PAPER

Fresh Water Ecosystems

Arranged in partial fulfillment Basic Ecologythat guided by Prof. Dr. Hj. Mimien Henie Irawati, M.S. and Dr. Fatchur Rohman, M.Si

By: 7th Group Class A.Off A 1. Anisa Khumairo 2. Putri Ayu Anjulla (100341400677) (100341400705)

The Learning University

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MALANG FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY January 2012

A. BACKGROUND Water is the essesial and the most abundant substance in protoplasm, it is Aquatic in all life. An aquatic habitat as one in which water is the principal external as well as internal medium. Fresh water habitats consider two series, there are: a. Standing water (Lentic), (Lenis, calm) habitats: Lake, Pond, and Swamp or Bog. b. Running water (Lotic), (Lotus, washed) habitats: Spring, Steam (brook creak), and River. Aquatic habitats sometimes change very rapidly, as in the case of a vegetation choked pond filling up to become a swamp. On the other hand, large lakes and streams change so slowly as to be virtually static in terms of a few life spans of man. Change in such case can be measured only on a geological timr scale. We would wish to measure in any thorough going study of an aquatic ecosystems, there are : temperature, transparency, current, concentration of respiratory gases, and concentration of biogenic salt (Odum, 1953). 1. Problems a. What is the fresh water environment, such as type and limiting factor? b. What is ecological classification of fresh water organisms? c. What is the fresh water biota (flora and fauna)? d. What is lantic communities? e. What is lake? f. What is ponds? g. What is lotic (running water)? h. What is longitudinal succession in streams? i. What is springs? 2. Objective a. To know the fresh water environment, such as type and limiting factor. b. c. To know ecological classification of fresh water organisms. To know the fresh water biota (flora and fauna).

d. e. f. g. h. i.

To know lantic communities. To know lake. To know ponds. To know lotic (running water). To know longitudinal succession in streams. To know springs.

B. CHARACTERISTICS

1. The Fresh-Water Environment: Types and Limiting Factors Since water is both the essential and the most abundant substance in protoplasm, it might be said that all life is aquatic. However in practice we speak of an aquatic habitat as one in which water is principal external as well as internal medium. Fresh-water habitats may be conveniently considered in two series, as follows: Standing water, or lentic (lenis, calm) habitats. Such as lakes, ponds, swamp or bog. Running water, or lotic (lotus, washed), habitats. Such as spring, stream, river. The study of natural fresh waters in all their aspect (physical, chemical, geological, and biological) is termed limnology. Fresh water ecology is sometimes interpreted to be synonymous with limnology but is more properly considered as the primarily biologic aspects of limnology(Odum, 1953). Limiting factors which are likely to be especially important in fresh water, and hence which we would wish to measure in any through going study of an aquatic ecosystem, are as follows: Temperature The most important of thermal properties are : (1) High specific heat, that is, relatively large amount of heat is involved in

changing the temperature of water. One calorie of heat is require to raise one milliliter (or one gram) of water one degree centigrade (between 150 and 170). Only ammonia and a few other substances have values higher than 1. (2) High latent heat of fusion and melting. Eighty calories are required to change 1 gram of ice into water with no change in temperature (and vice versa). (3) Highest known latent heat of evaporation. Five hundred and thirty-six calories per gram are absorbed during evaporation which occurred more or less continually from both water and ice surfaces. (4) Water hats its greatest density at 40 C: it expands and hence become lighter both above and below this temperature. This unique property prevents lakes from freezing solid (Odum, 1953). Transparency Penetration of light is often limited by suspended materials, restricting the photosynthetic zone wherever aquatic habitats have appreciable depth (Odum, 1953). Current Since water is dense, the direct action of current is a very important limiting factor, especially in streams. Also, current often largely determine the distribution of vital gases and salts (Odum, 1953). Concentration of Respiratory Gases Oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration are often limiting (Odum, 1953). Concentration of Biogenic Salts Nitrates and phosphates seem to be limiting to some extent in nearly all fresh water ecosystems. In soft water lakes and streams, calcium and other salts also are likely to be limiting. Except for certain mineral springs, even the hardest fresh water have a salts content or salinity of less than 0.5 part per thousand, compared with 30 to 37 parts per thousand for sea water (Odum, 1953).

2. Ecological Classification of Fresh-Water Organism First, organism may be classified as to major niches based on their position in the energy of food chain. Producers: green plants and chemosynthetic microorganisms. Consumers: primary, secondary, etc; herbivores, predators, parasites, etc. Reducers: sub classified according to nature of substrate reduced (Odum, 1953). Secondly, organism in water may be classified as to their life form or life habit, based on their mode of life, as follow: Benthos: organism attached or resting on the bottom or lving in the bottom sediments. Periphyton: organism (both plant and animal) attached or clinging to stems and leaves of rooted plants or other surfaces projecting above the bottom. Plankton: floating organisms whose movement are more or less dependent or currents. While some of the zooplankton exhibit active swimming movements that aid in maintaining vertical position, plankton as a whole is unable to move against appreciable currents. In practice, net plankton is what is caught in a fine-meshed net which is towed slowly through the water; nannoplankton is too small to be caught in a net and must be extracted from water collected in a bottle or by means of a pump. Nekton: swimming organisms able to navigate at will. Neuston: organisms resting or swimming on the surface (Odum, 1953). Finally, organisms may be classified as to region or sub habitat. In the ponds and lakes three zones are generally evident as follows: Litoral zone: the shallow water region with light penetration to the bottom; typically occupied by rooted plants.

Limnetic zone: the open water zone to the depth of effective light penetration. Profundal zone: the bottom and deep water area which is beyond the depth of effective light penetration. This zone is often absent in ponds (Odum, 1953).

Figure. The Region of Fresh-Water (Sources: http://www.darrenh2o.com/infwater.htm)

3. The Fresh-Water Biota (Flora and Fauna) Considering the fresh-water environment as a whole, the algae are the most important producers, with the aquatic spermatophytes ranking second. Except for the pond weed family (Potaogetonaceae), most

aquatic higher plants are members of diverse families in which in the majority of species are terrestrial (Odum, 1953). Among the animal consumers, three groups were likely comprise the bulk of the biomass in most fresh-water ecosystems, namely, aquatic insects, crustacean, and fish. The mollusk annelids, rotifers, protozoa, and helminthes would generally rank lower in importance, although in specific intances any of these groups may loom large in the economy of the system (Odum, 1953). Among the reducers, the water bacteria and the aquatic fungi seem to be of equal importance in performing the vital role of reducing organic matter to inorganic form which may then be used again by the producers. Study of bacteria and fungi requires special techniques which are not yet generally undertaken in elementary ecology courses(Odum, 1953).

4. Lentic Communities a. Nature of Communities in Littoral Zone 1. Producers. Whitin the littoral zone producers are the two main types: rooted or benthic plants, belonging mostly to the division Spermatophyta (seed plants), and phytoplankton, or floating green plants, which are mostly algae. A representative

arrangement proceeding from shallow to deeper water may be briefly described as follows: Zone of emergent vegetation: Rooted plants with principal photosynthetic surfaces projecting above the water. Thus, carbon dioxide for food manufacture is obtained from air but other raw materials are obtained from beneath the water surface. Cattails are widespread dominant producer, and may be considered a type for this niche. Other plant in category include: bulrushes (Scirpus), arrowheads (Sagittaria), but reeds (Sparganium), spike rushes

(Eleocharis), and pickerelweeds (Tomederia) (Odum, 1953). Zone of rooted plants with floating leaves. This zone is similar, ecologically, to the previous one, but the horizontal photosynthetic surfaces may more effectively reduce light penetration into water. The undersurfaces of the lily pads provide convenient resting places and places for egg deposition by animals (Odum, 1953). Zone of submergent vegetation. Rooted or fixed plants completely or largely submerged. Leaves tend to be thin and finely divided and adpted for exchange of nutrients with the water. The pond weeds or Potamogetonaceae are usually prominent in this zone. The genus Potamogeton is, in fact, one of the largest genera of rooted aquatic plants, having about 65 species which occur in all temperate parts of the world. Other genera of the pond weed family (Ruppia, Zannichellia) are likewise widespread and may be more important locally than species of

Potamogeton(Odum, 1953). The principlas types of algae are: a) Diatoms (Bacillariaceae), with box-like silica shells and yellowing pigment in the chromatophores masking the green chlorophyll. b) Green algae (Chlorophiceae), which include single cell form like desmids, filamentous form either floating or attached, and various floating colonial forms. In these forms the chlorophyll is not masked by other pigment. c) The blue green algae (Cyanophyceae), rather simple single celled or colonial algae with diffuse chlorophyll (not concentrated into chromatoplasts) masked by other pigment. This group although containing few species, is often of great ecological importance because of the

enormous biomass that may develop in ponds and lakes(Odum, 1953).

2. Consumers The littoral zone is the home of a greater variety of animals than are the other zones. All five life habits are well represented, and all phyla which have fresh-water

representatives are likely to be present. Some animals, especially the periphyton, exhibit a zonation paralleling that of the rooted plants, but many species occur more or less throughout the littoral zone. Vertical rather than horizontal zonation is more striking in a animals (Odum, 1953). The nekton of the littoral zone is often rich in species and numbers. Adult and larval diving beetles and various adult hemiptera are conspicuous; some of these are especially the Dysticyds and Notonectids, are carnivorous, whereas the Hydrophylids, Haliplid beetles, and corixid bugs are partly, at least, herbivorous or scavengers. Amphibious vertebrates, frog, salamanders, turtles, and water snakes are almost exclusively members of the littoral zone community. The zooplankton of the littoral zone is rather characteristic and differs from that of the limnetic zone in preponderance of heavier, less buoyant crustacean which often cling to plants or rest on the bottom when not actively moving their appendages(Odum, 1953). Finally, the littoral neuston consist of three surface insects that are familiar to everyone who has even casually observed a pond: (1) whirliging beetles of the family Gyrinidae, the black lucky bugs of fishermen-these beetles are unique in that the eye is divided into two parts, one half for seeing above the water and the other half for underwater vision; (2) large water

striders, family Gerridae; and (3) the smaller, broadshouldered water striders, family Vellidae. Not so

conspicuous are numerous protozoa and other microorganisms which are associated with the surface film.(Odum, 1953).

b. Nature of Communities in the Limnetic Zone Phytoplankton producers of the open-water zone consist of algae-like green flagellates, chietly the dinoflagellates, Euglenidae and Volvocidae(Odum, 1953). The limnetic zooplankton is made up of few species but the numbers of individuals may be large. Copepods, cadocera, and rotifers are generally of first importance, and the species are largely different from those found in the littoral zone. Their some question whether some of the zooplankton organism can use organic materials not yet completely reduced by bacteria. Pond and lake water usually contains appreciable quantities of suspended organic particles and experiments have shown that some cladocera are able to utilize this material. In general, however, phytoplankton is thought to be the chief food of zooplankton. In other words, the latter are not able to shorten the food chain to a significant degree in nature(Odum, 1953). The limnetic nekton in fresh water consist almost entirely of fish. In ponds tye fish of the limnetic zone are the same as those of the littoral zone, but in larger bodies of water a few species may be restricted to the limnetic zone. Most fresh-water fish as adults feed on fairly sizable animals, that is, not on microscopic plankton. A few species, the gizzard shad, foer example, have strainers and the plankton feeders(Odum, 1953).

c. Nature of Communities in the Profundal Zone. The variety of life in the profundal zone, as might be expected, is not great, but what is there amy be important. The

important community constituents are bacteria and fungi, which are especially abundant in the water-mud interphase wahere organic matter accumulates, and three groups of animal consumers: (1) blood worms, or hemoglobin-containing chironomidlarvae and annelids; (2) small clams of the family Sphaeridae; and (3) phantom larvae, or Chaoborus (Corethra). The first two groups are benthic forms; the last are plankton forms which regularly move up into limnetic zone at night and down to the bottom during the day. All other plankton organisms in fresh water remain throughout their entire life hstory in this life form, in sharp contrast to organism of marine plankton, many of whom are only part-time members. All animals of the profundal zone are adapted to whitstand periods of low oxygen concentration, whereas many bacteria are able to carry on whitout oxygen (anaerobic). Oxygen and light, then, are important limiting factors in this zone(Odum, 1953).

5. Lake In lakes the limnetic zone and profundal zones are relatively large are relatively large, compared with the littoral zone. The typical seasonal cycle may be describe as follows: During the summer the top waters become warmer than the bottom waters; as a result , only the warm top layer circulates, and it does not mix with the more viscous colder water. As temperatures rises in summer the temperature differential between top and bottom waters increases, creating a zone in between called the thermocline. The upper, warm sirculating water is the epilimnion, and the colder, non-circulating water is the hypolymnion(Odum, 1953).

Geographical Distribution of Lakes Thus lakes abound in glaciated regions of northen Europe, Canada, and northen United States. Such lakes were formed as the last

graciers retreated about 10.000 to 12.000 years ago. Natural lakes are also numerous in regions of recent uplift from the sea, as in Florida, and in regions subject to recent volcanic activity, as in the western Rockies. Volcanic lakes, formed either in extict craters or in valleys dammed by volcanic action, are among the most beautiful in the world (Odum, 1953). Climate is important, but sizable lakes may occur even in deserts. Artificial lakes, generally designated as impoundments, are becoming increasingly common, so that, eve if a region is not endowed with natural lakes, the student may usually find examples near at hand(Odum, 1953).

Classification of Lakes The fascinating subject of world lake ecology can be obtained by considering three categories: 1. The Oligothrophic-Eutrophic series The productivity or fertility of a lake depends on nutrients recivedctin of fom regional drainage, and on the stage in succession and the depth. A simplified classification is as follows, with direction of succession indicated by arrows: Conc. Nutriens Low Morphometric Shalow Entropic Entropic Conc. Nutriens High

Morphometric Deep Oligotrophic Entropic

Typical oligotrophic (few food) lakes are deep, with the hipolimnion large than the apilimnion, and have low primary productivity (Odum, 1953). 2. Special lake types Seven special lake types: a. Dystropic lakes: brown water, humic, and bog lakes. Generally low pH, high concentration humic acid in water; bog lakes have peatfilled margins and develop into peat bogs. b. Deep, ancient lakes with endemic fauna. Lake Baikal in Russia in the most famous of ancient lakes. It is the deepest lake in the world. And was formed by earth movement during the mosozoic era (age of retiles). c. Desert salt lakes: Occur in sedimentary drainages in arid climates where evaporation exceeds pricipitation (thus resulting in salt concentration). Example: Great Salt Lake, Utah. d. Desert alkali lakes: Occur in igneus drainages in arid climates; high pH and concentration of carbonates. Example: Pyramid Lakr, Nevada. e. Volcanic lakes: Acid or Alkaline lakes associated with active volcanic regions (and receiving waters from the magma). Example: some Japanese and Philippine lakes. f. Lakes with chemical stratification; meromictic (half mix). Example: Big Carbonate Lake in Nevada and Hemmelsdorfersee in German. g. Pole lakes: suffer temperature still constant under 4oC, or up. 3. Impoundments Artificial lakes, of course, vary according to the region and to the nature of the drainage. Genarally, they are characterized by flugtuating water levels and high turbidity. Some of the praccussed. 6. Ponds Ponds are small bodies of water in which the littoral zone is relatively large and the limnetic and profundal regions are small or absent. Stratification is of minor importance. Ponds may be found in most regions of adequate

rainfall(Odum, 1953).

Figure. Ponds (Source: www.google.com) Temporary ponds, that is ponds which are dry for part of the year, are espesially interesting and support a unique community. Even though a temporary pond contains water for only a few weeks, a definate seasonal succession of organisms may occur, thus enabling a surpisingly large variety of organisms to utilize a very limited amount of physical habitat (Odum, 1953).

Succestion of animals in temporary pond in Illinois (Source: Odum,1953) Beaver ponds are a characteristic feature of wilderness areas of the north and mountains of the west. A beaver pond generally has a short ecological life history, asa such ponds are abandoned when the supply of food trees in the vicinity becomes reduced (Odum, 1953). 7.Lotic (Running-Water) Communities General comparison of lotic and letic habitats Different between streams and ponds revolve around a triad of condition: 1. Current is much more of a major controlling and limiting factor in streams. A prime characteristic of lotic habits, sterams andlakes are not sharply in this regard (Odum, 1953). 2. Land water interchange is relatively more extensive in streams, resulting in a more open ecosystem. Streams are more intimately associated with the sorronding land than are most standing bodies of water. In fact, most

streams depend on land areas and on connected ponds, backwaters, and lakes for a portion of their basic food materials (Odum, 1953). 3. Oxygen tension is generally higher and more uniform in streams and there is little or no thermal or chemical stratification. This difference between limits of tolerance to oxygen concentration can be make subject of easily conducted experiment (Odum, 1953). Nature of Lotic Communities Consequenly, broadly speaking we may first think in terms of two stream community and rapid community.

Some characteristic stream animal. A. Representative of the rapid community. B. Two burrowing types living in stream bank or bottoms of pool (source: Odum, 1953).

Organisms in rapids communities, and to a lesser extent those in habiting pool communities, show adaptations for mainting position in swift water. Some of the most important of there are: 1. Permanent attacthment to a firm substrate. 2. Hook and suckers. 3. Sticky undersurfaces. 4. Streamlined bodies. 5. Flattened bodies. 6. Possitive rheotaxis. 7. Possitive thigmotaxis. 8. Longitudinal Succession in Streams In lakes and ponds the prominent zonation is horizontal, whereas in streams it is longitudinal. Thus, in lake, successive zones from the middle to the shore represent, as it were, successively older seral stages from a young oligothropic condition to land communities (Odum, 1953). 9. Spings Springs are the aquatic ecologists natural constant temperature laboratory. Because of the relative constancy of the chamical composition, velocity of water, and temperature in comparison with lake, rivers, marine environment, and terrestrial communities, springs holdd a position of importance that is out of proportion to their size and number (Odum, 1953).

Referance Odum, Eugene P. 1953. Fundamentals of Ecology. USA: Press of W. B. Saunders company, Philadelphia Anonime. 2011. Ponds. www.google.com. Accesed on 21 January 2012. Anonime. 2011. The Region of Fresh-Water. http://www.darrenh2o.com/infwater.htm. Accesed on 21 January 2012.