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organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are generally triesters of
glycerol and fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at normal room temperature,
depending on their structure and composition. Although the words "oils", "fats", and
"lipids" are all used to refer to fats, "oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at
normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at
normal room temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats, along
with other related substances. The word "oil" is used for any substance that does not
mix with water and has a greasy feel, such as petroleum (or crude oil) and heating oil,
regardless of its chemical structure.[1]
Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by their chemical structure
and physical properties. This category of molecules is important for many forms of life,
serving both structural and metabolic functions. They are an important part of the diet of
most heterotrophs (including humans). Fats or lipids are broken down in the body by
enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas.
Examples of edible animal fats are lard (pig fat), fish oil, and butter or ghee. They are
obtained from fats in the milk, meat and under the skin of the animal. Examples of
edible plant fats are peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut, olive, and
vegetable oils. Margarine and vegetable shortening, which can be derived from the
above oils, are used mainly for baking. These examples of fats can be categorized into
saturated fats and unsaturated fats.
CLASSIFICATION Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only
saturated fatty acids. There are several kinds of naturally occurring saturated fatty
acids, which differ by the number of carbon atoms - from 1 to 24. Saturated fatty acids
have no double bonds between the carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain and are thus
fully saturated with hydrogen atoms.
Fat that occurs naturally in living matter contains varying proportions of saturated and
unsaturated fat. Examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat include
dairy products (especially cream and cheese but also butter and ghee), animal fats such
as suet, tallow, lard and fatty meat, coconut oil, cottonseed oil, palm kernel oil,
chocolate, and some prepared foods[1].
TYPES OF SATURATED FATS Butyric acid (from Greek βούτυρος = butter), also
known under the systematic name butanoic acid, is a carboxylic acid with the structural
formula CH3CH2CH2-COOH. It is found in rancid butter, parmesan cheese, vomit, and
body odor and has an unpleasant smell and acrid taste, with a sweetish aftertaste
(similar to ether). Butyric acid can be detected by mammals with good scent detection
abilities (such as dogs) at 10 ppb, whereas humans can detect it in concentrations
above 10 ppm.
USE OF BUTYRIC ACID Uses
Butyric acid is used in the preparation of various butanoate esters. Low-molecular-
weight esters of butyric acid, such as methyl butanoate, have mostly pleasant aromas
or tastes. As a consequence, they find use as food and perfume additives. They are
also used in organic laboratory courses, to teach the Fischer esterification reaction.
TYPES OF SATURATED FAT Caprylic acid is the common name for the eight-carbon
saturated fatty acid known by the systematic name octanoic acid. It is found naturally
in coconuts and breast milk. It is an oily liquid that is minimally soluble in water with a
slightly unpleasant rancid-like smell.
Uses
Caprylic acid is used commercially in the production of esters used in perfumery and
also in the manufacture of dyes.
Caprylic acid is known to have anti-fungal properties, and is often recommended by
nutritionists for the treatment of candidiasis. Caprylic acid is excellent for dealing with
candida in the intestines which can occur frequently.[citation needed]
Caprylic acid is also used in the treatment of some bacterial infections. Due to its
relatively short chain length it has no difficulty in penetrating fatty cell wall membranes,
hence its effectiveness in combating certain lipid-coated bacteria, such as
Staphylococcus aureus and various species of Streptococcus. [2]
Caprylic acid, aka, octanoic acid, must be covalently linked to the serine residue at the
3-position of ghrelin, specifically, it must acylate the -OH group, for ghrelin to have its
hunger-stimulating action on the feeding centers of the hypothalamus, though other fatty
acids may have similar effects.
TYPES OF SATURATED FATS Decanoic acid, or capric acid, is a saturated fatty
acid. Its formula is CH3(CH2)8COOH. Salts and esters of decanoic acid are called
decanoates.
USE It is used in organic synthesis and industrially in the manufacture of perfumes,
lubricants, greases, rubber, dyes, plastics, food additives and pharmaceuticals.
TYPES OF SATURATED FATS Lauric acid (systematically: dodecanoic acid), a
saturated fatty acid, is a white, powdery solid with a faint odor of bay oil or soap.
Uses
Lauric acid is inexpensive, has a long shelf-life, and is non-toxic and safe to handle.
Thus, it is often used in laboratory investigations of melting point depression. Lauric acid
is a solid at room temperature but melts easily in boiling water, so liquid lauric acid can
be treated with various solutes and used to determine their molecular masses.[citation needed]
TYPES OF SATURATED FAT Myristic acid, also called tetradecanoic acid or 14:0 is
a common saturated fatty acid with the molecular formula CH3(CH2)12COOH. A
myristate is a salt or ester of myristic acid.
Myristic acid is named after the Nutmeg Myristica fragrans. Nutmeg butter is 75%
trimyristin, the triglyceride of myristic acid. Besides nutmeg, myristic acid is also found in
palm oil, coconut oil, butter fat and spermacetin, the crystallized fraction of oil from the
sperm whale.
Myristic acid is also commonly added co-translationally to the penultimate, nitrogen
terminus, glycine in receptor-associated kinases to confer the membrane localisation of
the enzyme. The myristic acid has a sufficiently high hydrophobicity to become
incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane
of the eukaryotic cell. In this way, myristic acid acts as a lipid anchor in biomembranes.
The ester isopropyl myristate is used in cosmetic and topical medicinal preparations
where good absorption through the skin is desired.
Reduction of myristic acid yields myristyl alcoho
TYPES OF SATURATED FATS Palmitic acid,CH3(CH2)14COOH or hexadecanoic acid
in IUPAC nomenclature, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in
animals and plants. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from palm
trees (palm oil and palm kernel oil). The word palmitic is from the French "palmitique",
the pith of the palm tree. Palmitic acid was discovered by Edmond Frémy in 1840, in
saponified palm oil.[3] Butter, cheese, milk and meat also contain this fatty acid. [4]
Palmitate is a term for the salts or esters of palmitic acid. The palmitate anion is the
observed form of palmitic acid at physiological pH.[citation needed]
Uses
Retinyl palmitate is an antioxidant and a vitamin A compound added to low-fat milk to
replace the vitamin content lost through the removal of milk fat. Palmitate is attached to
the alcohol form of vitamin A, retinol, in order to make vitamin A stable in milk.[citation needed]
Derivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II
to produce napalm (aluminum naphthenate and aluminum palmitate). [6]
The World Health Organization claims there is convincing evidence that dietary intake of
palmitic acid increases risk of developing cardiovascular diseases. [7] However, possibly
less-disinterested studies have shown no ill effect, or even a favorable effect, of dietary
consumption of palmitic acid on blood lipids and cardiovascular disease, so that the
WHO finding may be deemed controversial.[8] However, another study showed that
palmitic acid has no hypercholesterolaemic effect if intake of linoleic acid is greater than
4.5% of energy. On the other hand, it was shown that, if the diet contains trans fatty
acids, the health effects are negative, causing an LDL cholesterol increase and HDL
cholesterol decrease. [9]
TYPES OF SATURATED FATS Stearic acid (first syllable rhymes with either bear or
gear) (IUPAC systematic name: octadecanoic acid) or 18:0 is a saturated fatty acid. It
is a waxy solid, and its chemical formula is C18H36O2. Its name comes from the Greek
word stéar (genitive: stéatos), which means tallow. The salts and esters of stearic acid
are called stearates.
Uses
Stearic acid is useful as an ingredient in making candles, plastics, dietary supplements,
oil pastels and cosmetics, and for softening rubber.[2] It is used to harden soaps,
particularly those made with vegetable oil.
Stearic acid is also used as a parting compound when making plaster castings from a
plaster piece mold or waste mold and when making the mold from a shellacked clay
original. In this use, powdered stearic acid is dissolved in water and the solution is
brushed onto the surface to be parted after casting.
Esters of stearic acid with ethylene glycol, glycol stearate and glycol distearate, are
used to produce a pearly effect in shampoos, soaps, and other cosmetic products. They
are added to the product in molten form and allowed to crystalize under controlled
conditions.
In fireworks, stearic acid is often used to coat metal powders such as aluminium and
iron. This prevents
TYPES OF SATURATED FATS Arachidic acid, also called eicosanoic acid, is a
saturated fatty acid found in peanut oil. Its name derives from the Latin arachis —
peanut. It can be formed by the hydrogenation of arachidonic acid. It is practically
insoluble in water, and stable under normal conditions. It is a surfactant.
Reduction of arachidic acid yields arachidyl alcohol.
MONOSATURATED FATS monounsaturated fats are fatty acids that have a single
double bond in the fatty acid chain and all the carbon atoms in the chain are single-
bonded. By contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond.
Fatty acids are long-chained molecules having a methyl group at one end and a
carboxylic acid group at the other end. Fatty acid fluidity increases with increasing
number of double bonds. Therefore, monounsaturated fatty acids have a higher melting
temperature than polyunsaturated fatty acids but lower than saturated fatty acids.
Monounsaturated fatty acids are liquids at room temperature and semisolid or solid
when refrigerated.
sources
Monounsaturated fats are found in natural foods such as nuts and avocados, and are
the main component of tea seed oil and olive oil (oleic acid). Canola oil is 57%–60%
monounsaturated fat, olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat while tea seed oil is
commonly over 80% monounsaturated fat. Other sources include grapeseed oil, ground
nut oil, peanut oil, flaxseed oil, sesame oil, corn oil, popcorn, whole grain wheat, cereal,
oatmeal, safflower oil, sunflower oil, tea-oil Camellia, avocado oil.
TYPES OF MONOSATURATED FATS Oleic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty
acid found in various animal and vegetable sources. It has the formula C18H34O2 (or
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH).[2] The saturated form of this acid is stearic acid.
Uses
Oleic acid may hinder the progression of ALD, or Adrenoleukodystrophy, a fatal disease
that affects the brain and adrenal glands.[8]
Oleic acid is also the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue.[citation needed]
TYPES OF MONOSATURATED FATS Erucic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9
fatty acid, denoted 22:1 ω-9. It is prevalent in rapeseed, wallflower seed, and
mustard seed, making up 40-50% of their oils. Erucic acid is also known as cis-
13-docosenoic acid and the trans isomer is known as brassidic acid.
Uses
It has many of the same uses as mineral oils but with the advantage that it is more
readily bio-degradable. Its high tolerance to temperature makes it suitable for
transmission oil. Its ability to polymerize and dry means it can be - and is - used as a
binder for oil paints. Erucic acid will readily form many organic compounds. Adding this
ability to its polymerizing characteristics makes it very suitable for use as organic
matrices that need to be polymeric. This makes it especially useful in the manufacture
of emulsions to coat photographic films and papers. A complex cocktail of many
different erucic acid compounds is commonly used in just one roll of color film. It is
widely used to produce emollients, especially for skin and healthcare products. Like
other fatty acids, it gets converted into surfactants. Erucic acid is especially valued in
tribology as a superior lubricant. When used in the manufacture of plastic films in the
form of erucamide, it migrates to the surfaces and so resists the sticking of each film to
its neighbor. Being a hydrocarbon of high calorific value, with a very low flash point, high
cetane rating, and good lubrication qualities, erucic acid can be a valuable component
of bio-diesel. When converted into behenyl alcohol (CH3(CH2)21OH), erucic acid has
many further uses such as a pour point depressant, enabling liquids to flow at a lower
temperature and silver behenate for use in photography.[1]
TYPES OF MONOSATURATED FATS Nervonic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9
fatty acid. Nervonic acid has been identified as important in the biosynthesis of nerve
cell myelin.[2] It is found in the sphingolipids of white matter in human brain.
Nervonic acid is used in the treatment of disorders involving demyelination, such as
adrenoleukodystrophy and multiple sclerosis where there is a decreased level of
nervonic acid in sphingolipids.[3]
POLYUNSATURATED FAT
polyunsaturated fat is an abbreviation of polyunsaturated fatty acid. That is a fatty acid
in which more than one double bond exists within the representative molecule. That is,
the molecule has two or more points on its structure capable of supporting hydrogen
atoms not currently part of the structure. Polyunsaturated fatty acids can assume a cis
or trans conformation depending on the geometry of the double bond.
The lack of the extra hydrogen atoms on the molecule's surface typically reduces the
strength of the compound's intermolecular forces, thus causing the melting point of the
compound to be significantly lower. This property can be observed by comparing
predominately unsaturated vegetable oils, which remain liquid even at relatively low
temperatures, to much more saturated fats such as butter or lard which are mainly solid
at room temperature. Trans fats are more similar to saturated fat than are cis fats in
many respects, including the fact that they solidify at a lower temperature.
Foods
Oils and foods that contain linoleic acid include corn oil (59 %),cottonseed oil (49-58%),
soybean oil (51%), safflower oil (78%), poppy seed oil (70%), hemp oil (50-70%), canola
oil (21%), walnut oil (51%), grain-fed cow milk, olive oil (10%), palm oil (10%), sunflower
oil (68%), lard (10%), egg yolks (16%), spirulina, peanut oil (48%), okra, rice bran oil
(39%), wheat germ oil (55%), grape seed oil (73%), macadamia oil (1-3%), pistachio oil
(32.7%), sesame oil (45%),cocoa butter (3%),coconut oil (2%), butter (2%).
TYPES OF POLYUNSATURATED FAT
Linolenic acid can refer to either of two fatty acids:
• Alpha-linolenic acid – an ω-3 fatty acid found in many vegetable oils. The
unmodified term linolenic acid most commonly refers to this substance.
• Gamma-linolenic acid – an ω-6 fatty acid
Health risks
Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils have been an increasingly significant part of the
human diet for about 100 years (particularly so in the latter half of the 20th century), and
some deleterious effects of trans fat consumption are scientifically accepted, forming
the basis of the health guidelines discussed above.
The exact biochemical methods by which trans fats produce specific health problems
are a topic of continuing research. The most prevalent theory is that the human lipase
enzyme is specific to the cis configuration. A lipase is a water-soluble enzyme that
catalyzes the hydrolysis of ester bonds in water-insoluble, lipid substrates. Lipases thus
comprise a subclass of the esterases. Lipases perform essential roles in the digestion,
transport and processing of dietary lipids (e.g. triglycerides, fats, oils) in most – if not all
– living organisms. The human lipase enzyme is ineffective with the trans configuration,
so trans fat remains in the blood stream for a much longer period of time and is more
prone to arterial deposition and subsequent plaque formation. While the mechanisms
through which trans fats contribute to coronary heart disease are fairly well understood,
the mechanism for trans fat's effect on diabetes is still under investigation.
[edit] Coronary heart disease
The primary health risk identified for trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of
coronary heart disease (CHD).[36] A comprehensive review of studies of trans fats was
published in 2006 in the New England Journal of Medicine reports a strong and reliable
connection between trans fat consumption and CHD, concluding that "On a per-calorie
basis, trans fats appear to increase the risk of CHD more than any other macronutrient,
conferring a substantially increased risk at low levels of consumption (1 to 3 percent of
total energy intake)".[4] This study estimates that between 30,000 and 100,000 cardiac
deaths per year in the United States are attributable to the consumption of trans fats.[37]
The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the Nurses' Health
Study (NHS) — a cohort study that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its
inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary
events from the NHS population during 14 years of followup. He determined that a
nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled (relative risk of 1.94, CI: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2%
increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast,
it takes more than a 15% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate
calories) to produce a similar increase in risk. Eating non-trans unsaturated fats instead
of carbohydrates reduces the risk of CHD rather than increasing it.[38][clarification needed] Hu
also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of food
energy from trans fat with non-trans unsaturated fats more than halves the risk of CHD
(53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-
trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.[38]
Another study considered deaths due to CHD, with consumption of trans fats being
linked to an increase in mortality, and consumption of polyunsaturated fats being linked
to a decrease in mortality.[36][39]
There are two accepted tests that measure an individual's risk for coronary heart
disease, both blood tests. The first considers ratios of two types of cholesterol, the other
the amount of a cell-signalling cytokine called C-reactive protein. The ratio test is more
accepted, while the cytokine test may be more powerful but is still being studied.[36] The
effect of trans fat consumption has been documented on each as follows:
• Cholesterol ratio: This ratio compares the levels of LDL (so-called "bad"
cholesterol) to HDL (so-called "good" cholesterol). Trans fat behaves like
saturated fat by raising the level of LDL, but unlike saturated fat it has the
additional effect of decreasing levels of HDL. The net increase in LDL/HDL ratio
with trans fat is approximately double that due to saturated fat.[40] (Higher ratios
are worse.) One randomized crossover study published in 2003 comparing the
postprandial effect on blood lipids of (relatively) cis and trans fat rich meals
showed that cholesteryl ester transfer (CET) was 28% higher after the trans meal
than after the cis meal and that lipoprotein concentrations were enriched in
apolipoprotein(a) after the trans meals.[41]
• C-reactive protein (CRP): A study of over 700 nurses showed that those in the
highest quartile of trans fat consumption had blood levels of CRP that were 73%
higher than those in the lowest quartile.[42]
[edit] Other effects
There are suggestions that the negative consequences of trans fat consumption go
beyond the cardiovascular risk. In general, there is much less scientific consensus that
eating trans fat specifically increases the risk of other chronic health problems:
• Alzheimer's Disease: A study published in Archives of Neurology in February
2003 suggested that the intake of both trans fats and saturated fats promote the
development of Alzheimer disease.[43]
• Cancer: There is no scientific consensus that consumption of trans fats
significantly increases cancer risks across the board.[36] The American Cancer
Society states that a relationship between trans fats and cancer "has not been
determined."[44] However, one recent study has found connections between trans
fat and prostate cancer.[45] An increased intake of trans-fatty acids may raise the
risk of breast cancer by 75 percent, suggest the results from the French part of
the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.[46][47]
• Diabetes: There is a growing concern that the risk of type 2 diabetes increases
with trans fat consumption.[36] However, consensus has not been reached.[4] For
example, one study found that risk is higher for those in the highest quartile of
trans fat consumption.[48] Another study has found no diabetes risk once other
factors such as total fat intake and BMI were accounted for.[49]
• Obesity: Research indicates that trans fat may increase weight gain and
abdominal fat, despite a similar caloric intake.[50] A 6-year experiment revealed
that monkeys fed a trans-fat diet gained 7.2% of their body weight, as compared
to 1.8% for monkeys on a mono-unsaturated fat diet.[51] Although obesity is
frequently linked to trans fat in the popular media,[52] this is generally in the
context of eating too many calories; there is no scientific consensus connecting
trans fat and obesity.
• Liver Dysfunction: Trans fats are metabolized differently by the liver than other
fats and interfere with delta 6 desaturase. Delta 6 desaturase is an enzyme
involved in converting essential fatty acids to arachidonic acid and
prostaglandins, both of which are important to the functioning of cells.[53]
• Infertility: One 2007 study found, "Each 2% increase in the intake of energy from
trans unsaturated fats, as opposed to that from carbohydrates, was associated
with a 73% greater risk of ovulatory infertility…".[54]
OTHER TYPES OF FAT Cholesterol is a lipidic, waxy alcohol found in the cell
membranes and transported in the blood plasma of all animals. It is an essential
component of mammalian cell membranes where it is required to establish proper
membrane permeability and fluidity. Cholesterol is the principal sterol synthesized by
animals, but small quantities are synthesized in other eukaryotes, such as plants
and fungi. It is almost completely absent among prokaryotes, which include
bacteria.[2] Cholesterol is classified as a sterol (a contraction of steroid and alcohol).
• Although cholesterol is essential for life, high levels in circulation are associated
with atherosclerosis. Cholesterol is synthesized in virtually all cells, and
significant amounts of it can be absorbed from the diet.
• The name cholesterol originates from the Greek chole- (bile) and stereos (solid),
and the chemical suffix -ol for an alcohol, as researchers first identified
cholesterol in solid form in gallstones by François Poulletier de la Salle in 1769.
However, it is only in 1815 that chemist Eugène Chevreul named the compound
"cholesterine".[3]
FAT SUBSTITUES
Simplesse is a whey protein product used as a fat substitute in low-calorie foods.
The manufacturer, CP Kelco (a former NutraSweet subsidiary), sells it to food
processors as a "microparticulated whey protein concentrate" in dry powder
form, and recommends that it be labelled as "dairy protein" on food labels. Its
texture is due to its ability to form a colloid, similar to the way fat is dispersed in
homogenized milk. It differs from other whey protein concentrate mainly by virtue
of rheology; it is produced by a mechanical, rather than a chemical process.
Fats
Lipids are organic substances consisting mostly of carbons and hydrogen atoms. They
are hydrophobic, which means that they have little or no affinity to water. All lipids are
soluble (or dissolvable) in nonpolar solvents, such as ether, alcohol, and gasoline.
There are three families of lipids: (1) fats, (2) phospholipids, and (3) steroids.
Fatty acids and glycerol make up the larger molecule of fats. A fatty acid consists of a
long carbon skeleton of 16 or 18 carbon atoms, though some are even longer. The
carbonyl group, which is a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-
bonded to an oxygen attached to a hydrogen (OH-C=O), is the acidic group of the fatty
acids. The acidic property is determined by the ability of the hydrogen to dissociate, or
break away, from the oxygen atom. The carbonyl group is followed by a long chain of
carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen, which is referred to as the hydrocarbon "tail." The
long hydrocarbon tail gives fatty acids their hydrophobic, or "water-fearing" property.
Fats cannot be dissolved in water because fats are nonpolar (an equal distribution of
electrons) and water is polar (an unequal distribution of electrons). The polarity of water
is unable to form bonds and break down the nonpolar fatty acid molecule.
There are different types of fatty acids, which vary in length and the number of bonds.
Saturated fatty acids have single bonds between the carbon atoms that make up the
tail. The carbon atoms are "full" or saturated, and therefore cannot take up any more
hydrogen. Most animal fat, such as butter, milk, cheese, and coconut oil, are saturated.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. A
double bond is the sharing of four electrons between atoms, while a single bond is the
sharing of two electrons. The double bond has the ability to lend its extra two electrons
to another atom, thereby forming another bond. Monounsaturated fatty acids contain
only one double bond, such that each of the carbon atoms of the double bond can bond
with a hydrogen atom. An example of monounsaturated fatty acids is oleic acid, which is
found in olive oil. Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain two or more double bonds, such
that four or more carbon atoms can bond with hydrogen atoms. Most vegetable fats are
polyunsaturated fatty acids. The double bonds change the structure of the fatty acid, in
that there is a slight bend where the double bond is located.
Foods high in saturated fatty acids include whole milk, cream, cheese, egg yolk, fatty
meats (e.g., beef, lamb, pork, ham), coconut oil, regular margarine, and chocolate.
Foods high in polyunsaturated fatty acids include vegetable oils (e.g., safflower, corn,
cottonseed, soybean, sesame, sunflower), salad dressing made from vegetable oils,
and fish such as salmon, tuna, and herring.
Triglycerides are the basic unit of fat and are composed of three ("tri-") fatty acids
individually bonded to each of the three carbons of glycerol. Fatty acids rarely exist in a
free form in nature because they are highly reactive, and therefore make bonds
spontaneously.
Fat Function, Metabolism, and Storage
Fats and lipids play critical roles in the overall functioning of the body, such as in
digestion and energy metabolism. Usually, 95 percent of the fat in food is digested and
absorbed into adipose, or fatty, tissue. Fats are the body's energy provider and energy
reserve, which helps the body maintain a constant temperature. Fats and lipids are also
involved in the production and regulation of steroid hormones, which are hydrophobic
(or "water-fearing") molecules made from cholesterol in the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, a compartment within a cell in which lipids, hormones, and proteins are
made. Steroid hormones are essential in regulating sexuality, reproduction, and
development of the human sex organs, as well as in regulating the water balance in the
body. Steroid hormones can also freely flow in and out of cells, and they modify the
transcription process, which is the first step in protein synthesis, where segments of the
cell's DNA, or the genetic code, is copied.
Fats and lipids also have important structural roles in maintaining nerve impulse
transmission, memory storage, and tissue structure. Lipids are the major component of
cell membranes. The three most common lipids in the membranes of eukaryots, or
nucleus-containing cells, are phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterol. A phospholipid
has two parts: (1) the hydrophilic ("water-loving") head, which consists of choline,
phosphate, and glycerol, and (2) the hydrophobic ("water-fearing") fatty acid tail, which
consists of carbon and hydrogen. The hydrophilic head is the part of the phospholipids
that is in contact with water, since it shares similar chemical properties with water
molecules. The hydrophobic tail of the phospholipids faces inward, and therefore is able
to avoid any contact with water. In this particular arrangement, the phospholipids
arrange themselves in a bilayer (double layer) alignment in aqueous solution.
Fats are metabolized primarily in the small intestines because the enzymes of the
stomach cannot break down fat molecules due to their hydrophobicity. In the small
intestines, fat molecules stimulate the release of cholecystokinin (CCK), a small-
intestine hormone, into the bloodstream. The CCK in the blood triggers the pancreas to
release digestive enzymes that can break down lipids. The gallbladder is also
stimulated to secrete bile into the small intestines. Bile acids coat the fat molecules,
which results in the formation of small fat globules, which are called micelles. The
coating prevents the small fat globules from fusing together to form larger fat molecules,
and therefore the small fat globules are more easily absorbed. The pancreatic enzymes
can also break down triglycerides into monoglycerides and fatty acids. Once this occurs,
the broken-down fat molecules are able to diffuse into the intestinal cells, in which they
are converted back to triglycerides, and finally into chylomicrons.
Chylomicrons, which are composed of fat and protein, are macromolecules that travel
through the bloodstream into the lymphatic capillaries called lacteals. The lymphatic
system is a special system of vessels that carries a clear fluid called lymph, in which
lost fluid and proteins are returned to the blood. The lacteals absorb the fat molecules
and transport them from the digestive tract to the circulatory system, dumping
chylomicrons in the bloodstream. The adipose and liver tissues, which release enzymes
called lipoprotein lipase, break down chylomicrons into monoglycerides and fatty acids.
These molecules diffuse into the adipose and liver cells, where they are converted back
to triglycerides and stored as the body's supply of energy.
Fat Nutrition
The energy value of fats is 9 kcal/gram (kilocalories per gram), which supplies the body
with important sources of calories. Calories are units of energy. The breaking of bonds
within fat molecules releases energy that the body uses. A kilocalorie is the unit used to
measure the energy in foods. It is the equivalent of "calories" listed on Nutrition Facts
labels on food packaging.
Some of the foods known to contain large amounts of fat include the obvious examples,
such as butter on toast, fried foods, and hamburgers. But many of the foods that people
consume on a daily basis have hidden sources of fat that may not be obvious to the
person eating them. These foods include cookies and cakes, cheese, ice cream, potato
chips, and hot dogs. One way to avoid foods that contain high amounts of fat is to look
at the Nutrition Facts label located on the packages of most foods, where the total fat
content of the food is listed.
Actual intake of fat can vary from 10 percent to 40 percent of the calories consumed
daily, depending on personal or cultural regimens. Limiting one's daily fat intake to less
than 30 percent of total calorie intake and increasing consumption of polyunsaturated
fatty acids have been shown to be beneficial in maintaining a healthful diet.
Effects of Excess Dietary-Fat Intake
The recommended intake of fats in the American diet is to limit fats to below 30 percent
of the total daily caloric intake. One-third of fats should come from saturated fats, with
the other two-thirds split evenly between monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat. It is
estimated that in the average American diet (as of 2002), fats make up 42 percent of
calories, with saturated fat making up between a third and a half of that amount.
The effects of this excess intake of dietary fat has some well-established implications for
the health of overweight Americans. For instance, the consumption of excess amounts
of saturated fats has been recognized as the most important dietary factor to increase
levels of cholesterol. A high cholesterol level is detrimental to health and leads to a
condition known as atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is the build-up of cholesterol on the
walls of arteries, which may eventually result in the blocking of blood flow. When this
occurs in the arteries of the heart, it is called coronary artery disease. When this
process occurs in the heart, a myocardial infarction, or heart attack, may occur.
Besides the cholesterol implications due to high fat intake, obesity is a factor in the
causation of disease. Being overweight or obese is highly associated with increasing
the risk of type II diabetes, gallbladder disease, cardiovascular disease,
hypertension, and osteoarthritis.
Fat-Replacement Strategies
The purpose of fat-replacement strategies is to reduce the percentage of fat in various
foods, without taking away the appealing taste of the food. There are three broad
categories of fat-replacement strategies: (1) adding water, starch derivatives, and gums
to foods, (2) using protein-derived fat replacements, and (3) using engineered fats.
The addition of water to foods lowers the quantity of fat per serving in the selected food
item. When starch derivatives are added to food, they bind
to the water in the food, thus providing a thicker product that simulates the taste and
texture of fat in the mouth. Examples of specific starch derivatives include cellulose, Z-
trim, maltrin, stellar, and oatrim. The problem with starch derivatives, however, is their
limitations as a fat replacement in foods that require frying.
Protein-derived fat replacements are made from egg and milk proteins, which are made
into a microscopic globule of protein. They give the sensation of fat in the mouth,
although they contain no fatty acids. One such product is Simplesse, which is used
mostly in frozen desserts. Because its chemical structure is easily destroyed by cooking
or frying, its use is limited in most other foods.
The third fat-replacement strategy includes the use of engineered fats, which are made
by putting together various food substances. One popular engineered fat is olestra,
which is made by adding fatty acids to regular table sugar molecules (sucrose). This
process results in a product that can neither be broken down in the digestive tract nor
absorbed. It therefore cannot provide energy, in terms of carbohydrates or fatty acids,
to the body. Olestra is the first engineered fat to be used in fried foods. It does have its
drawbacks, however. Olestra can cause abdominal cramping, loose stools, and it can
bind beneficial substances that are normally absorbed, such as the fat-soluble vitamins
(vitamins A, D, E, and K) and carotenoids.
In addition to fat-replacement strategies, there are low-fat or fat-free versions of many
foods on the market. Some products made to be low-fat or fat-free include milk, yogurt,
some cheeses, and deli meats. As a general rule, products that claim to have reduced
amounts of fat should conform to the following stipulations: (1) a product labeled
"reduced-fat" must have at least 25 percent less fat than the normal product, (2) a "low-
fat" product can have no more than three grams of fat per serving, and (3) a "fat-free"
product most have less than 0.5 grams of fat per serving. But one does not always need
to look for foods made to contain less fat than normal, as there are plenty of natural
foods that contain very little fat, or no fat at all, including most fruits and vegetables.
Other foods that fit into the category of low-fat or nonfat foods include egg whites, tuna
in water, skinless chicken, and pasta.
Foods that are low in fat are important for a healthful diet. While fats are essential
components for bodily function, excess consumption of fats can lead to health problems
such as obesity and heart disease. A healthful diet therefore consists of balanced
proportions of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
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