an oxygen debt in the body. No such change occurs in blood corpuscles.
in cytoplasm in cytoplasm Glu cos e C3 H 4O3 C2 H 5OH + CO2 + Enerhy (2 ATP ) noO2 required noO2 required pyru va te Ethanol
In Muscel cells
in cytoplasm in cytoplasm Glu cos e C3 H 4O3 CH 3CHOHCOOH + Energy (2 ATP) noO2 required noO2 required pyru va te Lactic acid
Build up of lactic arid in muscles during prolonged activity causes fatigue and results in cramps. Fermentation (L. fermentum-froth). It is anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates by microorganisms producing alcohol, organic acids and a variety of other products along with heat and waste gases. Fermentation is used in brewing industry (for producing wine, whisky, beer), baking industry (for making bread spongy), curd and yoghurt formation, synthesis of vinegar, citric acid, lactic acid, softening and aromatisation of Tobacco, Tea and other beverages, cleaning of hides and separating or retting of fibers (e.g., Jute, Hemp). Differences Between Aerobic And Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration 1 . Method. It is the common of respiration It occurs permanently only in a dew organisms. In other it may occur as a temporary measure to 22
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2 . Steps. It is completed in steps glycolysis, Krebs cycle and terminal oxidation. 3 . Oxygen. It requires oxygen. 4 . Breakdown. Respiratory substrate is completely broken down. 5 . End Products. They are inorganic. 6 . Toxicity. End products show little toxicity. 7 .Occurrence. It occurs partly in cytoplasm and partly in mitochondria. 8 . E.T.C. An electron transport chain us required. 9 . Energy. In releases kcal or kJ of energy per mole of glucose. 10 . ATP. The liberated energy is used in forming - ATP molecules per mole of glucose TRANSPORTATION

overcome shortage of oxygen. There are two steps glycolysis and anaerobic breakdown of pyruvic acid. Oxygen is not required. Respiratory substrate is incompletely broken down. At least one end product is organic. inorganic products may or may not be present. The organic end product is generally toxics. Anaerobic respiration is carried out entirely in cytoplasm. Mitochondria are not required. ETC is not required. Energy liberated is - kcal or - kJ per mole of glucose. The liberated energy is used in synthesis of ATP molecules.
Transportation is the movement of materials from one part to another, usually from the region of their availability to the region of their use, storage or elimination. Transportation occurs in all organisms, from microscopic ones to large sized trees and animals. Functions 1 . Food. It is available at particular points, e.g., leaves in plants, alimentary canal in animals. Food has to be transported to every living cell of the body for extraction of energy and a materials. Excess food is taken to storage organs. 2 . Metabolic Gases. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are two metabolic gases. Oxygen is required by every living cell for cellular respiration. It has to be transported from outside environment first to the respiratory surface and then to individual cells in animals or directly to cells in plants. Carbon dioxide is formed as a byproduct. It is passed out for elimination. 3 . Water Products. Toxic waste produce are produced during metabolism. They have to be excreted. For this they are first taken to kindest for separation, translocated to urinary bladder for storage and form urinary bladder to the region of elimination. 4 . Water. Plants absorb water from soil with the help of their roots. It is transported to all parts. 5 . Hormones. They are formed in particular regions from where they are transported to the areas of their functioning. Modes of transport Lower organisms are mostly aquatic or semi aquatic. Most of their transportation occurs through diffusion. Diffusion also occurs in higher organism for cell to cell movement of materials. Entry of materials into cells involves both passive (with out energy) and active (with energy) transport. Intracellular transport system occurs in higher organisms. It is difference in plants and animals. Animals have a circulatory system while plants have vascular strands for this function. Transportation in human beings It is carried out by the circulatory system. Circulatory system is a system of organs and a fluid that circulates various materials inside that body. In human body circulatory system is made of tubes, a pumping hearth, blood and lymph. Circulatory system consisting of tubs (capillaries), arteries and veins), hearth and blood is called blood vascular system. The system having tubes, nodes and lymph is called lymphatic system. Blood It is a mobile fluid connective tissue of reddish colour that circulates in the human body, supplying nutrients and oxygen to all the living cells and taking away waste products as well as carbon dioxide from them. An adult human has - litres of blood. Blood is made up of two components, plasma and blood corpuscles. 1 . Plasma. It is pale yellow slightly alkaline (pH . ) transparent fluid matrix of blood. It constituents % of the blood. Plasma consists of % water and % solutes. The solute are of five types. (i) Proteins. They form the major fraction of solutes ( . % of total plasma). The important proteins are immunoglobins (antibodies), lysozymes (antimicrobial), fibrinogen, prothrombin (both for blood clotting) and transport proteins. (ii) Nutrients. They are glucose, amino acids, vitamins fatty acids and fat dropes. (iii) Excretory Products. Urea creating creatinine and uric acid. (iv) Inorganic salts. The major inorganic ingredients are sodium and chloride. They constitute . % of the plasma. All other essential inorganic
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elements are also present in the blood (v) Other Substance. Metabolic gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide), hormones, cholesterol and heparin are carried by plasma. Heparin does act allow blood to coagulate inside blood vessels. 2 . Blood Corpuscles. They are also called formed elements. Blood corpuscles constitute % of the blood. They are of three types red blood corpuscles, white blood corpuscles and blood platelets. All of them are synthesized inside red bone marrow. (i) Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs, Erythrocytes). They are circular, biconcave discs of um diameter and Lim thickness. Nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes are absent. Each red blood corpuscle contains about million haemoglobin molecules. Haemoglobin is iron containing protein pigment which is specialised to transport oxygen and
carbon dioxide to a small extent. It provides reddish colour to blood. A healthy male has about mg of haemoglobin per ml of blood. It is - mg/ ml of blood in healthy female. Number of red blood corpuscles is million/ml in healthy males and - million/ml in healthy female. Life span of RBCs is days. to million RBCs are being destroyed and replaced every second in our body. New RBCs are formed in red bone marrow. Older RBCs are destroyed in liver and spleen. The process of destruction of RBCs is called haemolysis. Spleen also stores a large number of fresh RBCs for meeting any emergency. It is, therefore, also called blood bank of the body. (ii) White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs, Leucocytes). They are colourless, nucleated, blood corpuscles of different shapes and sizes ( - m). The normal value is per ml of blood. Life span is hours to several days. White blood corpuscles are of two types, granulocytes and agranulocytes. Granulocytes possess large sized granules in their cytoplasm. Their nucleus is lobulated. Depending upon their reaction, granulocytes are of three subtypes basophils, eosinophils (acidophils) and neutrophils. Agranulocytes are devoid of granules. Their nucleus is without lobes. They are of two subtypes, monocytes and lymphocytes. White blood corpuscles are soldiers of the body both in defense and offence. They are either phagocytes or immunocytes. Phagocytes ingest germs. Immunocytes secrete antibodies against foreign bodies. It is the basis for immunity against various pathogens. Difference Between Red And White Blood Copuscles RBCs WBCs . . The number is - /ml of blood. 1 . Number. The number is - million/ml of blood. 2 . Types. All the RBCs are of one type. WBCs are of free types. 3 . Size. The size is about um. The size is . um. 4 . Form. RBCs are biconcave and circular. 5 . Nucleus. A nucleus is absent, i.e., RBCs are enucleate. They are rounded to irregular in shape. WBCs are nucleated.
6 . Cell Organdies. Most of the cell organelles degenerate during They retain all the cell organelles. development. 7 . Haemoglobin. Ii is present. It is absent. 8 . Function. They take part in transportation of most of oxygen They take pan in phagocytosis of germs, dead and smaller quantities of carbon dioxide. cells and formation of antibodies. (iii) Blood Platelets (Throinbocytes). They are colourless non- nucleated cell fragments of various shapes with a size of um. The number is . - . million/ml of blood. Life span is - days. Blood platelets help in blood clotting.
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FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
1 . Transport of Nutrients. Sugars, amino acids, minerals and vitamins are picked up by blood from intestine and transported to different parts of the body for storage and assimilation. 2 . Transport of Oxygen. It transports oxygen from the respiratory surface to the tissues for utilisation in respiration. . Transport of Carbon Dioxide. Carbon dioxide formed during respiration is taken by blood to the respiratory surface for elimination. . Transport of Waste Products. It carries nitrogenous wastes from various parts of the body to the kidneys for separation and elimination . Transport of Hormones. Endocrine glands pour their hormones into blood for transport to target tissues. . Maintenance of Water Balance. Circulating blood provides water and inorganic salts in the region of deficiency and removes the same in the area of excess. . Regulation of Body Temperature. Blood distributes heat to all parts of the body. It also conducts heat to the surface for dissipation. . Maintenance of pH. Blood maintains the pH of tissue fluids with the help of various buffers. . Body Defence. Blood contains phagocytic leucocytes, antibodies and antibody producing cells for defence against germs. 3 . Plugging Areas of Injury. In the region of injury the blood coagulates and seals the region to prevent loss of body fluids and check the entry of germs. Blood clotting (maintenance by platelets) In the region of injury or leakage form a blood vessel, blood oozes out. The platelets rapture and release a substance called thromboplastin. In the presence of calcium, thromboplastin acts on protein prothrombin and forms a proteolytic enzyme called thrombin. Vitamin K is essential for formation of prothrombin in liver. Thrombin acts on a soluble protein fibrinogen and changes it into fibrin. Fibrin undergoes rapid polymerization to form long fibres. The fibres form a network over the damaged wall of blood vessel and exposed part of the skin. It entraps blood corpuscles and forms a jelly like mass called blood clot. The clot contracts and solidifies. A liquid called serum is expelled. Injury Injured tissue and disintegrating platelets Thromboplastin Ca +
Prothrombin
Thrombin Ca + Fibrinogen (soluble) Fibrin (insoluble) Colt
Clotting time is - minutes for superficial cuts and - minutes for deeper cuts. SEUREN It is watery fluid expelled from of a contracting blood clot. It is whitish a compared to yellowish nature of blood plasma. Fibrinogen is absent. So are formed elements, prothrombin and many other proteins. Difference between blood plasma serum
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Blood Plasma 1 . Nature. It is fluid part of blood 2 . Colour. Blood plasma is of yellow colour 3 . Turbidity. It is turbid or cloudy 4 . Fibrinogen. It is present in the blood plasma 5 . Prothrombin. It is present in the blood 6 . Clotting. It can clot. THE TUBES BLOOD VESSELS

Serum It is fluid that comes out of a contracting blood clot. Serum is nearly colourless. Turbidity is absent It is absent in serum Prothrombin is absent. It is a consequence of clotting.
Human blood flows inside tubs called blood vessels. Blood vessels are of three typesarteries, veins and capillaries.
Arteries. They are blood vessels which carry blood coming from heart to various organs of the body. Blood flows inside the arteries with jerks due to pumping activity of the heart. As the blood is pumped into artery, it expands. With the flow of blood from it, the artery contracts partially. Arteries, generally, carry oxygenated blood. Only pulmonary arteries transport deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs. The wall of the arteries is thick and elastic. Lumen is narrow. Most arteries are deep seated except a few ones where the pulse can be felt. Veins. They are blood vessels which carry blood from various parts of the body towards the heart. Blood flows smoothly and slowly inside veins. Internal valves prevent back flow. Wall is less thickened and Iess elastic as compared to that of arteries. Lumen is wide. Veins carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins that bring oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart. Veins are generally superficial. Difference between Artery 1 . Direction of Flow. It carries blood from heart to an organ. 2 . Speed. Blood flow is rapid in artery. 3 . Jerks. Blood flows with jerks. 4 . Pressure. Blood flows under pressure. 5 . Internal Valves. They are absent. 6 . Wall. It is thick and elastic. Lumen. Narrow. 7 . Lumen. Narrow. 8 . Type of Blood. Artery carries oxygenated blood except pulmonary arteries. 9 . Occurrence. It is deep seated. 10 . Collapsibility. Artery is not collapsible. 11 . Blood Alter Death. It does not contain blood after death. artery and vein Vein It brings blood from an organ towards the heart. Blood flow is slow in vein. Blood flows smoothly. There is little pressure. Internal valves are present to prevent back flow. It is comparatively thinner and little elastic. Wide Wide Vein carries deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins. It is superficial. Vein is collapsible. Vein is full of blood even after death.
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Capillaries. They are very narrow blood vessels ( urn) having a single layered wall (endothelium), which form network inside body organs. Movement of blood is very slow ( mm/sec) so as to provide time for exchange of materials. The wall has very fine pores for exchange of substance between blood and tissue fluid. Some white blood corpuscles come out of capillaries for the fighting infections. The phenomenon is called diapedesis. An artery divides and red vides to form finer branches called arterioles. Each arteriole gives rise to a bunch of capillaries that reach every part of the organ. The capillaries reunite to produce very fine blood vessels of second type called venules. Venules join to form a vein. HEART It is a conical muscular structure that brings about circulation of blood by its pumping activity. The broader base in upwards while the narrow pointed apex is downwards and tilted towards left. Heart is reddish in colour with a size of our fist ( cm length, cm breath) and a weight about gm ( gm in women). Heart lies in the thoracic cavity in between the two lungs. It rests over the diaphragm obliquely. Feeling of the presence of heart on the left side is due to forceful beating of its apical or ventricular region. Heart is covered by a narrow fluid filled membranous sac called pericardium. It helps in frictionless movement as well as provides protection from shock. Heart has four chambers. Two upper or superior chambers are smaller and thin walled. They are called auricles or atria (sing. atrium). The other two lower or inferior chambers are larger and thick walled. They are called ventricles. The left ventricle in larger and more thick walled. An interauricular septum separates the two auricles while an interventricular septum forms a partition between the two ventricles The two types of septa separate the right side of the heart from the left side. Right auricle opens into right ventricle through an aperture guarded by a tricuspid valve supported by fine fibres called chordae tendineae. The left auricle or atrium opens into left ventricle through an aperture guarded by a bicuspid valve. It is also supported by chordae tendineae. Right ventricle opens into a pulmonary arch. The opening is guarded bya semi lunar pulmonary valve. Left ventricle opens into aorta with a semi-lunar aortic valve between the two. Heart receives blood from veins and pumps the same into arteries. Deoxygenated blood from the whole body enters right auricle through a superior vena cava (from upper parts of the body), inferior vena cava (from middle and lower parts of the body) and coronary sinus (from walls of the heart). Right atrium expands during the flow of deoxygenated blood into it. It contracts to pour the same into right ventricle which expands to accommodate the same. On contraction, right ventricle pumps the deoxygenated blood into pulmonary arch. This blood is then taken to lungs by two pulmonary arteries for oxygenation. The oxygenated blood is brought back into left atrium or auricle which dilates to accommodate the same. The blood is poured into left ventricle which on contraction sends the oxygenated blood to different body parts through aorta. Both the auricles get filled up simultaneously. It is called diastole. They contract together or undergo systole to pour their blood into their respective ventricles. This causes diastole of the two ventricles. The distended ventricles undergo systole or contraction to pass their bloods to pulmonary arch and aorta. A cardiac cycle consisting of one tilling and emptying the chambers of the heart is of . sec duration. It consists of auricular systole, ventricular systole and joint diastole. Backward flow of blood is prevented by valves. The partitions between the right and left sides of the heart are useful in separating oxygenated and deoxygenated bloods. The mechanism provides efficient supply of oxygen to all body parts. This occurs in animals having high energy needs like birds and mammals. They spend a lot of extra energy for keeping the body temperature constant. In reptiles and amphibians, the energy needs are lesser as the body temperature varies with the
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temperature of the environment. Their heart is o-chambered. Mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated bloods occurs in them. The heart is -chambered in fishes. Fish heart pumps only venous blood. It is oxygenated in gills from where the blood flows to the rest of the body. HEART BEAT Rhythmic expansion and contraction of heart is called heart beat. The expansion is called diastole while the contraction is known as systole. Actually, the auricles and the ventricles undergo diastole and systole separately but being forceful only ventricular contraction and expansion constitute the heart beat. The rate of heart beat is - /min in adult human male and /min in adult females. Heart beat is listened with the help of stethoscope. There is a low pitched sound of longer duration called lubb and a high pitched sound of shorter duration known as dup. Lubb is produced on the simultaneous closure of atrioventricular valves (bicuspid and tricuspid valves) while dup is produced on the simultaneous closure of semi lunar valves (aortic and pulmonary valves). Heart beat is controlled by a special mass of muscles that is capable of generating electric current for contraction of different parts of heart. It consists of senatorial node (SAN in right auricle), atrioventricular node (AVN in right auricle), bundle of His and its branches (wall of ventricles). Senatorial node is also called pacemaker as impulse for heart beat originates from it. PULSE It is repeated throbs felt in a superficial artery like radial artery over the wrist below the base of the thumb. The throb is due to forceful pumping of blood into arteries during ventricular systole. Pulse can be felt by placing the thumb over the radial artery. Number of throbs per minute is counted. It is pulse rate. Pulse rate is equal to rate of heart beat. BLOOD PRESSURE It is the pressure exerted by forceful flow of blood on the elastic wall of the arteries. It is measured in mm of Hg by an instrument called sphygmomanometer. The instrument has an inflatable cuff, a compressible rubber bulb, a screw and a connected mercury manometer. Stethoscope is required. Rubber cuff is wrapped just above the elbow. Air is pumped into it by repeated pressing of the bulb till the manometer shows pressure. Diaphragm of stethoscope is now pressed against the area of brachial artery in the region of fold of the elbow. Air is released slowly. First sound of blood flowing into brachial artery gives systolic pressure. With further release of air, a stage comes when the sound disappears. It is diastolic pressure. The normal systolic
pressure is mm Hg while diastolic pressure mm Hg. A higher value (say / mm Hg) is called hypertension (high blood pressure) while a lower value (say / mm Hg) is known as hypotension (low blood pressure). Both are harmful. SINGLE CIRCULATION In fishes, the blood flows through the heart only once while completing the full circuit of the body. It is called single circulation. The heart receives and pumps only venous blood. It reaches gills where oxygenation of blood occurs. The oxygenated blood passes to ail parts of the body. It returns to heart on deoxygenation.
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DOUBLE CIRCULATION It is passage of the same blood twice through the heart first on the right side, then on the left side in order to complete one cycle. Double circulation has two components, pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. (i) Pulmonary Circulation. It is movement of blood from heart to the lungs and back. Deoxygenated blood of the body enters the right auricle. passes into right ventricle which pumps it into pulmonary arch. With the help of two separate pulmonary arteries the blood passes into the lungs. Here the arteries break up into arterioles and then capillaries for oxygenation. Capillaries join to form venules and then veins. Oxygenated blood comes back to left auricle of heart through four pulmonary veins, two from each lung. tin Systemic Circulation. It is the circulation of blood between heart and different parts of the body except lungs. Oxygenated blood received by left auricle passes into left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps it into aorta for supply to different body parts including walls of the heart with the help of arteries. Inside the organs the arteries break up into arterioles and then capillaries. Capillaries provide oxygen and nutrients to tissues. They receive carbon dioxide and wastes from the tissues. Capillaries unite to form venules which join to produce veins. Veins take the deoxygenated blood which comes back to the heart but now into the right auricle. Double circulation is an improvement over single circulation as the heart pumps both the types of bloods (oxygenated and deoxygenated) forcefully through the body. In amphibians and reptiles, the double circulation is incomplete due to mixing of the blood. It is complete in birds and mammals.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM It is a system of capillaries, vessels and lymph nodes which are specialized to collect lymph from tissue fluid and carry the same to blood in the region of subclavian veins. LYMPH It is a light yellow viscous fluid that is formed from tissue fluid by special lymph capillaries for passage into venous blood. Tissue fluid itself is blood plasma filtered out of the blood capillaries. Lymph does not contain RBCs and blood platelets. Leukocyte count is low but the lymphocyte content is quite high due to passage of lymph through lymph nodes. Lymph is
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specialized to collect tissue secretions which cannot pass directly into blood, e.g.. hormones from endocrine glands, plasma proteins from liver, fats from intestine. Lymph also carries more waste products. LYMPH VESSELS Lymph is formed inside fine blind tubes called lymph capillaries. The lymph capillaries are permeable to even opens into right macromolecules so that tissue secretions directly pass into lymph. Lymph capillaries join to form lymph vessels. Lymph vessels are similar to veins but have thinner walls and more numerous valves. At places lymph vessels bear swellings called lymph nodes. Lymph nodes or lymph glands are seats of lymphocyte maturation. Lymph rich tissues occur at several places, e.g., adenoids, tonsils, spleen, thymus. Lymph nodes filter out germs and foreign particles. Lymph vessels ultimately form two ducts which open into right and left subclavian veins. LYMPH FUNCTIONS
1 . Maintenance of Blood Volume. Blood volume continues to decrease due to filtration of blood plasma from blood capillaries. Lymph collects the same and puts it back into blood. 2 . Lymphocytes. They mature inside the lymph nodes and released into lymph passing through the same. 3 . Tissue Secretions. Hormones, macromolecules, plasma proteins and other secretions of the tissues are first poured into lymph for passage into blood. 4 . Fat. It picks up digested fat from alimentary canal for pouring into blood. 5 . Wastes. Wastes from tissues are first passed into lymph before they are poured into blood for separation in kidneys. 6. Germs. Lymph capillaries are specialised to attract germs. The germs are taken to lymph nodes for destruction. Differences Between Blood And Lymph Blood Lymph 1 . Colour. Blood is reddish in colour. Lymph is pale yellow colour. 2 . RBCs. It contains RBCs. RBCs are absent. 3 . Blood Platelets. They are present. Blood platelets are absent. 4 . Leucocytes. Leucocytes counts is - per ml. Leucocytes counts is low, per ml mostly due to lymphocytes. 5 . Flow. Blood flows rapidly. Flow of lymph is low. 6. Direction. Blood flow is bidirectional, from heart to organs Lymph flow is unidirectional, from tissues to the and organs to heart. subclavian veins. TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS Unlike animals, some materials pass in and out of plants through diffusion. For diffusion to occur, the plants possess stomata and lenticels. During the daytime the photosynthetic organs obtain carbon dioxide from outside by diffusion. The same is used for synthesis of food. Oxygen is released as a by product. It passes out of the plant by diffusion. Simultaneously, a lot of water vapours pass out. Other materials required for building plant body are obtained from soil, e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, other minerals, water .They have to be transported to long distances depending upon the size of the plant. The food manufactured by leaves has to be similarly passed to all parts for utilisation. Therefore, a proper system of transportation is required by plants. However, plants have a large proportion of dead cells. They do not move. Therefore, they have low energy needs. The transport systems are slow. Even then in tall plants the transport systems have to operate over long distances. Further, there are two independent pathways having conducting tubes. One is xylem that .moves water and minerals from soil to aerial parts. The other is phloem which carries food from 30
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the region of availability (e.g., leaves, storage organs) to the areas of utilisation (all living cells, growing points, storage organs, developing fruits). XYLEM (WOOD) It is a complex tissue which transports sap (water and minerals). Xylem has four types of cellsxylem fibres, xylem parenchyma, tracheids and vessels. Vessels and tracheids are called traeheary elements because they take part in transport of sap. Vessels are long multicellular tubes which are formed by end to end union of several cells. Tracheids are elongated cells with pointed ends. Both the tracheary elements have lignified walls with nits or other thin unlignified areas for element to movement of water. Xylem parenchyma element takes part in lateral How of water. Tracheids are conducting elements of non-flowering plants. Vessels the mostly in angiosperms where they form the main conducting elements. The number of tracheids is small in angiosperms. PHLOEM It is complex tissue which takes part in transport of food. Phloem has four types of cellssieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres. Only phloem fibers are dead cells. Others are living cells. Sieve tubes are conducting channels of phloem. They are elongated multicellular tubular channels formed by end to end union of numerous sieve tube elements. The end walls or septa between adjacent sieve tube elements are bulged out and have pores. They are called sieve plates. Sieve tube elements do not have a nucleus. Their functioning is controlled by adjacent nucleated companion cells. Differences Between Xylem And Phloem Xylem Phloem 1 . Tissue. Xylem issue. Xylem is water or sap conducing It is food conducting plant tissue. plant tissue. 2 . Living Cells. Xylem has only one type of living cells. It has three types of living cells. 3 . Dead Cells. Xylem has three types of dead cells- fibers, Phloem has only one type of dead cells, i.e., phloem tracheids and vessel elements. fibers. 4 . Conducting Elements. There are two types of conducting There are only one type of conducting elements, i.e. elements, tracheids and vessels. sieve tubes. 5 . Septa. Vessels do not possess septa. Sieve tubes have porous septa called sieve plates. 6 . Metabolic Inhibitors. Conduction is not influenced by Conduction is inhibited by heat, cold and poison. metabolic inhibitors like heat, cold or poison. 7 . Pressure. Transport occurs due to presence of negative Transport takes place due to presence of positive pressure. pressure.
TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS There is a continuous system of water conducting channels (vessels and tracheids) from near the root tips to near the shoot tips. In the roots the surface cells are in contact with soil particles and soil water. Ions and water are absorbed from the soil. They are pulled and pushed up by various forces to reach every cell requiring the same. The various steps involved in transport of water and minerals are as follows : 1 . Mineral Absorption. It occurs in the growing parts of the root. Both the surface or epiblema cells as well as root hairs take part in mineral absorption. Mineral absorption is an active process which involves expenditure of energy. Being an
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active process, mineral absorption occurs against concentration gradient. It creates a difference in the concentration of ions between the roots and the soil, with more salts being present inside the root than in the soil solution. 2 . Absorption of Water. Root hair zone is the region of water absorption. The inside of the root has higher osmotic concentration than the soil solution. Root hairs are in contact with soil interspaces having capillary water. The root hairs pick up water which is transferred inwardly due to still higher osmotic concentration. It reaches the cells surrounding the xylem channel. Salts accumulated in the basal part of xylem channel cause osmotic entry of water into xylem and form column of water. It also creates a positive pressure known as root pressure. This is, however, any great hight. Root pressure is often absent, at least during the day time. 3 . Development of Negative Pressure. Leaves and other aerial parts of the plant are continuously losing water in the vapour form in the process of transpiration. Nearly % of the absorbed water is lost during transpiration. Major part of transpiration is stomatal transpiration. Intercellular spaces of the leaves are in contact with mesophyll cells as, well as outside air through stomata. Outside air is seldom saturated with water vapours while the intercellular spaces are nearly always saturated with water due to evaporation from the wet walls of mesophyll cells. Therefore, water vapours diffuse from intercellular spaces to outside. More water vapours come form mesophyll cells to replace them. The process continues. Loss of water by mesophyll calls increases their suction pressure. They withdraw water fro the xylem channels. As there are billions of mesophyll cells withdrawing water from xylem channels. Water column present in the xylem comes under tension or negative pressure. (a) Cohesion force among the water molecules. (b) Adhesion force between water molecules and wall of the xylem channels. Tension or negative pressure of the water column results in its upward pull. Since it develops due to transpirations, it is called transpiration pull. This mechanism of transport of water was explained by Dixon and Holy ( ). It tension theory or transpiration pull theory. TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND OTHER SUBSTANCE Food materials are translocated from the region of their manufacture or storage to the region of their utilisation. The region of supply of food is called source while the area of utilisation is called sink. The direction of translocation can be downward, upward or both. The food manufactured by leaves passes into the storage region and other sinks in the downward direction as well as towards growing points and developing fruits in the upward direction. The translocating nutrients consist of soluble carbohydrates (mostly sucrose), amino acids, organic acids, hormones and other organic solutes. Translocation occurs thorough phloem. The channels of transport are sieve tubes (sieve cells in no flowering plants). Sieve tubes are specialised for this purpose. They are devoid of nuclei and internal membranes. The cytoplasm of one tube cell is continuous with that of adjacent sieve tube cells through sieve plates. The force required for translocation is produced by companion cells which lie adjacent to sieve tube cells.
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MECHANISM OF PHOLEM TRANSPORT
The transport of organic solutes or nutrients occurs through a physical process but entry and exit of nutrients from the phloem can occur only through an active process which utilises energy from ATP. With the help of energy food materials pass into the phloem from the region of manufacture or storage (source end). After entering the sieve tubes the nutrients being in high concentration, exert an osmotic pressure which causes entry of water into this region. A high turgor pressure develops. It forces the nutrients to pass towards the region which has low turgor pressure. The movement is like a mass How (Munch ). Low turgor pressure is maintained in the area where soluble food is being withdrawn for consumption or storage by an active process. EXCRETION Excretion (L. ex out, crenere to sift) is the elimination of metabolic waste products from the body. Waste products are unwanted and often toxic byproducts of metabolism. Removal of waste products maintains a favourable internal environment in the body. A process related to excretion is osmoregulation. Osmoregulation is regulating osmotic pressure of body fluids by controlling the amount of water and salts in the body, retaining the latter in case of deficiency and eliminating the same if in excess. Excretory system is a system of organs and tissues that take part separation, collection and voiding of waste products. Differences between excretion and osmoregulation Excretion Osmoregulation 1 . Function. It removes byproducts of metabolism called It maintains osmotic pressure of body fluids. waste products. 2 . Protection. It protects the body from toxicity of waste It protects the body from adverse conditions present in products. external environment. 3 . Elimination. It always involves elimination of waste Elimination of water and salts depends upon the internal products. conditions. There is elimination in case of excess water and salts. The same are retained in case of deficiency. WASTE PRODUCTS . Nitrogenous Waste Products. They are the major was. products which are formed during breakdown of extra amino acids, nucleic acids and alkaloids. The important nitrogenous waste products are urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, hippuric acid and ammonia. . Non-nitrogenous Waste Products. Oxalic acid, lactic acid. . Excess Chemicals. Excess minerals, drugs, pigments, vitamins, hormones, cholesterol, etc. . Bile Pigments. Bilirubin, biliverdin and urochrome. .CO . Excess water.
EXCRETION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS Specinr excretory organs are absent. Waste products (e.g., Ammonia, CO ) generally pass out, from the surface of the body into surrounding water by simple diffusion. Fresh water unicellular forms also possess an osmoregulatory organelle called contractile vacuole, e.g.. Amoeba, paramoecium. Contractile vacuole collects water and some wastes from the body. swells up (undergoes diastole), reaches the surface and bursts (undergoes systole) to release its contents to the outside. Oymoregulation is required in fresh water forms as fresh water has a tendency to enter their bodies due to higher internal osmotic concentration.
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EXCRETION IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS Sponges and coelenterates do not have specific excretory organs as water bathes almost all their cells. Excretory structures appear for the first time in flatworms (platy helminthes). They are flame cells. Nephridia are excretory organs of annelids, green glands in crustaceans, malpighian tubules in insects, and kidneys in molluscs. Kidneys form a urinary system in vertebrates. Some accessory excretory organs of vertebrates including human beings are skin, lungs, liver and large intestine. EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS In human beings excretion mainly occurs through a urinary system. Urinary or excretory system consists of organs that take part in separation, conduction, temporary storage and elimination of urine (an excretory product) made up of nitrogenous waste products, some salts and water. It has a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra. 1. Kidneys. They are a pair of reddish brown, solid, slightly flattened, bean-shaped structures which lie in the abdominal cavity attached to dorsal body wall one on either side of vertebral column. Left kidney lies at slightly higher level and near the midline than the right one. The size is cm in length, - cm in breadth and cm in thickness. Each kidney has a convexity un the outer side and a concavity on the inner side. Concave side has a fissure or lulus for entry of a renal artery, exit of a renal vein and ureter. Renal artery brings oxygenated blood laden with waste products. Renal vein carries deoxygenated blood from which waste products have been removed. Structural and functional units of kidneys are nephrons (urimferous tubules). About million nephrons occur in each kidney. A
nephrons has two parts, Malpighian body and renal tubule. Malpighian body (= renal corpuscle) consists of a blind cupshaped broader end of nephron called Bowman's capsule and a bunch of fine blood vessels or capillaries called glomerulus. Glomerulus develops from an afferent arteriole. It gives rise to an efferent arteriole. The diameter of efferent arteriole is less than that of afferent arteriole. As a result blood comes under pressure in the glomerulus. It functions as filtration unit. 34
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Bowman's capsule which accommodates one glomerulus, is lined by flat cells some of which have fine pores to allow passage of materials filtered out of a glomerulus. Renal tubule has three parts proximal convoluted tubules (PCT), loop of Henie and distal convoluted tubule (DCT). Distal tubule opens into a collecting tubule. Collecting tubules join to form collecting ducts that give rise pyramids. Pyramids form calyces which open into pelvis. Pelvis leads into ureter. All parts of the renal tubule an' covered by a network of peritubular capillaries formed from efferent arteriole. The peritubular capillaries join to form renal venule. Mechanism of Urine Formation. It has four components glomerular filtration, selective reabsorption, tubular secretion and concentration. (i) Glomerular Filtration. Blood flows inside glomerulus under pressure due to narrowness of efferent arteriole. As a result it undergoes pressure nitration or ultrafiltration. All small volume solutes {e.g., urea, uric acid, amino arids, hormones, glucose, ions, vitamins) and water are filtered out and enter the Bowman's capsule. The product is called nephric or glomerular filtrate. Its volume is ml/min ( litres/day). (ii) Rrahsorption. Nephric nitrate is also called primary urine. It passes mi. proximal convoluted tubule. The same is surrounded by peritubular capillaries. The latter reabsorb all the useful components of nephric Filtrate, e.g. glucose, amino acids, vitamins C, calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride, bicarbonate and water ( %). Selective absorption also occurs in the region of distal convoluted tubule. (iii) Tubular Secretion (Augmentation). It occurs mostly in the distal convoluted tubule which is also surrounded by peritubular capillaries. Smaller amount of tubular secretion also takes place in the area of proximal convoluted tubule. Tubular secretion is active secretion of waste products by the blood capillaries into the urinary tubule. It ensures removal of all the waste products from blood viz., urea, uric acid, creatinine. Extra salts, K+ and H+ are also secreted into urinary tubule to maintain a proper concentration and pH of the urine. (iv) Concentration of the Urine. % of water content of nephric filtrate is reabsorbed in the region of proximal convoluted tubule. Some % of water passes out of the nitrate through osmosis in the area of loop of Henle. It is because loops of Henie are immersed in hyper-osmotic interstitial fluid. Further concentration takes place in the area of collecting tubule in the presence of hormone called ant diuretic hormone (ADH) or
vasopressin. The hormone is secreted only when concentrated urine is to be passed out. It is not secreted when a lot of water is taken. Absence of antidiuretic hormone produces a dilute urine. Hormone action, therefore, maintains osmotic concentration of body fluids. Deficiency of ADH causes excessive, repeated, dilute urination (diabetes insipidus). 1. Ureters. They are a pair of whitish narrow distensible muscular tubes of about cm length. Each ureter arises from hilus part of the kidney. It moves downwardly and opens obliquely into urinary bladder. Ureters carry urine from kidneys to the urinary bladder. The passage of urine in the ureter occurs through peristalsis. 2. Urinary Bladder. It is a median pear shaped distensible sac that occurs in the pelvic part of abdomen. It stores urine brought by the two ureters. The storage capacity is - ml. 3. Urethra. It is a tube that takes urine from urinary bladder to outside. The opening of urinary bladder into urethra is guarded by a ring of muscles or sphincter. Urethra is cm long in females and about cm long in males. Its opening is separate in females but is common with reproductive tract in males.
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Differences Between Ureter Urethra Ureter Urethra 1. Number. There are two ureters. Urethra is single. 2. Position. It extends from hilus of kidney to urinary It extends from urinary bladder to an external bladder. opening. 3. Conduction. It conducts urine through peristalsis. 4. Sexes. Ureters are of the same size and conduct only urine in the two sexes. MICTURITION (URINATION) Urge for micturition occurs when urinary bladder comes to have - ml of urine. However, urine can be retained in the urinary bladder till it gets filled upto maximum capacity, ml. At this time the urge becomes painful. Voluntary micturition can be carried any time. Total amount of urine excreted per day is about . . litres. The quantity increases with larger intake of fluids and decreases with lesser intake of them. URINE It is a transparent fluid produced by urinary system. Urine has an amber colour due to presence of urochrome. Urine contains % water, - % organic substances and - % inorganic solutes. Reaction is acidic in the beginning but becomes alkaline on standing due to decomposition of urea to form ammonia. Water % Organic Substances . %, e.g., urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, water soluble vitamins, hormones, oxalate. Inorganic Solutes . %, e.g., sodium, chloride, phosphate, sulphate, magnesium, calcium, iodine. FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY/URINARY SYSTEM (i) Waste Products. Excretion of nitrogenous and other waste products. (ii) Water Balance. Maintenance of water balance in the body by producing dilute urine in excess when water intake is high and concentrated urine in case of lesser water intake or excessive sweating. (iii) Excess Materials. Elimination of excess water soluble vitamins, drugs and other substances. (iv) Regulation of Salt Content. Regulation of salt content in the body by excreting salts when in excess and retaining them when deficient. (v) Maintenance of pH. pH of body fluids is maintained by excretion or non- excretion of H+ ions. (vi) Regulation of Blood Pressure. By controlling the fluid content, kidneys regulate blood pressure. ACCESSORY EXCRETORY ORGANS 1. Skin. It contains sweat and sebaceous glands. Sweat glands excrete a fluid called sweat. Sweat consists of water ( . %), traces of lactic acid amino acids, urea and salt. Sebaceous glands secrete oil or sebum for lubricating hair. It has wax, sterols and other lipids. 2. Liver. (i) Extra amino acids are deaminated and toxic ammonia is converted into less harmful urea in liver, (ii) Liver degrades haemoglobin of worm out erythrocytes into hilirubin and biliverdin (bile pigments) for elimination. (iii) It passes cholesterol, lecithin, excess vitamins, drugs and toxic substances into bile for elimination. 3. Lungs. They eliminate carbon dioxide and some aromatic substances. 4. Large Intestine. It excretes heavy metals and toxins into faecal matter. 5. Salivary Glands. Small quantities of toxins, excess drugs and salts are excreted by salivary glands. They are passed into alimentary canal through saliva. ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY OR HAEMODIALYSIS It conducts urine through force of contracting urinary bladder. Urethra is short in females ( cm) and long in males ( cm). In males it conducts both urine and semen while in females it passes only urine.
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Kidney is a very important organ which is essential for maintaining internal homeostasis as it is engaged in elimination of the nitrogenous and other metabolic by-products. Even if one kidney is damaged, the second kidney can carry on the function of excretion completely. However, if both the kidneys are damaged, a new compatible kidney has to be grafted. Till that period, waste products are removed with the help of haemodialysis (blood dialysis) or artificial kidney. Artificial kidney is a physico-chemical device to remove excretory products from blood in case of temporary (due to toxins) or near failure of kidneys. It is based on the principle of dialysis or separation of smaller solutes or ions from larger particles with the help of an ultrafilter. The artificial kidney or dialysis machine consists of a number of cellophane tubes embedded in a dialysate or dialysing fluid. The dialysing fluid has the same osmotic concentration as that of blood. However, it contains more of glucose. Nitrogenous waste products, phosphates and sulphates are excluded. Blood from an artery, or a vein fitted to a pumping mechanism, is mixed with heparin, cooled at C and passed into cellophane tubes of artificial kidney. Nitrogenous waste products, sulphate and phosphate of blood pass into dialysing fluid. Purified blood is warmed and mixed with antiheparin. It is passed back into vein. The whole process takes - hours. USES 1. Toxins. Haemodialysis helps in removing toxins from the body before they are able to damage the body permanently. 2. Uraemia. Patients suffering from kidney infections and uraemia (excess of urea in blood) are provided relief for some time. 3. Renal Failure. In case of near permanent damage to kidneys, haemodialysis provides time to the patient to find a kidney donor. 4. Normal Life. In between two dialysis, a patient can lead a near normal life. 5. Clean Procedure. Haemodialysis is a clean procedure where chances of infection are minimum. EXCRETION IN PLANT Plants do not produce nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid because extra amino acids and nucleotides are not formed. They produce other types of waste products, called secondary metaholites e.g., alkaloids, tannins, aromatic oils. Excess of water is got rid off through transpiration. Excess of oxygen formed during day in photosynthetic organs can be considered as waste. It passes out through diffusion. The other wastes of plant metabolism are as follows. (i) Nitrogenous Waste Products. They are byproducts of general metabolism. The common ones are alkaloids, e.g., quinine, morphine, atropine. (ii) Organic Acids. They are metabolic intermediates. Some of them are without any other use. Rather on accumulation they may prove toxic, e.g., oxalic acid. (iii) Tanning. They are complex aromatic compounds which are formed as secondary metabolites. (iv) Latex. It is an emulsion of varied composition which is exerted by special tubular cells called laticifers. (v) Resins. They are oxidation products of aromatic oils. (vi) Gums. They are degradation products of cell wall. It saline habitats, the plants have to absorb excess salts that are required to be eliminated. MECHANISM Plants do not have any mechanism to collect, transport and throw out their waste products. They have adopted varied strategies to protect their living cells from waste products. 37
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(i) Old Leaves. Waste products are stored in older leaves which soon fall off. (ii) Old Xylem. Resins, gums, tannins and other waste products are deposited in the old xylem which soon becomes nonfunctional, e.g., heart wood. (iii) Bark. Bark consists of dead cells which is peeled off periodically. Tannins and other wastes are deposited in the bark. Incidentally, tannins are raw material for dyes and inks. (iv) Central Vacuole. Most plant waste products are stored in central vacuole of their cells. They are unable to influence the working of cytoplam due to presence of a selectively permeable membrane called tonoplast. (v) Root Excretion. Some waste substances are actually excreted by the plant in the region of their roots. (vi) Detoxification. The toxic oxalic acid is detoxified by formation of calcium oxalate which gets crystallized into needles (raphides), prisms (prismatic crystals), stars (sphaeraphides) and crystal sand. Excess of calcium is also precipitated as calcium carbonate crystals, e.g., cystolith (vii) Salt Glands. They excrete excess salts obtained from the habitat. Hydathodes also have an excretory function.
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Class-10th

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

K + ion influx causes them to swell up and get

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

NADP + 2e + 2 H + NADPH + H + ( NADPH 2 )

In the presence of ATP, phosphoglyceric acid is reduced by

NADPH 2 to form glyceraldehyde phosphate (GAP).

PGA + ATP + NADPH 2 GAP + NADP + Pi

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

One half of upper jaw 2 1 2 3 i , C , pm , m One half of lower jaw 2 1 2 3

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Fat Fatty acids + Glycerol

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

amino acids), invertase or sucrase (sucrose glucose +

glucose), lactase (lactose or milk sugar

lactase Glucose + Galactos

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

CO2 maintains the acid-base balance of the body.

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

6CO2 + 6 H 2O + 686 kcal C6 H12O6 + 6O2

C6 H12O6 6CO2 + 6 H 2O + 686 kcal or kJ .

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

0.04 % . Its concentration in exhaled air is 4.0 % .

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Thrombin Ca + Fibrinogen (soluble) Fibrin (insoluble) Colt

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

Biology : Chap-Life Processes

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