PMMT Additional Notes

Project Management Unit 28th October 2011

Learning Objectives
Describe an overall framework for project integration management as it relates to the other project management knowledge areas and the project life cycle. Explain the strategic planning process and apply different project selection methods. Explain the importance of creating a project charter to formally initiate projects. Discuss the process of creating a preliminary project scope statement.
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Learning Objectives
Describe project management plan development, including content, using guidelines and templates for developing plans, and performing a stakeholder analysis to help manage relationships. Explain project execution, its relationship to project planning, the factors related to successful results, and tools and techniques to assist in project execution. Describe the process of monitoring and controlling project work.
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Learning Objectives
Understand the integrated change control process, planning for and managing changes on information technology projects, and developing and using a change control system. Explain the importance of developing and following good procedures for closing projects. Describe how software can assist in project integration management.
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The Key to Overall Project Success: Good Project Integration Management

Project managers must coordinate all of the other knowledge areas throughout a project s life cycle. Many new project managers have trouble looking at the big picture and want to focus on too many details. (See opening case for a real example.) Project integration management is not the same thing as software integration.

Project Integration Management Processes

Develop the project charter: Work with stakeholders to create the document that formally authorizes a project the charter. Develop the preliminary project scope statement: Work with stakeholders, especially users of the project s products, services, or results, to develop the high-level scope requirements and create a preliminary project scope statement. Develop the project management plan: Coordinate all planning efforts to create a consistent, coherent document the project management plan.
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Project Integration Management Processes (cont d)

Direct and manage project execution: Carry out the project management plan by performing the activities included in it. Monitor and control the project work: Oversee project work to meet the performance objectives of the project. Perform integrated change control: Coordinate changes that affect the project s deliverables and organisational process assets. Close the project: Finalize all project activities to formally close the project.
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Strategic Planning and Project Selection

Strategic planning involves determining long-term objectives, predicting future trends, and projecting the need for new products and services. organisations often perform a SWOT analysis:
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats

As part of strategic planning, organisations should:

Identify potential projects. Use realistic methods to select which projects to work on. Formalize project initiation by issuing a project charter.
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Identifying Potential Projects

Many organisations follow a planning process for selecting IT projects. It s crucial to align IT projects with business strategy. Research shows that:
Supporting explicit business objectives is the number one reason cited for investing in IT projects. Companies with consolidated IT operations have a 24 percent lower operational cost per end user. The consistent use of IT standards lowers application development costs by 41 percent per user.*
*Cosgrove Ware, Lorraine, By the Numbers, CIO Magazine (www.cio.com) (September 1, 2002).
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Figure 4-1. Information Technology Planning Process

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Methods for Selecting Projects

There is usually not enough time or resources to implement all projects. Methods for selecting projects include:
Focusing on broad organisational needs. Categorizing information technology projects. Performing net present value or other financial analyses. Using a weighted scoring model. Implementing a balanced scorecard.

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Focusing on Broad organisational Needs

It is often difficult to provide strong justification for many IT projects, but everyone agrees they have a high value. It is better to measure gold roughly than to count pennies precisely. Three important criteria for projects:
There is a need for the project. There are funds available for the project. There is a strong will to make the project succeed.
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Categorizing IT Projects
One categorization assesses whether the project provides a response to:
A problem An opportunity A directive

Another categorization is based on the time it will take to complete a project or the date by which it must be done. Another categorization is the overall priority of the project.
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Financial Analysis of Projects

Financial considerations are often an important aspect of the project selection process. Three primary methods for determining the projected financial value of projects:
Net present value (NPV) analysis Return on investment (ROI) Payback analysis
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Net Present Value Analysis

Net present value (NPV) analysis is a method of calculating the expected net monetary gain or loss from a project by discounting all expected future cash inflows and outflows to the present point in time. Projects with a positive NPV should be considered if financial value is a key criterion. The higher the NPV, the better.

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Figure 4-2. Net Present Value Example

Note that totals are equal, but NPVs are not because of the time value of money.
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Figure 4-3. JWD Consulting NPV Example

Multiply by the discount factor each year, then subtract costs from cumulative benefits to get NPV. Note: See the template called business_case_financials.xls.
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NPV Calculations
Determine estimated costs and benefits for the life of the project and the products it produces. Determine the discount rate (check with your organisation on what to use). Calculate the NPV (see text for details). Some organisations consider the investment year as year 0, while others consider it year 1. Some people enter costs as negative numbers, while others do not. Make sure to identify your organisation s preferences.
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Return on Investment
Return on investment (ROI) is calculated by subtracting the project costs from the benefits and then dividing by the costs.
ROI = (total discounted benefits - total discounted costs) / discounted costs

The higher the ROI, the better. Many organisations have a required rate of return or minimum acceptable rate of return on investment for projects. Internal rate of return (IRR) can by calculated by setting the NPV to zero.
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Payback Analysis
Another important financial consideration is payback analysis. The payback period is the amount of time it will take to recoup, in the form of net cash inflows, the total dollars invested in a project. Payback occurs when the cumulative discounted benefits and costs are greater than zero. Many organisations want IT projects to have a fairly short payback period.
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Figure 4-4. Charting the Payback Period

Excel file

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Weighted Scoring Model

A weighted scoring model is a tool that provides a systematic process for selecting projects based on many criteria. Steps in identifying a weighted scoring model:
1. Identify criteria important to the project selection process. 2. Assign weights (percentages) to each criterion so they add up to 100 percent. 3. Assign scores to each criterion for each project. 4. Multiply the scores by the weights to get the total weighted scores.

The higher the weighted score, the better.

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Figure 4-5. Sample Weighted Scoring Model for Project Selection

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Implementing a Balanced Scorecard

Drs. Robert Kaplan and David Norton developed this approach to help select and manage projects that align with business strategy. A balanced scorecard is a methodology that converts an organisation s value drivers, such as customer service, innovation, operational efficiency, and financial performance, to a series of defined metrics. See www.balancedscorecard.org for more information.
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Project Charters
After deciding what project to work on, it is important to let the rest of the organisation know. A project charter is a document that formally recognizes the existence of a project and provides direction on the project s objectives and management. Key project stakeholders should sign a project charter to acknowledge agreement on the need and intent of the project; a signed charter is a key output of project integration management.
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Figure 4-6. Project Integration Management Overview

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Preliminary Scope Statements

A scope statement is a document used to develop and confirm a common understanding of the project scope. It is an important tool for preventing scope creep:
The tendency for project scope to keep getting bigger.

A good practice is to develop a preliminary or initial scope statement during project initiation and a more detailed scope statement as the project progresses.
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Contents of a Preliminary Scope Statement

Project objectives Product or service requirements and characteristics Project boundaries Deliverables Product acceptance criteria Project assumptions and constraints organisational structure for the project Initial list of defined risks Summary of schedule milestones Rough order of magnitude cost estimate Configuration management requirements Description of approval requirements

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Project Management Plans

A project management plan is a document used to coordinate all project planning documents and help guide a project s execution and control. Plans created in the other knowledge areas are subsidiary parts of the overall project management plan.

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Attributes of Project Plans

Just as projects are unique, so are project plans. Plans should be:
Dynamic Flexible Updated as changes occur

Plans should first and foremost guide project execution by helping the project manager lead the project team and assess project status.
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Common Elements of a Project Management Plan

Introduction or overview of the project. Description of how the project is organized. Management and technical processes used on the project. Work to be done, schedule, and budget information.

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Table 4-1. Sample Contents for a Software Project Management Plan (SPMP)

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What the Winners Do

The winners clearly spell out what needs to be done in a project, by whom, when, and how. For this they use an integrated toolbox, including PM tools, methods, and techniquesIf a scheduling template is developed and used over and over, it becomes a repeatable action that leads to higher productivity and lower uncertainty. Sure, using scheduling templates is neither a breakthrough nor a feat. But laggards exhibited almost no use of the templates. Rather, in constructing schedules their project managers started with a clean sheet, a clear waste of time. *
*Milosevic, Dragan and And Ozbay, Delivering Projects: What the Winners Do, Proceedings of the Project Management Institute Annual Seminars & Symposium (November 2001).
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Stakeholder Analysis
A stakeholder analysis documents important (often sensitive) information about stakeholders such as:
Stakeholders names and organisations. Their roles on the project. Unique facts about each stakeholder. Their level of influence on and interest in the project. Suggestions for managing relationships with each stakeholder.
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Table 4-2. Sample Stakeholder Analysis

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Project Execution
Project execution involves managing and performing the work described in the project management plan. The majority of time and money is usually spent on execution. The application area of the project directly affects project execution because the products of the project are produced during project execution.

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Coordinating Planning and Execution

Project planning and execution are intertwined and inseparable activities. Those who will do the work should help to plan the work. Project managers must solicit input from the team to develop realistic plans.

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Leadership and a Supportive Culture

Project managers must lead by example to demonstrate the importance of creating and then following good project plans. organisational culture can help project execution by:
Providing guidelines and templates. Tracking performance based on plans.

Project managers may still need to break the rules to meet project goals, and senior managers must support those actions.

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What Went Wrong?

Many people have a poor view of plans based on their experiences. Top managers often require a project management plan, but then no one follows up on whether the plan was followed. For example, one project manager said he would meet with each project team leader within two months to review their project plans. The project manager created a detailed schedule for these reviews. He cancelled the first meeting due to another business commitment. He rescheduled the next meeting for unexplained personal reasons. Two months later, the project manager had still not met with over half of the project team leaders. Why should project members feel obligated to follow their own plans when the project manager obviously did not follow his?
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Important Skills for Project Execution

General management skills such as leadership, communication, and political skills. Product, business, and application area skills and knowledge. Use of specialized tools and techniques.

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Project Execution Tools and Techniques

Project management methodology: Many experienced project managers believe the most effective way to improve project management is to follow a methodology that describes not only what to do in managing a project, but how to do it. Project management information systems: Hundreds of project management software products are available on the market today, and many organisations are moving toward powerful enterprise project management systems that are accessible via the Internet. See the What Went Right? example of Kuala Lumpur s Integrated Transport Information System.
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Monitoring and Controlling Project Work

Changes are inevitable on most projects, so it s important to develop and follow a process to monitor and control changes. Monitoring project work includes collecting, measuring, and disseminating performance information. Two important outputs of monitoring and controlling project work include recommended corrective and preventive actions.
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Media Snapshot
The 2002 Olympic Winter Games and Paralympics took five years to plan and cost more than $1.9 billion. PMI awarded the Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC) the Project of the Year award for delivering world-class games. Four years before the Games began, the SLOC used a Primavera softwarebased system with a cascading color-coded WBS to integrate planningThe SLOC also used an Executive Roadmap, a one-page list of the top 100 Gameswide activities, to keep executives apprised of progress. Activities were tied to detailed project information within each department s schedule. A 90-day highlighter showed which managers were accountable for each integrated activity. Fraser Bullock, SLOC Chief Operating Officer and Chief, said, We knew when we were on and off schedule and where we had to apply additional resources. The interrelation of the functions meant they could not run in isolationit was a smoothly running machine. *
*Foti, Ross, The Best Winter Olympics, Period, PM Network (January 2004), p. 23.
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Integrated Change Control

Three main objectives are:
Influence the factors that create changes to ensure that changes are beneficial. Determine that a change has occurred. Manage actual changes as they occur.

A baseline is the approved project management plan plus approved changes.

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Change Control on Information Technology Projects

Former view: The project team should strive to do exactly what was planned on time and within budget. Problem: Stakeholders rarely agreed beforehand on the project scope, and time and cost estimates were inaccurate. Modern view: Project management is a process of constant communication and negotiation. Solution: Changes are often beneficial, and the project team should plan for them.
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Change Control System

A formal, documented process that describes when and how official project documents and work may be changed. Describes who is authorized to make changes and how to make them.

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Change Control Boards (CCBs)

A formal group of people responsible for approving or rejecting changes on a project. CCBs provide guidelines for preparing change requests, evaluate change requests, and manage the implementation of approved changes. CCBs include stakeholders from the entire organisation.

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Making Timely Changes

Some CCBs only meet occasionally, so it may take too long for changes to occur. Some organisations have policies in place for timesensitive changes.
A 48-hour policy allows project team members to make a decision and have 48 hours to seek approval from top management. If the team decision cannot be implemented, management has 48 hours to reverse a decision; otherwise, the team s decision is approved. Another policy is to delegate changes to the lowest level possible, but keep everyone informed of changes.
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Configuration Management
Ensures that the descriptions of the project s products are correct and complete. Involves identifying and controlling the functional and physical design characteristics of products and their support documentation. Configuration management specialists identify and document configuration requirements, control changes, record and report changes, and audit the products to verify conformance to requirements.

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Table 4-3. Suggestions for Managing Integrated Change Control

View project management as a process of constant communication and negotiation. Plan for change. Establish a formal change control system, including a change control board (CCB). Use good configuration management. Define procedures for making timely decisions on smaller changes. Use written and oral performance reports to help identify and manage change. Use project management and other software to help manage and communicate changes.
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Closing Projects
To close a project, you must finalize all activities and transfer the completed or cancelled work to the appropriate people. Main outputs include:
Administrative closure procedures. Contract closure procedures. Final products, services, or results. organisational process asset updates.
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Using Software to Assist in Project Integration Management

Several types of software can be used to assist in project integration management:
Word processing software creates documents. Presentation software creates presentations. Spreadsheets or databases perform tracking. Communication software such as e-mail and Web authoring tools facilitate communications. Project management software can pull everything together and show detailed and summarized information.
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Chapter Summary
Project integration management includes:
Developing a project charter. Developing a preliminary project scope statement. Developing a project management plan. Directing and managing project execution. Monitoring and controlling project work. Performing integrated change control. Closing the project.
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Learning Objectives
Understand the elements that make good project scope management important. Explain the scope planning process and describe the contents of a scope management plan. Describe the process for developing a project scope statement using the project charter and preliminary scope statement. Discuss the scope definition process and work involved in constructing a work breakdown structure using the analogy, top-down, bottom-up, and mind-mapping approaches.
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Learning Objectives
Explain the importance of scope verification and how it relates to scope definition and control. Understand the importance of scope control and approaches for preventing scope-related problems on information technology projects. Describe how software can assist in project scope management.

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What is Project Scope Management?

Scope refers to all the work involved in creating the products of the project and the processes used to create them. A deliverable is a product produced as part of a project, such as hardware or software, planning documents, or meeting minutes. Project scope management includes the processes involved in defining and controlling what is or is not included in a project.
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Project Scope Management Processes

Scope planning: Deciding how the scope will be defined, verified, and controlled. Scope definition: Reviewing the project charter and preliminary scope statement and adding more information as requirements are developed and change requests are approved. Creating the WBS: Subdividing the major project deliverables into smaller, more manageable components. Scope verification: Formalizing acceptance of the project scope. Scope control: Controlling changes to project scope.
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Scope Planning and the Scope Management Plan

The scope management plan is a document that includes descriptions of how the team will prepare the project scope statement, create the WBS, verify completion of the project deliverables, and control requests for changes to the project scope. Key inputs include the project charter, preliminary scope statement, and project management plan.

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Table 5.1. Sample Project Charter

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Table 5.1. Sample Project Charter (cont d)

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Scope Definition and the Project Scope Statement

The preliminary scope statement, project charter, organisational process assets, and approved change requests provide a basis for creating the project scope statement. As time progresses, the scope of a project should become clearer and more specific.

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Table 5-2. Further Defining Project Scope

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Media Snapshot
Many people enjoy watching television shows like Changing Rooms or Trading Spaces, where participants have two days and $1,000 to update a room in their neighbor s house. Because the time and cost are set, it s the scope that has the most flexibility. Designers on these shows often have to change initial scope goals due to budget or time constraints. Although most homeowners are very happy with work done on the show, some are obviously disappointed. Unlike most projects where the project team works closely with the customer, homeowners have little say in what gets done and cannot inspect the work along the wayWhat happens when the homeowners don t like the work that s been done? The FAQ section of tlc.com says, Everyone on our show is told upfront that there s a chance they won t like the final design of the room. Each applicant signs a release acknowledging that the show is not responsible for redecorating a room that isn t to the owner s taste. Too bad you can t get sponsors for most projects to sign a similar release form. It would make project scope management much easier!
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Creating the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

A WBS is a deliverable-oriented grouping of the work involved in a project that defines the total scope of the project. A WBS is a foundation document that provides the basis for planning and managing project schedules, costs, resources, and changes. Decomposition is subdividing project deliverables into smaller pieces.
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Figure 5-1. Sample Intranet WBS Organized by Product

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Figure 5-2. Sample Intranet WBS Organized by Phase

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Table 5-3. Intranet WBS in Tabular Form

1.0 Concept 1.1 Evaluate current systems 1.2 Define requirements 1.2.1 Define user requirements 1.2.2 Define content requirements 1.2.3 Define system requirements 1.2.4 Define server owner requirements 1.3 Define specific functionality 1.4 Define risks and risk management approach 1.5 Develop project plan 1.6 Brief Web development team 2.0 Web Site Design 3.0 Web Site Development 4.0 Roll Out 5.0 Support
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Figure 5-3. Intranet WBS and Gantt Chart in Project 2000

Project 98 file

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Figure 5-4. Intranet Gantt Chart Organized by Project Management Process Groups

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Table 5-4. Executing Tasks for JWD Consulting s WBS

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Approaches to Developing WBSs

Guidelines: Some organisations, such as the DOD, provide guidelines for preparing WBSs. Analogy approach: Review WBSs of similar projects and tailor to your project. Top-down approach: Start with the largest items of the project and break them down. Bottom-up approach: Start with the specific tasks and roll them up. Mind-mapping approach: Write tasks in a non-linear, branching format and then create the WBS structure.
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Figure 5-5. Sample Mind-Mapping Approach

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Figure 5-6. Resulting WBS in Chart Form

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The WBS Dictionary and Scope Baseline

Many WBS tasks are vague and must be explained in more detail so people know what to do and can estimate how long the work will take and what it will cost. A WBS dictionary is a document that describes detailed information about each WBS item. The approved project scope statement and its WBS and WBS dictionary form the scope baseline, which is used to measure performance in meeting project scope goals.
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Advice for Creating a WBS and WBS Dictionary*

A unit of work should appear in only one place in the WBS. The work content of a WBS item is the sum of the WBS items below it. A WBS item is the responsibility of only one individual, even though many people may be working on it. The WBS must be consistent with the way in which work is actually going to be performed; it should serve the project team first, and other purposes only if practical.

*Cleland, David I., Project Management: Strategic Design and Implementation, 2nd edition (New York: McGraw-Hill 1994).
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Advice for Creating a WBS and WBS Dictionary (cont d)*

Project team members should be involved in developing the WBS to ensure consistency and buy-in. Each WBS item must be documented in a WBS dictionary to ensure accurate understanding of the scope of work that is included and not included in that item. The WBS must be a flexible tool to accommodate inevitable changes while properly maintaining control of the work content in the project according to the scope statement.

*Cleland, David I., Project Management: Strategic Design and Implementation, 2nd edition (New York: McGraw-Hill 1994).
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Scope Verification
It is very difficult to create a good scope statement and WBS for a project. It is even more difficult to verify project scope and minimize scope changes. Many IT projects suffer from scope creep and poor scope verification (see What Went Wrong? ).
FoxMeyer Drug filed for bankruptcy after scope creep on a robotic warehouse. Engineers at Grumman called a system Naziware and refused to use it. 21st Century Insurance Group wasted a lot of time and money on a project that could have used off-the-shelf components.

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Scope Control
Scope control involves controlling changes to the project scope. Goals of scope control are to:
Influence the factors that cause scope changes. Ensure changes are processed according to procedures developed as part of integrated change control. Manage changes when they occur.

Variance is the difference between planned and actual performance.

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Suggestions for Improving User Input

Develop a good project selection process and insist that sponsors are from the user organisation. Place users on the project team in important roles. Hold regular meetings with defined agendas, and have users sign off on key deliverables presented at meetings. Deliver something to users and sponsors on a regular basis. Don t promise to deliver when you know you can t. Co-locate users with developers.
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Suggestions for Reducing Incomplete and Changing Requirements

Develop and follow a requirements management process. Use techniques such as prototyping, use case modeling, and JAD to get more user involvement. Put requirements in writing and keep them current. Create a requirements management database for documenting and controlling requirements.
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Suggestions for Reducing Incomplete and Changing Requirements (cont d)

Conduct adequate testing throughout the project life cycle. Review changes from a systems perspective. Emphasize completion dates to help focus on what s most important. Allocate resources specifically for handling change requests and enhancements (as NWA did with ResNet).
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Using Software to Assist in Project Scope Management

Word-processing software helps create scope-related documents. Spreadsheets help perform financial calculations and weighed scoring models, and help develop charts and graphs. Communication software, such as e-mail and the Web, helps clarify and communicate scope information. Project management software helps create a WBS, the basis for tasks on a Gantt chart. Specialized software is available to assist in project scope management.
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Chapter Summary
Project scope management includes the processes required to ensure that the project addresses all the work requiredand only the work requiredto complete the project successfully. Main processes include:
Scope planning Scope definition WBS creation Scope verification Scope control
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