Instructors File by Judy Adams

Nature in a Bowl
HANDBUILDING

Earthscape and seascape vessels inspired by geology and oceans, slab built in found form, finished using a toothbrush decorating technique.

ve always been drawn to ceramic works that reflect the nature of the clay itself. I enjoy soft curves, warm to subtle colors, and matt or semimatt finishes. I also like to see the marks of the making process. Vessels inspired by geology and oceans, which I call earthscapes and seascapes, are a result of this preoccupation. Although they are essentially spherical in shape, they are not made on the wheel or by coiling, but rather by using household bowls as molds. The method is quick and easy, and the resulting creases, folds and fissures within the stoneware or raku clay underline the earth and water theme. They have tiny shell and fossil shapes applied to the surface, and indentations of fish shapes, gravel patterns and plant life. The colors are blues, greens, yellows and browns for seascapes, and reds, ochres, browns, oranges and greens for the earthscapes. I use underglaze colors and oxides flicked on with a toothbrush for the main body, and brushed-on glazes on lips, handles, and to accentuate detail. The choice of clay body will have an effect on the final colors of the pot, so a light-colored body gives truer colors.

1
Choose a suitable bowl. One of my favorites is a metal 5 inch diameter balti (literally bucket in Pakistan) dish, originally intended for cooking South Asian cuisine. You can use smaller or larger bowls with equally successful results.

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2
Line the bowl with strips of paper or plastic wrap so the clay wont stick. Push in as one piece and dont be concerned with creases since the random lining of the bowl adds a creased texture.

3
Start with a piece of wedged clay about the size of your fist. Roll out a -inch-thick slab into a roughly round shape. Place this in the bottom of the bowl to form a hemisphere for the base.

4
Roll out a thick coil of clay and flatten with a rolling pin or your hand. Lay the coil around the edge of the disc, overlapping it about -inch. Theres no need to score or wet the edges since the two pieces of clay are at the same stage of plasticity.

5
Continue until the inner surface is covered with clay. Smooth all joins with your fingers, pressing the clay against the sides. Trim the top higher than the rim of the mold, and bend outward and downward to form a lip for joining the second clay hemisphere.

6
Allow the clay to stiffen a little. It should be firm enough to hold its shape, but soft enough to take the textures youre going to make in the next stage. When the clay is firm enough, tip out your shape and remove the paper.

7
Cover the hemisphere and make a second one. Score and slip the two halves, then join the halves together, giving them a slight twist and tapping. Lute excess clay into the joint and trim obvious bulges with a metal kidney.

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8
Carefully cut a hole in the top of the sphere. Put your mouth on the opening and gently blow into the pot to help reform any distortions of the shape. Add a coil to the opening with a roll of clay about inch in diameter.

9
Texture adds to the aesthetic of a piece, disguises the seam and strengthens some of the deeper fissures. Add texture running from the base toward the opening using things like twigs, bark, pebbles or other organic forms, paying special attention to the seam.

Glazing and Color Blending

To get a blended natural finish, use a selection of prepared underglaze colors, oxides (my choices are vanadium, copper carbonate and red iron) and brushon glazes that mature at a temperature appropriate to the clay. After glazing the inside of the pot with a liner glaze, I sometimes paint glaze onto textured area, then sponge off so that the glaze fills the indentations. Because I enjoy the unpredictability of results, I glaze selected areas before adding color to the main body. For the main body of the pot, flick on the color. Thin down ready-mixed color or mix a small quantity of powder color with water. Load a toothbrush with color and position near the pots surface. Draw a flat wooden stick from the farthest edge of the brush towards you so that the color is flicked on to the surface of the pot. Experiment with thinner and thicker consistencies of color, or by holding the brush closer or farther away from the surface to achieve the effect you want. Note: While the ready-mixed colors are more viscous and need thinning for flicking from a toothbrush, they adhere to the surface better than powders mixed with water. To use the oxides, mix them with water. Using a toothbrush gives an airbrush effect, although the droplets are coarser and more inconsistent than the spray from a gun. For health and safety purposes, use an appropriate mask while flicking and thin waterproof gloves to prevent skin contact. Advice is always readily available from the manufacturer of your colors. Overlap color on color, merge edges and mix colors together before you flickexperiment! After all, if you dont like the effect, you can wash everything off and start again. Dont worry if color or oxide goes over the glaze because thats what gives the interesting effects. What you should end up with is a pot with areas of color blending into one another with no sharp edges. Generally speaking, moving in tone from areas of dark color to light gives the best effect.

10
To flick on glaze, load a toothbrush with thinned-down commercial glazes or underglazes. Position the toothbrush near the surface and draw a flat wooden stick over the bristles. Experiment with different colors and thicknesses of glaze.

Judy Adams is a freelance writer and ceramic artist based in Lincolnshire in the U.K. She sells stoneware pottery through galleries in the U.K. and has conducted workshops in a school for young people with learning difficulties. She is a regular contributor to Ceramic Review.

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Instructors File by David McDonald

Following the Catenary Curve

HUMP MOLDS
n one of my earlier memories from college ceramics, my teacher demonstrated how one could build kilns with self-supporting arches, which needed no structural support other than the bricks they were made of. These catenary arches (also used by the Romans to build their aqueducts) are typically created by suspending a chain by its ends. An upsidedown arch is created in this way, and the resulting shape is traced onto two sheets of wood. These are then cut to shape connected by wooden slats attached to the edges. The result is an arch form, upon which the kilns arch is built. Created naturally by gravity, and determined by the length of the chain and how far apart the ends are held, the resulting shape is very strong. The thrust of the weight is carried right down the lines of the curve to the ground. Unlike arches that have been determined and mathematically calculated by man, here we have a shape that is determined by gravity and a hanging line; a natural arch. One day, while my thoughts were wandering in this realm, I realized how this shape is inherently two dimensional. Although depth can be added to the arch, it is created by one line, hanging at on a plane. What if, I pondered, we could somehow devise a way to use the same principles involved in the making of a catenary arch, to create a catenary dome? What a great shape for a platter that could be. Instead of determining the platters inside curve by the potters

tools, hands and eyes, the curve would be created naturally by gravity. Building a 24 wooden frame, roughly 4 feet square, and laying it horizontally on a couple of saw horses for support, I stretched a piece of tightly woven fabric over the edges of the frame, and stapled it down. It resembled a large painters canvas. I then poured liquid plaster into the center of the cloth and watched as the weight of the poured plaster stretched and pulled the at plane of the fabric downward. The end result was a perfect catenarycurved dome! A lot of experimentation followed, with the realization that the ability of the fabric to stretch, along with the tautness in attaching it to the frame, determined the shape and depth of the curved disk that was created. The dynamic and organic nature of this process turned out to be most intriguing. Ive made hundreds of these forms over the years, yet no two have been alike. The folds, contours and overall asymmetry are quite unique in each. The clay shapes produced on these plaster catenary forms seem to be more resistant to the effects of gravity commonly seen in the settling and slumping of similarly shaped thrown works. It still amazes me to see such large platters, overhanging their feet by wide margins, maintain their shape through the ring.

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It isnt that gravity no longer holds sway. In the ring, its effects can be seen in another way: the way in which it pulls the molten glaze down those catenary slopes. As the migrating uid ows toward that innite center, the sense of movement is captured, and the liquid is frozen in its tracks as the kiln is turned off and cooled.

As I reect on the nature of these curves, I look back at the wandering path of my career. Many years have been spent in the disciplined quest for knowledge, skill and determined control over the nished pot. What a pleasure its been, recruiting some of the simplest of natures laws into my design team; creating pots that reect those inherent attributes in their nished form.

Pouring

3
Stretch fabric onto a 4-foot-square wooden frame and staple it securely (gure 1). Tightly stretched denim results in a very shallow shape, while spandex-like cloth produces a deep bowl shape. Drape thin plastic sheeting over the fabric to allow for the easy release of the plaster (gure 2). Pour liquid plaster into the middle. The weight pulls the fabric down in a continuous curve (gure 3). The amount of liquid plaster determines the circumference of the mold.

6
Finish pouring and embed a 12-inch wooden disk into the middle of the wet plaster (gure 4). Laminated countertop scraps work well. A close up detail of the plaster edge shows how the plastic stretches with the added weight (gure 5). The cured and dried plaster form, with its curvature, will have stretch/folds created from the plastic liner used to assist in releasing the form from the fabric (gure 6). Mark the wooden disk for drilling two holes to mate with the wheel-head pins.

continued on page 42

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Forming

9
Carve additional design elements into the plaster form as desired. Sometimes I carve into the plaster to exaggerate and emphasize the lines created by the plastic. Other ideas have been added to the carving-in concept as well, all resulting in positive relief designs in the clay (gure 7). Once thoroughly cured, invert the form onto the wheel and center it. Roll out a slab of clay and place it over the form (gure 8), then compress it onto the form with sponge and water (gure 9).

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10

11

12
Sponge, water and compress again with the wheel turning to nish the bottom of the piece. Without delay, roll a coil of clay and attach it to the slab to start forming the foot (gure 10). Compress the coil into the slab with a sponge and water as the wheel turns, and nish throwing the foot (gure 11). With proper compression, separation of the foot from the slab will not be a problem. I dry my platters slowly in a damp room for about a week so the clay gently shrinks and releases from the form. Although the outside of these platters have all the marks of thrown work (gure 12), the inside surfaces mirror the plaster form from which they emerged.

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instructors File by hanna Lore hombordy

Sneak Peek
Throwing
fter the first successes of centering and pulling up the walls from a lump of clay, students feel a sense of accomplishment. Yet frustration sets in when they find that their newly created marvel actually has some flaws, especially uneven wall thickness from the bottom to the top. Heres a technique that will help to avoid consistently doing the same thing wrong. It also can help students to track their progress. Exhibit A illustrates a typical beginners attempt, obviously not ready to be considered a pot. After some practice, the beginner starts to wonder if she or he is getting closer to the goal of throwing an acceptable vessel such as the one in exhibit B. A simple solution would be to cut the pot in half, but a beginner sees this as a painful waste! So, there must be a better way. While instructors provide many good tips on throwing, and most students get the hang of it sooner or later, some students seem to remain stuck between the

exhibit

exhibit

The drawing on the left shows a cross section of a typical beginners cylinder with a thick bottom and uneven sides. The drawing on the right illustrates a more experienced potters cylinder.

drawing on the left and the one on the right. One approach is to have them form a picture in their mind of the perfect cylinder as it would look when cut in half, similar to the drawing on the right. As they throw, they need to focus on following a proper inner profile three dimensionally, going first across the bottom of the vessel then gradually up the inside wall. The right hand, moving

The Process

1
38

Throw practice cylinders, visualizing the perfect inner and outer profiles while pulling up the walls. Clean excess clay from the bottom before removing from the wheel.

Throw the obvious disasters into the scrap bucket and trim the acceptable pots.

continued
PotteryMaking Illustrated

January/February 2007

Using a pencil or needle tool, draw freehand shapes lightly onto the form.

CO

N MI

OO S

Cut slits in the pot. Leave generous space between the openings so you dont weaken the wall of the vessel.

5
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PotteryMaking Illustrated

If you prefer, draw or trace a design on paper and cut out the shapes. Dip the paper in water so it will stick to the pot. Arrange the pattern on the outside of the vessel, being careful not to place pieces too close together.

January/February 2007

Cut around the shapes with a sharp knife and gently remove the cutouts with a needle tool. Smooth the edges with a finger or damp sponge.The cutouts (inset) enable the beginner to see clearly how thick, thin or uneven the walls are and where improvement is needed. By going through this exercise several times, students will have actual evidence of their progress, plus an interesting collection of experiments they can refer to later.

simultaneously, needs to be the steadying influence, stabilizing the outer profile of the vessel and going straight up. This procedure needs to be repeated at least three times for each pot.

To see if progress is being made, students really need to cut through the middle of their cylinders with some sort of slit. Unfortunately, this is not always a popular idea. Creating a useable objectsuch as a candle potwhen cutting pieces to By making candle pots like the one assess wall thick- above, a beginner learns where to focus attention to improve his ness, helps reor her pot, but is also able to take lieve the pain. home a finished piece. Furthermore, these practice pots provide both instructor and student with tangible evidence of progress. They also provide an opportunity to practice trimming bottoms, and come in useful for glaze tests.
Hanna Lore Hombordy has worked with clay since 1973 in Ventura, California. She can be reached by e-mail at hlhnews@concentric.net.

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This Ceramics Monthly Handbook reflects the growing interest in pit firing and related techniques. The articles included here were carefully selected to illustrate the wide range of approaches to barrel, pit and saggar firing. Works ranging from wheel-thrown and coil-built pots to complex sculpture are tied together by a similarity in the firing process. Standard versions of these firing techniques, as well as innovative variations, are discussed.

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instructors File by Judi Munn

Sprig is in the air

Decoration

hen we first started firing with wood, I got really interested in texture. One of the things that I began to experiment with was creating press molds of shells that could be used to add sprigs. I had a lifetime shell collection from around the world, and I was glad to finally have a reason to use them. Sprigs are press-molded clay pieces added to leather-hard work. They are created using small molds made of bisque-fired Sprig molds provide a great way to decorate your work. Made from clay or plaster. Wedgwood Jasperware fossils, shells, found objects, or by carving into clay, theres no limit from England is a well-known example of to the variety. sprig-decorated ware. While Wedgwoods patterns are very intricate, simple sprig molds can be made using almost any object or hand-modeled relief that does not have undercuts. I use seashells as a motif even though we live in the land-locked Ozarks. On the surface, this might seem a bit out of place, but a trip to any Ozark stream proves otherwise. The creek beds are littered with fossils such as crinoids, sea fan and brachiopods. So, its natural that I use fossils, as well as the seashells. Im particularly fond of the beautifully spiraled ammonites. Historically, sprigs were removed from the mold then applied to the pot. You can also press the sprig onto the pot while it is still in the mold, which can either be a gentle press or a deep one that changes the contour of the pot. Doing this requires an interesting shape for the whole sprig mold.

Sprigs can be used in several ways. Theyve been used as feet and in a surface decoration on the 7-inch vase shown in image A. On the bottle in image B, sprigs form the handles and glazing highlights a sprig decoration on the side. With the punch bowl in image C, sprigs are used in a repeat pattern around the shoulder of the form. All pieces shown here have been fired to cone 9 in a wood-fired kiln.

C
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the Process
Begin by using the finest grain clay you have. While porcelain is best, I used fine-grain white stoneware with good results.

Shape the exterior of the mold by rolling or tap ping on a cloth surface. To make it easier to hold on to, make the mold long or add a handle to the back. Flatten the front of it, texture may be added by pressing the mold onto a textured cloth or other surface.

Spray the object with a releasing agent such as cooking spray or WD-40.

3
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Center the object on the mold and press it onto the clay.

March/April 2007

Carefully remove the object, and dont disturb the edges. Allow the mold to dry slowly then bisque fire.

To apply, press a small ball of clay into the deep part of the mold.

6
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Press extra clay on the rest of the mold.

March/April 2007

Put a small amount of water, or slip, on the backside of sprig. With one hand, press the sprig on the pot from the outside. Apply pressure from both sides by using your other hand to press out toward the sprig from the inside.

tip: if you put too much slop on the back of the sprig, it will ooze out and stick to the mold, which makes the mold stick to the pot. if this happens, just leave the mold in place for 5 minutes or so until it absorbs the moisture, then it will come right off. Molds can also stick when they become wet during use, in which case youll need to stop and let the mold dry out before continuing.

Pressing the sprig deeply into the pot while the pot is still moist makes it less likely that it will come off in the dying process. This also gives the pot a look of spontaneity.

Judi Munn and her husband, John Perry, demonstrate pottery making at the Ozark Folk Center State Park in Mountain View, AR. They can be reached at perry/munnstudio@mvtel.net. Their workshop schedule is available through the Ozark Folk Center at www.ozarkfolkcenter.com.

Detail shot of fired sprig decoration.

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Instructors File by Jonathan Kaplan

a simple approach to Glaze Testing

Glazes

Test Tiles

An organized system for testing glazes is simple to implement and can provide a valuable record youll be able to access for years.

esting glazes has both educational and practical advantages. A methodical and well-organized regimen can provide you with a great deal of very useful information. You can learn how glazes work alone and in combination with other glazes, engobes and other decorative processes. If a glaze shows potential for problems, you can make adjustments to it or choose to try another glaze. You can learn about the materials, their properties and how they function in a glaze. Heres a simple system thats easy, repeatable and understandable, requiring only a small investment of time and some very basic equipment.

Test tiles are the heart of the system since a test glaze sits on the tile and provides information on its fired properties. Tiles can be thrown, extruded or made from slabs of your clay body. If youre testing glazes on different clay bodies, make sure you mark the tiles with a code for that particular body. Test tiles can show a host of additional information if theyre prepared correctly, for example: Anglebending a section or creating an angled tile provides information about the fluidity of a glaze. Texturea textured pattern shows how glazes break thick and thin over a surface. Colorapplying white and black engobes on green tile shows how a fired glaze breaks over the raised colored clay. Holea hole in the tile provides a way to display it on a board or secure it to the glaze bucket with a twist tie, wire or string. In about 2 hours of work in an afternoon, I can easily produce a few hundred test tiles, which is a good amount to have on hand (figure 1).

Testing Method

Step 1. Select two glazes. For simple glaze testing, work with only two glazes at one time. This allows

Record Keeping
Keep your identification system simple and youll be able to refer to your notes years after a test. At the base of each tile, use black underglaze to write the date in MMDDYY format, for example, 021307 for February 13, 2007, then add the test number for that day. (Note: Dont write on the bottom of the tile as it can leave a ghost image from the underglaze on the kiln shelf.) Enter these numbers in a glaze notebook next to each test. Theres no reason to include any other information on the test tile other than the date and test number as all the other information pertaining to the glaze is in your notebook. You can also use computer glaze programs as a database for your glazes. There are many excellent applications for PC and Macintosh, such as Insight, Hyperglaze, Matrix and Glaze Master. If using a computer, be sure to always have a hard copy or electronic backup of your work (figure 2). While I use glaze calculation software to calculate my batch sizes and help with correcting any problems, most entries in my notebook are by longhand.

A self-supporting angled tile with texture, as well as black-and-white slip, provides information on several properties of a glaze.

Keep all notes in a three-ring binder. If using a glaze software program, be sure to print out a hard copy for a permanent record.
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you to develop a fairly organized way of working with glazes directed toward what you need to accomplish without getting so overloaded with information that you lose track. Step 2. Convert the recipes. The batch recipe should add up to 100. If it doesnt, divide the total of the original glaze into the amount of each ingredient. Do not include any colorants or additives in your calculations, just the basic recipe. Heres an example:

Grannys Shorts
Cone 4-7 Whiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Gerstley Borate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Custer Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Plastic Vitrox Clay (PV Clay) . . . . . . . . 21 Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 140
Divide each amount by 140 to convert to a 100 batch

Step 5. Dry mix the glaze. Seal the bag and mix the ingredients by dumping the materials back and forth to ensure good dispersion. Label the bag with a permanent marker with the name of the glaze, date and cone number (figure 3). Step 6. Select test materials. Ive found that if I write down all the tests I wish to do prior to any mixing, the testing sequence goes much faster and is better organized. Select metallic colorants (for example, iron oxide, cobalt oxide, copper carbonate) or any pigments (commercial stains) to test. Many books have lists of coloring oxides percentages sorted by temperature and atmosphere that you can use as a reference point. Step 7. Mixing a test. Youll need 100 grams of dry mix for a test which means youll get 20 tests from a

Whiting Gerstley Borate Custer Feldspar Plastic Vitrox Clay (PV Clay) Silica

14/140=10 42/140=30 49/140=35 21/140=15 14/140=10 100

Step 3. Calculate the batch. When testing, mix 2000 grams of dry materials to make a gallon of glaze. This is done by simply multiplying each number in the batch formula by 20. For example:
Whiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gerstley Borate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Custer Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plastic Vitrox Clay (PV Clay) . . . . . . Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10x20=200 30x20=600 35x20=700 15x20=300 10x20=200 2000

After measuring out a 100 gram test batch, carefully add colorants.

Step 4. Weigh the ingredients. Use a gram scale to measure out the ingredients for the batch glaze. After weighing each ingredient, double check weight on the scale, then place it in a large resealable storage bag. As you add each ingredient, check it off the list in the notebook. Since this is base glaze, do not add any colorants or additives.

Weigh out materials for a test base glaze into a large resealable plastic bag. Label the bag.

A drink mixer is a great tool for mixing test batches. Caution: After glaze mixing, the mixer should never be used for food.

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Tip:

You can bend the handle of an old toothbrush by holding it over a heat gun or hair dryer until its pliable.

6
Sieve the glaze through a 100 mesh sieve using a bent toothbrush to help the wet materials through.

Step 9. Sieve the glaze. Taking a small 100 mesh test sieve and a small clear plastic cup, pour the mixed material through the sieve. Use a bent toothbrush to help the wet material through the sieve (figure 6). Mark the cup with the date and test number. Step 10. Glazing a tile. Take a test tile and wipe the surface with a damp sponge to remove any dust. Dip the tile into the glaze and hold it there while slowly counting to 10. The 10 count allows a sufficient quantity of wet glaze to adhere to the surface. Remove the tile slowly from the cup, allow it to dry then label it with the date and test number (figure 7). Save the test glaze for a few days in case you need to retest or adjust the mix.

batch. When mixed with 100125ml of water (3.4 4.2 oz.), a 100 gram test batch yields approximately 1 cup of liquid glaze. Weigh out 100 grams of dry mix, then move then add the additional test material to it. By carefully adding the required amount of coloring material, you can be precise with any addition (figure 4). Step 8. Blending. Use an old kitchen drink mixer or blender to mix test batches. (Caution: These mixers must no longer be used for food.) Allow the materials to slake for a few minutes, then blend for a few seconds (figure 5).

Two Times Better

If you test two base glazes at one time, you can easily add coloring oxides or stains to each base without much extra effort. In addition, you can now put one glaze over another to see how they interact with each other. First, create a series of tiles with glaze #1 over glaze #2, then a set with glaze #2 over glaze #1. You only need to dip a small section of the top of each tile to provide enough glaze to interact with what is below it and not run off the tile.

Mark the base of a test tile with black underglaze.

Dip the test tile into the test batch and count to ten slowly.

Jonathan Kaplan has been actively involved in ceramics for more than 35 years. In addition to authoring articles for several periodicals, his work has also appears in numerous collections and books. He and his partner, Annie Crietzberg, recently opened Plinth gallery in Denver and online at www.plinthgallery.com.

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instructors File by Barry Hall

The sound of clay

lutes, whistles and ocarinas are known as airduct flutes and they come in many shapes and sizes. Their common characteristic is an airduct assembly, which makes it easier for a novice to play, since it removes the requirement that a player carefully position their mouth and lips in the precise way necessary to get a proper tone. Ancient examples of these instruments have been found in China, India and throughout the Americas, and the pre-Columbian Airduct instruments have inhabitants of America been made for thousands of created some of the years. This Aztec double whistle most complex and from Mexico is an example of a acoustically advanced complex instrument with two instruments known to chambers and two apertures. this day (figure 1).

Making Music

How They Work

An airduct assembly (figures 2 and 3) is complicated to build, but easy to play. The edge is a

Components of an airduct assembly.

Ocarina cross-section.

sharpened blade of clay that sits across the aperture from the windway, precisely aligned so that it splits the stream of air coming from the windway. There are many variations of airduct assemblies. The aperture can be square, rectangular, An example of a flute with round or oval. The edge a recorder-style airduct ascan be short and thick, or sembly mouthpiece. Salt-fired thin and very sharp. The earthenware, 20 inches in windway can also have length by Brian Ransom. many variations in shape. Tubular airduct flutes, sometimes simply called pipes, are tube-shaped flutes with an airduct assembly at one end (figure 4). Examples include the recorder and penny whistle, and they can have finger holes or none at all. The finger holes enable the flute to produce additional pitches. A unique benefit of airduct assemblies is that they permit the creation of multiple flutes, which are two or more flutes joined and played as one instrument that produces simultaneous pitches and harmonies. Globular flutes with airduct assemblies are commonly called ocarinas, although sometimes such instruments without finger holes are called whistles. An ocaZelda ocarina by Richrina has a vessel body that ard and Sandi Schmidt. can be almost any shape, Inspired by a popular video and an airduct assembly game, slipcast stoneware with that causes the vessel to hand-cut airduct assembly and fired to cone 5. sound. If the instrument has finger holes, they can be placed just about anywhere on its body, since it is their size, not position, that determines the pitch they produce. This gargoyle whistle by Whistles and ocarinas Kelly Averill Savino is an are quite possibly the example of the creative range most widely-known and that can be achieved with the popular ceramic instru- ocarina form.

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ment of all time, with traditions in virtually all parts of the world. They have been made since prehistoric times, from a variety of materials. Ancient clay whistles have been found throughout Europe, and in India, Egypt and China as well. Although the ocarina was coined in nineteenth century Italy, the instrument itself has a much longer history. Early inhabitants of Mesoamerica and South America were prolific whistle and ocarina makers for a period of several thousand years. The variety and creativity of their globular flutes is remarkable and unparalleled. Ocarinas in pre-Columbian America were usually highly decorated and often depicted human figures and animals.

Making it Work

Bevel the tips of wooden sticks to make them effective cutting tools.

A mouthpiece that works can be easily fashioned on the end of a flute or as part of an ocarina. Youll need to bevel the tips of a couple of Popsicle sticks to make them effective cutting tools (figure 7). Use a bench grinder or sharpen them with sandpaper on a flat surface. Once youve made the body, create the mouthpiece approximately 1 inch wide by inch thick and 1

Making it Whistle
Making airduct assemblies for clay instruments is a combination of science and art. Although its not too difficult to make a working model, many artists have spent years perfecting the subtle variations, and learning from trial and error what designs sound the best to their ears. According to Bart Hopkin, author of Musical Instrument Design, some factors that affect the tone quality in flutes, whistles and ocarinas are the aperture size and shape, the windway size and shape, the angle of incidence, and the acuteness of the edge. Aperture size: The larger the opening between the windway and the edge, the higher the overall pitch, and larger apertures also require larger tone holes on the flute body to achieve the same pitch relationships. Aperture shape: Short, wide openings produce a clear, focused tone. Long, narrow apertures produce a breathier tone and require more blowing pressure. Windway size and shape: The windway focuses the air stream so it is made very thin, often less than 16 inch. The width should be as wide as the edge opposite. Windways with upper and lower walls that become narrower toward the exit increase the focus of the air stream and create a less breathier tone. Angle of incidence: Orient the windway in such a way that it directs the air stream head on to the edge, centered so that the edge cuts the air stream roughly in half. The windway should be parallel to the tube walls, and not heading down from above. Acuteness of the edge: Recorders generally use a sharp, narrow edge at about 20 or 25. Many ocarinas and clay flutes use thicker edges at about 45.

inches long. It should have squared sides and a slight taper from back to front (figure 8). Carefully insert the Popsicle stick into the mouthpiece to create the windway (figure 9) The stick must pass through the mouthpiece parallel to the top and bottom surfaces and squarely with the sides. Use slow even pressure. With the windway stick still in place, use another beveled stick to cut the aperture (figure 10). On an ocarina, this is done on the underside, and it must

The mouthpiece shape has squared sides with a slight taper from back to front. It is thick enough to insert the stick to create the windway.

Carefully insert the stick with slow even pressure to create the windway. Care must be taken to ensure that the stick passes through the mouthpiece parallel to the top and bottom surfaces and squarely with the sides.

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be located just inside the interior of the wall of the body. Make a squared opening and remove the small piece of clay. Cut all the way down to the stick underneath. Make clean, square cuts on all four sides. Next, with the beveled edge of the stick facing down, make a square cut at a 45 angle, moving toward the mouthpiece. Press the stick in until it reaches the other stick. Your objective is to create a sharp beveled edge on the side of the aperture farthest from the mouthpiece. This sharp edge splits the air from the windway and creates the sound. Carefully give a test blow (figure 11). If there is no whistle, reinsert the stick in the airway and check the sharpness of the bevel. Withdraw the windway stick, being careful to keep the stick flat. Hold

the body and mouthpiece to ensure both are in full contact with the table. Remove the stick and recheck the alignment.

Resources

For more information on the history, lore, mechanics, demonstrations, images of ceramic instruments throughout history with examples of todays working artists, and

11

Put the mouthpiece to your lips and give it a test blow. If it whistles, you can complete your instrument by placing finger holes for flutes and ocarinas or leaving no finger holes for a whistle.

10

samples of music being played on ceramic instruments, refer to Barry Halls book From Mud to Music (www.ceramicartsdaily.org/books). If youre interested in more information on nontraditional musical instrument design, refer to Musical Instrument Design, by Bart Hopkin, available at Amazon.com.

With the first stick still in place, use another beveled stick to cut the aperture.

the piece up and look into the windway while under an overhead light. You should see the beveled edge right in the middle of the windway. If you dont, reinsert the windway stick and lay the ocarina on the table with the flat side down. Press down on

The article was excerpted from Barry Halls comprehensive book on ceramic musical instruments From Mud to Music published in 2006 by The American Ceramic Society.

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Instructors File by Paul andrew Wandless

Getting to Know your Clay

Clay Bar TeSTS
t some point we all change clay bodies for one reason or another. Whether you want a body that shrinks less, has more absorption/less absorption, a lower/higher maturation point or just a different color, there are hundreds of commercial clays to choose. While most clays have pretty good general catalog descriptions of what they are and what they can do, once we apply our specific working and firing processes other issues can arise. A combination of tests can give you plenty of information that makes choosing and Prepare test trays from high fire clay. learning about a clay body a little easier.

Why Test?

Testing clay bodies provides you with information that you can observe, touch and feel first hand in your own environment. While a catalog photo shows what a body may look like fired at one or several cones, it may not tell you what it will do at the cone youre firing to. Basic clay bar tests give you information more specific to your needs, and a 25-pound sample is usually enough to complete all the tests you need.

What to Test

Prepare triangular stilts to support bar.

Tests should be done at multiple temperatures to yield the widest range of information on the body. You need to understand the same general characteristics at every temperature you fire to, and even at temperatures you may want to fire to in the future. I test at every potential cone I may fire to and keep records of all the results. The three important general characteristics are shrinkage, absorption and warping/slumping. Other important qualities to note are color, texture, plasticity and hardness. Some results are determined with visual and touch tests while others require simple formulas. All require consistency of procedure so the results you achieve are created under the same conditions.

Using a high-fire clay, make a simple clay box thats 810 inches square with a 1-inch wall. Make several boxes at the same time so you can test multiple bodies in the same firings or just have them on hand for future use (figure 1). Make triangle stilts about the thickness of your pinky and long enough to span the width of the clay bar (figure 2). All stilts must be the same height.

Youll need three clay bars for each body youre testing. For consistency and accuracy of results, use the same dimensions for all your clay bars. While some tests yield correct results regardless of the bar dimensions, you can always rule out size and dimension as variables that could cause any irregularities. I make -inch-thick bars measuring 2 inches wide by 6 inches When firing above a recommended temperature long. If your work is thicker, make bars to match, but either on purpose or by mistake, clay bodies start dont exceed inches in thickness. After cutting the to melt and fuse or stick to the shelves. To test clay bars to size, draw a 10-cm-long line on one of them bars youll need a shallow firing box to protect with a hash mark at each end. This will be used for a your kiln shelves and make handling and transshrinkage test later (figure 3). portation easier. Youll also need clay stilts for the For the tests here, Ive selected four bodies to warping test. test: two white bodies from Standard (#257 Grol-

Clay Bars

Firing Box and Stilts

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Four test bars with 10 cm. line.

leg Porcelain Cone 810 and #181 White Stoneware Cone 610) and two from Amaco (#29 Brown Stone Earthenware Cone 0604 and #77 Terra Cotta Clay Cone 5). All four bodies have different characteristics at the temperatures to which Im interested in firing them, and testing several bodies at the same time takes better advantage of each firing. Write the clay number on the back of each tile. Once all bars are cut and firing boxes are built, let them dry to bone dry. They can be stacked with newspaper layered in between and a board on top for a little weight to keep from warping. Its important that the firing boxes and clay bars stay flat while drying to assure accurate test results (figure 4).

Pre-Bisque

Dry trays and bars slowly and evenly.

At the bone dry stage, visually examine the bars for a color change if any. Use a ruler to measure in centimeters the shrinkage line to see if it has changed from its original 10 cm length. Record the results. For each firing, place the bars side by side in the firing box, and place one of them on the triangle stilts. The stilts should be placed about - to -inch in from the ends of the bar. If the stilts are too close, the bar may not warp or slump to its fullest potential. The shrinkage bar and the other regular bar are simply placed in the bottom of the box.

Firing

While the test firing can be done in any kiln, the results are most applicable if done in the same kiln used for your work. Indicate in your notebook or worksheet if its an electric or gas kiln, oxidation or reduction firing, salt, wood, soda, etc. For best results, start firings at the lowest cone temperature and then progressively refire the bars at higher cones until the highest desired cone is reached. A sample for progressive test firings for a cone 10 clay body would be cone 06, cone 01, cone 6 then finally cone 10.

Place one bar on stilts and two of them flat in the tray.

Clay Bar Tests

The following traditional tests give a good range of basic information that helps you to better understand your clay body. Keep good records in your notebook or worksheet so youll have the results for future reference. If there are other specific qualities, such as glaze fit or color effect, tests for these as well.

Warping/Slumping

After each firing, measure the amount of deflection.

Visually examine for any warping or sagging movement in the center. Remove the bar from the stilts, turn it over and place it on flat surface so the gap (if any) can be measured (figure 6). This test informs you at what temperature the walls may start to warp or deform or a plate may begin to slump. The information can be applied to the sculptural or structural applications of the clay body. An exact percentage for

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Soak bars in water and weigh them after 24 hours.

this is not as important as just knowing when the clay body starts to move.

Shrinkage Test

Measure the 10 cm line to determine shrinkage.

Measure the length of the line in centimeters on the shrinkage bar (figure 7), and subtract it from 10 (based on the original 10 cm line). For example, 10 cm 8.5 cm = 1.5 cm. An easy way to convert this result to a percentage is to move the decimal to the right one place, so 1.5 cm means 15% shrinkage. Knowing the shrinkage rate helps in determining which glazes will fit the body and even which two bodies can be used together.

absorption Test

There are two types of tests that can determine the absorption of a clay body. One is a simple visual test and the other is a weight calculation. For the visual test, place a few drops of a liquid (like ink) on the surface of the bar to create a stain. Let it soak in for an hour then wash off the surface with water. The darker the stain, the more absorbent the clay body. This is not an exact test, but it gives a quick and useful general result. The weight calculation test is more specific. Weigh the fired bar on a gram scale and record the result (figure 8). Soak the bar in water for 24 hours, pat dry, then weigh again and record the result. Subtract the first weight (dry bar) from the second weight (water soaked bar) to get the weight of the absorbed water. Divide the weight of the absorbed water by the original dry weight and move the decimal two places to the right to find the absorption rate. Example: Original bar weight of 4.2 grams is subtracted from soaked bar weight of 4.6 grams giving you an absorbed water weight of .4 grams. Divide .4 by 4.2 which equals .095 making absorption 9.5%.

Note the color of the clay after each firing. Here are four clays fired to cone 04 (top) and cone 7 (bottom).

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Color Test

Visually examine a bar to see if there has been a color change (figure 9). The color change can sometimes be dramatic depending on the cone it was fired and is important for aesthetic purposes. It can also help you determine the best glazes to work visually on the surface.

Surface/Texture

Visually examine the bar to determine if the surface has changed. Run your fingers across the bar to see if its the same, smoother or more course. This information is important aesthetically and helps you determine if it meets your visual and tactile needs.

Hardness

Using a nail, see if you can scratch the surface to see how hard or soft it is at the fired temperature. This test helps determine the surface durability at different temperatures.
Paul Andrew Wandless is a studio artist, workshop presenter, visiting assistant professor and author. His new book is titled Image Transfer On Clay (Lark Books) and he also co-authored Alternative Kilns and Firing Techniques: Raku, Saggar, Pit & Barrel. His website is www.studio3artcompany.com and he can be emailed at paul@studio3artcompany.com.

The more you know about the materials you use the better off youll be. These tests are valuable in revealing general qualities about a body at different temperatures. This kind of information goes a long way in helping you decide if a clay body is really matching your needs in the studio.

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