Forgotten Memories Are Still in Your Brain

By Brandon Keim Email Author September 9, 2009 | 12:14 pm | Categories: Brains and Behavior

For anyone whos ever forgotten something or someone they wish they could remember, a bit of solace: Though the memory is hidden from your conscious mind, it might not be gone. In a study of college students, brain imaging detected patterns of activation that corresponded to memories the students thought theyd lost. Even though your brain still holds this information, you might not always have access to it, said neurobiologist Jeffrey Johnson of the University of California, Irvine. His remarks appeared in the study he co-authored, published Wednesday in Neuron. That recalling a memory triggers the neurological patterns encoded when the memory was formed is a tenet of cognitive science. Less understood, however, is what becomes of those patterns at moments of incomplete recall. Maybe you remember breakfast at a certain restaurant, but not what you ate; perhaps you recall a particular conversation, but not what you said. Its not known whether those details vanish from the mind altogether, or are subsumed by some larger pattern, or remain intact but inaccessible.

It wasnt quite clear what happens to them, said Johnson of lost details. But even when people claim that there are no details attached to their memories, we could still pick some of those details out. Of the the forgotten breakfast, he said that we might still be able to pick up information about what you ate from brain activity, though you cant access it consciously. Johnsons team put eleven female and five male college students inside an fMRI machine, which measures real-time patterns of blood flow in the brain. Each student was shown a list of words, then asked to say each word backwards, think of how it could be used, and imagine how an artist would draw it. Twenty minutes later, the researchers showed them the list again, and asked the students to remember what they could of each word. Recollection triggered the original learning patterns, a process known technically as reinstatement; the stronger the memory, the stronger the signal. What I think is cool about the study is that the degree of cortical reinstatement is related to the strength of our subjective experience of memory, said Anthony Wagner, a Stanford University memory researcher who wasnt involved in the experiment. But at the weak end of the gradient, where the students conscious recall had faded to zero, the signal was still there. Its possible that the students lied about what they remembered. But if not, then memory may truly persist. The question then is how long memories could last weeks, months, even years. We can only speculate that this is the case, said Johnson, who plans to run brain-imaging studies of memory degradation over days and weeks. As for whether those memories could be intentionally guided to the surface, Johnson says that at this stage, were just happy to be able to find evidence of reinstatement at a weak level. That would be something down the line.

What are false memories? Because of the reconstructive nature of memory, some memories may be distorted through influences such as the incorporation of new information. There are also believed-in imaginings that are not based in historical reality; these have been called false memories,pseudo-memories and memory illusions. They can result from the influence of external factors, such as the opinion of an authority figure or information repeated in the culture. An individual with an internal desire to please, to get better or to conform can easily be affected by such influences. What is the recovered-memory controversy about? The information on this site focuses on the current controversy about the accuracy of adult claims of "repressed" memories of childhood sexual abuse that are often made decades after the alleged events, for which there is no external corroboration. The controversy is not about whether children are abused. Child abuse is a serious social problem that requires our attention. Neither is the controversy about whether people may not remember past abuse. There are many reasons why people may not remember something: childhood amnesia, physical trauma, drugs or the natural decay of stored information. The controversy is about the accuracy of claims of recovered "repressed" memories of abuse. The consequences profoundly affect the law, the way therapy is practiced, families and people's lives. Harrison Pope, Jr., M.D. informally discusses the controversy in an interview entitled, "Recovered Memories:" Recent Events and Review of Evidence. An article from the Skeptical Inquirer of March 1995 also provides an overview of the problem:

What Is Hypnosis?
Hypnosis Applications, Effects and Myths
By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide

See More About: states of consciousness hypnosis

Learn about hypnosis including some of the most common myths and misconceptions. Image by James Steidl/iStockPhoto

Ads Children Books OnlineYour Book + The Right Children's Book Publisher. Sign Up Now! www.childrens-book-publishing.com How to Do Meditation?Easily Learn How to Meditate Download Free Meditation Audiowww.SilvaLifeSystem.com Quit Smoking in MalaysiaStop Smoking in 90 Minutes! Softlaser therapy. Call 0356111555www.facilitas.net/ Psychology Ads Stop Smoking by Hypnosis Self Hypnosis Hypnosis for Weight Loss Self Hypnosis to Quit Smoking Quit Smoking with Hypnosis Ads Learn hypnosis. Spiral,scripts and post-hypnotic commands. Guaranteed recordings. Catalogwww.HypnoticTapes.com Clinical Hypnotherapy KLFast relief for all psychosomatic ailments. Call 012 3300413 now.www.asiahypnosis.com What exactly is hypnosis? While definitions can vary, the American Psychological Association describes hypnosis as a cooperative interaction in which the participant responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist. While hypnosis has become well-known thanks to popular acts where people are prompted to performs unusual or ridiculous actions, the technique has also been clinically proven to provide medical and therapeutic benefits, most notably in the reduction of pain and anxiety. It has even been suggested that hypnosis can reduce the symptoms of dementia. 1

How Does Hypnosis Work? When you hear the wordhypnotist, what comes to mind? If youre like many people, the word may conjure up images of a sinister stage-villain who brings about a hypnotic state by swinging a pocket watch back and forth. In reality, real hypnosis bears little resemblance to these stereotyped images. According to John Kihlstrom, "The hypnotist does not hypnotize the individual. Rather, the hypnotist serves as a sort of coach or tutor whose job is to help the person become hypnotized" 2 While hypnosis is often described as a sleep-like trance state, it is better expressed as a state characterized by focused attention, heightened suggestibility and vivid fantasies. What Effects Does Hypnosis Have? The experience of hypnosis can vary dramatically from one person to another. Some hypnotized individuals report feeling a sense of detachment or extreme relaxation during the hypnotic state, while others even feel that their actions seem to occur outside of their conscious volition. Other individuals may remain fully aware and able to carry out conversations while under hypnosis. Experiments by researcher Ernest Hilgard demonstrated how hypnosis can be used to dramatically alter perceptions. After instructing a hypnotized individual to not feel pain in his or her arm, the participant's arm was then placed in ice water. While non-hypnotized individuals had to remove their arm from the water after a few seconds due to the pain, the hypnotized individuals were able to leave their arms in the ice water for several minutes without experiencing pain.3 What Can Hypnosis Be Used For? The following are just a few of the applications for hypnosis that have been demonstrated with research:

The treatment of chronic pain conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. The treatment and reduction of pain during childbirth. The reduction of the symptoms of dementia. Hypnotherapy may be helpful for certain symptoms of ADHD. The reduction of nausea and vomiting in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. 4 Control of pain during dental procedures. Elimination or reduction of skin conditions including warts and psoriasis. Alleviation of symptoms association with Irritable Bowel Syndrome.5

Can You Be Hypnotized? While many people think that they cannot be hypnotized, research has shown that a large number of people are more hypnotizable than they believe.

Fifteen percent of people are very responsive to hypnosis. 6 Children tend to be more susceptible to hypnosis. 7 Approximately ten percent of adults are considered difficult or impossible to hypnotize. 8

People who can become easily absorbed in fantasies are much more responsive to hypnosis.2 If you are interested in being hypnotized, it is important to remember to approach the experience with an open mind. Research has suggested that individuals who view hypnosis in a positive light tend to respond better.9 Theories of Hypnosis One of the best-known theories is Hilgards neodissociation theory of hypnosis. According to Hilgard, people in a hypnotic state experience a split consciousness in which there are two different streams of mental activity. While one stream of consciousness responds to the hypnotists suggestions, another dissociated stream processes information outside of the hypnotized individuals conscious awareness. 3 Hypnosis Myths Myth 1: When you wake up from hypnosis, you wont remember anything that happened when you were hypnotized. While amnesia may occur in very rare cases, people generally remember everything that occurred while they were hypnotized. 5 However, hypnosis can have a significant effect on memory. Posthypnotic amnesia can lead an individual to forget certain things that occurred before or during hypnosis. However, this effect is generally limited and temporary. Myth 2: Hypnosis can help people remember the exact details of a crime they witnessed. While hypnosis can be used to enhance memory, the effects have been dramatically exaggerated in popular media. Research has found that hypnosis does not lead to significant memory enhancement or accuracy, 10 and hypnosis can actually lead to false or distorted memories.11 Myth 3: You can be hypnotized against your will. Despite stories about people being hypnotized without their consent, 12 hypnosis requires voluntary participation on the part of the patient. 5 Myth 4: The hypnotist has complete control of your actions while youre under hypnosis. While people often feel that their actions under hypnosis seem to occur without the influence of their will, a hypnotist cannot make you perform actions that are against your values or morals. 3 Myth 5: Hypnosis can make you super-strong, fast or athletically talented. While hypnosis can be used to enhance performance, 13 it cannot make people stronger or more athletic than their existing physical capabilities.

When people lose their ability to memorize data they have amnesia. Amnesia also refers to an inability to recall information that is stored in memory. In simple terms, amnesia is the loss of memory. The causes of amnesia may be organic or functional. Organic causes may include brain damage through injury, or the use of specific drugs - usually sedative drugs. Amnesia may be one of the symptoms of some degenerative brain diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. Functional causes are psychological factors, such as defense mechanisms. People with amnesia also find it hard to imagine the future, because our constructions of future scenarios are closely linked to our recollections of past experiences. Researchers from Washington University in St. Louis used advanced brain imaging techniques to show that remembering the past and envisioning the future may go hand-in-hand, with each process sparking strikingly similar patterns of activity within precisely the same broad network of brain regions. According to Medilexicon's medical dictionary, amnesia is "A disturbance in the memory of stored information of very variable

durations, minutes to months, in contrast to short-term memory, manifest by total or partial inability, to recall past experiences."

Our ability to recollect events and experiences is a very complex brain process. In fact, experts say we are only now starting to scratch at the surface in understanding exactly what happens when we commit something to memory, or when we try to retrieve data that was stored by our brain. Being a little forgetful is completely different to having amnesia. Amnesia refers to a large-scale loss of memories that should not have been forgotten. These may include important milestones in life, memorable events, key people in our lives, and vital facts we have been told or taught. Most people with amnesia are usually lucid and have a sense of self. However, they may experience severe difficulties in learning new information and forming new memories, as well as finding it extremely difficult to recall memories of past experiences and information. Although amnesia is a popular theme for movies and books, it is a very rare condition.

What are the types of amnesia?

There are many different types of amnesia. Below is a list of the most common ones:

Anterograde amnesia - the patient cannot remember new information. Things that happened recently, information that should be stored into shortterm memory disappear. This is usually caused by brain trauma (brain damage from a blow to the head, for example). However, a patient with anterograde amnesia can remember data and events which happened before the injury.

Retrograde amnesia - often thought of as the opposite of anterograde amnesia. The patient cannot remember events that occurred before his/her trauma, but remembers things that happened after it normally.

Transient global amnesia - a temporary loss of all memory. The patient with transient global amnesia also finds it very hard to form new memories -

he/she has severe anterograde amnesia. The loss of past memories is milder. This is a very rare form of amnesia. A transient global amnesia patient tends to be older, and usually has a vascular disease (a problem with the blood vessels).

Traumatic amnesia - memory loss caused by a hard blow to the head. People who lose their memory as the result of a car accident may have traumatic amnesia. People with traumatic amnesia may experience a brief loss of consciousness, or even go into a coma. In the majority of cases the amnesia is temporary - how long it lasts usually depends on how severe the injury is. Sports scientists say that amnesia is an important indicator of concussion.

Wernike-Korsakoff's psychosis - this type of memory loss is caused by extended alcohol abuse. The disorder tends to be progressive - it gradually gets worse and worse over time. Patients with Wernike-Korsakoff's psychosis also tend to have neurological problems, such as poor coordination, and the loss of feelings in the toes and fingers. It can also be caused by malnutrition. It is linked to thiamin deficiency.

Hysterical (fugue) amnesia - this is a very rare phenomenon. Patients forget not only their past, but their very identity. A person could wake up and suddenly not have any sense at all of who they are - even if they look in the mirror they do not recognize their own reflection (the person in the mirror is a stranger). All the details in their wallet - driving license, credit cards, IDs - are meaningless. This type of amnesia is usually triggered by an event that the person's mind is unable to cope with properly. In most cases the memory either slowly or suddenly comes back within a few days. However, the memory of the shocking event itself may never come back completely. It is important that doctors diagnosing patients for epilepsyeliminate this type of amnesia from their list of alternative illnesses.

Childhood amnesia (infantile amnesia) - the patient cannot recall events from early childhood. Experts say this type of amnesia may be associated with language development. Others say it is possible that some memory areas of the brain were not fully mature during childhood.

Posthypnotic amnesia - events during hypnosis cannot be recalled.

Source amnesia - the person can remember certain information, but does not know how or where they got that information.

Blackout phenomenon - amnesia caused by a bout of heavy drinking. The person cannot remember chunks of time during his/her binge.

Prosopamnesia - the person cannot remember faces. People can either acquire prosopamnesia, or be born with it.

What are the symptoms of amnesia?

The ability to learn new information following the onset of amnesia is impaired. Simply put, the patient finds it hard to remember new stuff. (Anterograde amnesia).

The ability to remember past events and previously familiar information is impaired. Simply put, the patient finds it hard to remember past stuff. (Retrograde amnesia).

False memories - these may be either completely invented or made up of real memories misplaced in time. (Confabulation). An interesting French study, called "Do you remember what you did on March 13, 1985?, looked at how one specific patient responded to questions.

Uncoordinated movements, sometimes tremors (Neurological problems).

Confusion or disorientation.

Problems with short-term memory.

Partial loss of memory.

Total loss of memory.

Failure to recognize faces.

Inability to recognize places.

Amnesia is different from dementia. Although dementia includes memory loss, it also involves other important cognitive problems which may affect the patient's ability to carry out daily activities.

What causes amnesia?

Any disease or injury that affects the brain can interfere with the intricacies of memory. Memory function engages many different parts of the brain simultaneously. Damage to brain structures that form the limbic system, the hippocampus and thalamus, can lead to amnesia - the limbic system controls our emotions and memories. Scientists at the University of Liverpool discovered dramatic differences in the memory performance of patients with damage to the hippocampus. Causes of neurological or organic amnesia This refers to amnesia caused by brain injury or damage. Possible causes are:

Stroke.

Encephalitis - brain inflammation. This can be caused by a virus infection, such as herpes simplex (HSV), or an autoimmune reaction to cancer in another part of the body (paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis, PLE).

Celiac disease - although no clear link has been completely agreed on. Researchers reported that the most common reasons for seeking medical help among patients with celiac disease were amnesia, confusion and personality changes.

Oxygen deprivation - any illness or situation which undermines the supply of oxygen to the brain, such as a heart attack, respiratory distress, orcarbon monoxide poisoning.

Some medications - such as the sleeping drug, ambien. This interesting study explains why so many people report not remembering what they did after taking ambien (zolpidem).

Subarachnoid hemorrhage - bleeding in the area between the skull and the brain.

A brain tumor that lies in a memory-controlling part of the brain.

Some seizure disorders.

ECT (electroconvulsive therapy) - also known as electroshock therapy. This is a well established psychiatric treatment in which seizures are induced for therapeutic effect on anesthetized patients. It is sometimes used for patients with major depression whose illness has not responded to other treatment. ECT is also sometimes used for treating schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and catatonia. The memory loss is nearly always temporary.

Head injuries - such as those that occur in car accidents, can lead to memory problems. In most cases the amnesia is not severe and is not long-lasting.

Causes of functional or psychogenic amnesia Also known as dissociative amnesia. This is caused by an emotional shock, such as:

Being the victim of a violent crime. Sexual abuse. Child abuse. Being involved in combat (soldiers). Being involved in a natural disaster. Being present during a terrorist act.

The list is endless - basically, any intolerable life situation which causes severe psychological stress and internal conflict.

How is amnesia diagnosed?

Initially, the health care professional will need to rule out any other possible causes of memory loss, including dementia, Alzheimer's disease, depression, or a brain tumor. The doctor will require a detailed medical history - this may be difficult if the patient does not remember things, so family members or caregivers may also have to be present. A doctor will need the patient's permission to talk about his/her medical details with somebody else. The doctor will try to cover the following issues:

Can the patient remember recent events, and/or remote events (events further back in time)?

When did the memory problems start?

How did the memory problems evolve?

Were there any factors which may have caused the memory loss, such as a head injury, surgery, or stroke?

Is there a family history of any neurological or psychiatric diseases or conditions?

Details about the patient's alcohol intake.

Is the patient currently on any medication?

Has the patient taken illegal drugs, such as cocaine, marijuana, etc.?

Are the patient's symptoms undermining his/her ability to look after himself/herself?

Does the patient have a history of depression?

Has the patient ever had cancer?

Does the patient have a history of seizures?

The physician may also carry out a physical exam. This may include checking the patient's:

Reflexes. Sensory function. Balance. Some other aspects of the brain and nervous system.

The doctor may also check the patient's:

Judgment Short-term memory

Long-term memory

The memory assessment will help determine the extent of memory loss. This will assist in deciding on the best treatment. In order to find out whether there is any physical damage or brain abnormality, the doctor may order:

An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan - a machine uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of any part of the body; in this case, the brain. An MRI scan is better than a CT scan (below) at detecting a tumor in the brain.

A CT (computerized tomography) scan - a medical imaging method that employs tomography. Tomography is the process of generating a twodimensional image of a slice or section through a 3-dimensional object (a tomogram). The medical device (the machine) is called a CTG scanner; it is a large machine and uses X-rays. A CT scan is exceptionally good at detecting bleeding in the brain (especially from injury).

An EEG (electroencephalogram) - this is a tool which provides an image of the brain while the patient is performing a cognitive task - a task that requires thinking. It allows the doctor to detect the location and magnitude of brain activity involved in several types of cognitive functions. Images are created by using electrodes to monitor the amount of electrical activity at different points on the patient's scalp.

Blood tests may also reveal the presence of any infection, or nutritional deficiencies.

What are the treatments for amnesia?

Fortunately, in the majority of cases amnesia resolves itself without treatment. However, if an underlying physical or mental disorder is present, it should be treated (if possible). Psychotherapy may sometimes be effective for some patients. Hypnosis can be an effective way of recalling memories that have been forgotten. Family support is crucial in helping a patient with amnesia get better. Psychologists and psychiatrists say that reality orientation aids may help to nudge

patients back into their environment if they are surrounded with familiar objects, photographs, smells, and sounds (music). The aim of amnesia treatment often involves techniques and strategies to help compensate for the memory problem. This may involve:

Working with an occupational therapist to acquire new information to replace lost memories, or to use existing memories as a basis for acquiring new information.

Learning various strategies for organizing information so that it is easier to store.

Learning how to make best use of a personal digital assistant (PDA), such as an iPhone or Blackberry. With the right training, even patients with severe memory loss can become quite competent with day-to-day tasks. The PDA can be used to remind the patient about important events, when to take medications, appointments, and key commitments. Patients who cannot remember people's names or faces can store a long list of photographs of faces and check them whenever they wish.

There are currently no drugs for the restoration of memory for patients with amnesia. As Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome involves a thiamin deficiency, targeted nutrition can help. Whole grain cereals, legumes (beans and lentils), nuts, lean pork, and yeast are rich sources of thiamin.

What are the complications of amnesia?

Complications depend on the severity and scope of the amnesia. However, even for people with mild symptoms, difficulties in dealing with daily life can take their toll. Patients can experience employment, school, and social problems. Some individuals never recover lost memories. In very severe cases, people may require some kind of supervision, or extended care facility. Written by Christian Nordqvist