ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT The human gastrointestinal tract is the stomach and intestine,[1] sometimes

including all the structures from the mouth to the anus. The "digestive system" is a broader term that includes other structures, including the accessory organs of digestion). In an adult male human, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is 5 metres (20 ft) long in a live subject, or up to 9 meters (30 ft) without the effect of muscle tone, and consists of the upper and lower GI tracts. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, reflecting the embryological origin of each segment of the tract. The GI tract always releases hormones to help regulate the digestion process. These hormones, including gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and grehlin, are mediated through either intracrine or autocrine mechanisms, indicating that the cells releasing these hormones are conserved structures throughout evolution. The upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach,

and duodenum. The exact demarcation between "upper" and "lower" can vary. Upon gross dissection, the duodenum may appear to be a unified organ, but it is often divided into two parts based upon function, arterial supply, or embryology. The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the small intestine and all of the large intestine. bowel or Intestine. According to some sources, it also includes the anus,

Small Intestine: Has three parts:

Duodenum: Here the digestive juices from the pancreas (digestive enzymes) and the gallbladder (bile) mix. The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile and emulsify fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands which produce bicarbonate. In combination with bicarbonate from pancreatic juice, this neutralizes HCl of the stomach.

Jejunum: This is the midsection of the intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum. It contains the plicae circulares, and villi to increase the surface area of that part of the GI Tract. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream.

Ileum: Has villi and absorbs mainly Vitamin B12 and bile acids, as well as any other remaining nutrients.

Large Intestine: Has three parts:

Cecum: The Vermiform appendix is attached to the Cecum. Colon: Includes the Ascending Colon, Transverse Colon, Descending Colon and Sigmoid Flexure: The main function of the Colon is to absorb water, but it also contains bacteria that produce beneficial

vitamins like Vitamin K.

Rectum

The Ligament of Treitz is sometimes used to divide the upper and lower GI tracts.

Human Respiratory System The respiratory system consists of all the organs involved in breathing. These include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The respiratory system does two very important things: it brings oxygen into our bodies, which we need for our cells to live and function properly; and it helps us get rid of carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of cellular function. The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi all work like a system of pipes through which the air is funneled down into our lungs. There, in very small air sacs called alveoli, oxygen is brought into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide is pushed from the blood out into the air. When something goes wrong with part of the respiratory system, such as an infection like pneumonia, it makes it harder for us to get the oxygen we need and to get rid of the waste product carbon dioxide. Common respiratory symptoms include breathlessness, cough, and chest pain. When you breathe in, air enters your body through your nose or mouth. From there, it travels down your throat through the larynx (or voice box) and into the trachea (or windpipe) before entering your lungs. All these structures act to funnel fresh air down from the outside world into your body. The lungs are paired, cone-shaped organs which take up most of the space in our chests, along with the heart. Their role is to take oxygen into the body, which we need for our cells to live and function properly, and to help us get rid of carbon dioxide, which is a waste product. We each have two lungs, a left lung and a right lung. These are divided up into 'lobes', or big sections of tissue separated by 'fissures' or dividers. The right lung has three lobes but the left lung has only two, because the heart takes up some of the space

in the left side of our chest. The lungs can also be divided up into even smaller portions, called 'bronchopulmonary segments'. The Respiratory System and Ageing The normal process of ageing is associated with a number of changes in both the structure and function of the respiratory system. These include:

Enlargement of the alveoli. The air spaces get bigger and lose their elasticity, meaning that there is less area for gases to be exchanged across. This change is sometimes referred to as 'senile emphysema'.

The compliance (or springiness) of the chest wall decreases, so that it takes more effort to breathe in and out.

The strength of the respiratory muscles (the diaphragm and intercostals muscles) decreases. This change is closely connected to the general health of the person.

All of these changes mean that an older person might have more difficulty coping with increased stress on their respiratory system, such as with an infection like pneumonia, than a younger person would.