Mechanics of Materials

Bending Stress
Bending stress is the normal stress that is induced at a point in a body subjected to loads that cause it to bend. When a load is applied perpendicular to the length of a beam (with two supports on each end), bending moments are induced in the beam.

Flexural theory states that most materials will exhibit linear-plastic behaviour, i.e. they will respond to an applied load by deflecting in accordance to Hooke's Law, and will return to their original shape and form when the load is removed. This stress-strain relation exists only up to a certain load, after which the material will undergo some irretrievable deformation. Hooke's Law states that deformation of an object under loading is proportional to the magnitude of the load. Materials which are said to be "elastic" become distorted when they are compressed, stretched, or bent. This behaviour is due to the forces that different parts of a member exert on each other when a structure is subjected to loads. A simply supported beam of length L, subjected to a concentrated transverse load P at midspan would exhibit vertical deflection (and start to curve) due to bending caused by the two reaction loads at the supports. At midspan, the top of the beam would be the location at which the maximum compression occurs in the beam due to contraction in the top fibers. The bottom of the beam would experience maximum tension due to the elongation in the bottom fibers. The maximum bending moment due to applied transverse load of P, occurs at mid span of a beam of length L, and is given by the following equation:

Reference Pages Engineering Materials

Bending Stress

An analysis of the simple theory of bending, including moments of area(inertia)

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View other versions (2) Contents 1. Bending Theory 2. Page Comments

Bending Theory
If a length of beam is acted upon by a constant bending moment (zero shear force), the stress set up on any cross section must constitute a pure couple equal and opposite to the bending moment. Hence it can be deduced that one part of the cross section is in tension whilst the other part is in compression. It is clear that for an initially straight beam the inside edge will be in compression and the outside in tension. There will be an intermediate surface where the stress will be zero and this is called the neutral axis In the following analysis it has been assumed that: 1) The material is homogeneous, isotropic and has the same value for Youngs Modulus in both tension and compression.

2) The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with a common centre of curvature. 3) Transverse cross-sections remain plane and perpendicular to the neutral surface after bending. 4) The radius of curvature is large compared the dimensions of the cross section. 5) The stress is purely longitudinal and local effects near concentrated loads are neglected. 6) That the stresses are within the elastic limit of the material and no permanent distortion of the material takes place.

The above diagram shows a beam which is subject to a bending force. If the beam is to bend, there is only one way in which it can happen. If we examine a small bit under stress it will look like this.

Of course it can still be joined up to the sections next to it because the plane sections remain plane.

Now consider a small section of the beam under a bending stress.

Note that all distance are measured from the "Neutral Axis" Consider what has happened to an element of the beam which is a distance y from the neutral axis. From the above diagram it can be seen that the length has been "stretched" so the strain at y from the neutral axis is given by:(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

From this it is apparent that is constant for any given bending moment. Stress is directly proportional to the distance from the Neutral Axis. |Therefore in the interests of both weight reduction and economy, material is concentrated at the greatest possible distance from the neutral axis. Hence the universal adoption of "I" section steel girders. If is an element of cross section at a distance y from the neutral axis XX then for pure bending thee net normal force on the cross section must be zero.

(6)

(7)

This is the condition that XX passes through the centroid of the section. Taking moments about the Neutral axis. (8)

(9)

This is usually written as in terms of I where of inertia of the section or second moment of area.

and is called the moment (10)

Bending Stress
An analysis of the simple theory of bending, including moments of area(inertia)
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Bending Theory
If a length of beam is acted upon by a constant bending moment (zero shear force), the stress set up on any cross section must constitute a pure couple equal and opposite to the bending moment. Hence it can be deduced that one part of the cross section is in tension whilst the other part is in compression. It is clear that for an initially straight beam the inside edge will be in compression and the outside in tension. There will be an intermediate surface where the stress will be zero and this is called the neutral axis.
A beam is a horizontal structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.

In the following analysis it has been assumed that: 1) The material is homogeneous, isotropic and has the same value for Young's Modulus in both tension and compression.

2) The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with a common centre of curvature. 3) Transverse cross-sections remain plane and perpendicular to the neutral surface after bending. 4) The radius of curvature is large compared the dimensions of the cross section. 5) The stress is purely longitudinal and local effects near concentrated loads are neglected. 6) That the stresses are within the elastic limit of the material and no permanent distortion of the material takes place.

The above diagram shows a beam which is subject to a bending force. If the beam is to bend, there is only one way in which it can happen. If we examine a

small bit under stress it will look like this. Of course it can still be joined up to the sections next to it because the plane

sections remain plane.

Now consider a small section of the beam under a bending stress.

Note that all distance are measured from the "Neutral Axis". Consider what has happened to an element of the beam which is a distance from the neutral axis. From the above diagram it can be seen that the length has been "stretched" so the strain at from the neutral axis is given by:
Young's Modulus is the ratio of a simple tension stress applied to a material to the resulting strain parallel to the tension. Also known as modulus of elasticity.

Strain = (Length - Original length)/ (Original length) But Stress / Strain = (Young's Modulus)

(1) From this it is apparent that is constant for any given bending moment. Stress

is directly proportional to the distance from the Neutral Axis. Therefore in the interests of both weight reduction and economy, material is concentrated at the greatest possible distance from the neutral axis. Hence the universal adoption of section steel girders.

If

is an element of cross section at a distance

from the neutral axis

then

for pure bending the net normal force on the cross section must be zero.

Thus,

or passes through the centroid of the section.

This is the condition that

Taking moments about the Neutral axis.

This is usually written as in terms of

where

and is called the

moment of inertia of the section or second moment of area. Hence,

(2)

Equations (1) and (2) can now be combined into:

Where, is the stress at a distance from the Neutral Axis. is the Bending Moment, is the Moment of area ( Sometimes called Moment of Inertia) is Young's Modulus is the radius of Curvature.

Bending Stress
An analysis of the simple theory of bending, including moments of area(inertia)
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id 2451 2402 2221 1732 1603 view edit active status cc_accept cc_accept cc_accept cc_accept cc_accept modified 11 Oct 11 @ 16:33 4 Oct 11 @ 15:38 2 Aug 11 @ 08:46 4 Sep 08 @ 12:52 31 Aug 08 @ 18:17 author Aggregate jgenosas Eraser sbucks7 lodmore

Bending Theory
If a length of beam is acted upon by a constant bending moment (zero shear force), the stress set up on any cross section must constitute a pure couple equal

and opposite to the bending moment. Hence it can be deduced that one part of the cross section is in tension whilst the other part is in compression. It is clear that for an initially straight beam the inside edge will be in compression and the outside in tension. There will be an intermediate surface where the stress will be zero and this is called the neutral axis In the following analysis it has been assumed that: 1) The material is homogeneous, isotropic and has the same value for Youngs Modulus in both tension and compression. 2) The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with a common centre of curvature. 3) Transverse cross-sections remain plane and perpendicular to the neutral surface after bending. 4) The radius of curvature is large compared the dimensions of the cross section. 5) The stress is purely longitudinal and local effects near concentrated loads are neglected. 6) That the stresses are within the elastic limit of the material and no permanent distortion of the material takes place.

The above diagram shows a beam which is subject to a bending force. If the beam is to bend, there is only one way in which it can happen. If we examine a

small bit under stress it will look like this. Of course it can still be joined up to the sections next to it because the plane

sections remain plane. Now consider a small section of the beam under a bending stress.

Note that all distance are measured from the "Neutral Axis" Consider what has happened to an element of the beam which is a distance y from the neutral axis. From the above diagram it can be seen that the length has been "stretched" so the strain at y from the neutral axis is given by:-

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5) From this it is apparent that is constant for any given bending moment. Stress

is directly proportional to the distance from the Neutral Axis. |Therefore in the interests of both weight reduction and economy, material is concentrated at the greatest possible distance from the neutral axis. Hence the universal adoption of "I" section steel girders. If is an element of cross section at a distance y from the neutral axis XX then for pure bending thee net normal force on the cross section must be zero.

(6)

(7) This is the condition that XX passes through the centroid of the section. Taking moments about the Neutral axis.

(8)

(9) This is usually written as in terms of I where and is called the

moment of inertia of the section or second moment of area.

(10) Equations (5) and (10) can now be combined into:-

(11) Where f is the stress at a distance y from the Neutral Axis. M is the Bending Moment, I is the Moment of area ( Sometimes called Moment of Inertia) E is Young's Modulus R is the radius of Curvature.
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Direct Stress
Resilience and Direct Stress in bars, both composite and of varying cross section.

Introduction
A structural member is said to be under Direct Stress when the loads acting on it are either compressive or tensile. Any other forms of loading, including bending and shear, cannot be said to cause Direct Stress. This section highlights the Direct Stress and the resilience in bars of varying cross section as well as in compound bars; made with more than one material, each having its coefficient of thermal expansion.

Strain Energy, Resilience

When either a Tensile or Compressive Load is applied to a bar, there will be a change in length to the load. The Strain Energy of the bar is defined as the work done by the load in altering the length (i.e. Producing Strain). For a gradually applied or "Static" load the work done is represented by the shaded area on the diagram. , which for a material that obeys Hooke's law, is proportional

(1) The Strain Energy can be expressed in terms of the Stress and dimensions. For a bar of uniform cross section and length .

Tension is the magnitude of the pulling force exerted by a string, cable, chain, or similar object on another object. It is the opposite of compression. As tension is the magnitude of

a force, it is measured in newtons (or sometimes pounds-force) and is always measured parallel to the string on which it applies.

Compression is the result of the subjection of a material to compressive stress, which results in reduction of volume as compared to an uncompressed but otherwise identical state.

But

is the volume of the bar and can be expressed in words as:

The Strain Energy per unit volume (Usually called Resilience) in either simple Tension or Compression is :

(2) Proof Resilience is the value at the elastic limit or for nonferrous materials, the Proof Stress. Strain Energy is always a positive quantity and is expressed in units of work. (In the imperial system in.lb. ; ft.lbs or in.tons)
Example:1

[imperial]

Example - Example 1
Problem

Calculate the Strain Energy of the following Bolt which is under a Tensile Load

of

Show that the Strain Energy is increased when the bolt is under maximum Stress, if the shank of the Bolt is turned down to the root diameter of the thread.
Workings

It is normal practice to assume that the load is distributed evenly over the core of the screwed portion ( i.e. In this case the core diameter is of the core is and the Area . The Cross sectional Area of the shank is

The Stress in the screwed portion is given by: (Note )

The Stress in the Shank is given by: Thus, the Total Strain Energy is given by:

If the shank is now reduced in diameter to constant and have a value of by:

the Stress in the bolt will be and the Strain Energy will be given

Solution

The Strain Energy is

Impact Loads.
If a weight falls through a height onto a collar attached at one end of a uniform bar (See Diagram),

the bar will extend. The extent of this extension will be greater than if the load had been gradually applied. This must be so since the weight will have Kinetic Energy at the point of impact and this energy is absorbed by an increase in the strain energy of the bar. Assuming that the bar does not fail the weight will oscillate about and finally come to rest at the Normal equilibrium position.

In the diagram the maximum extension of the bar is shown as .

is the

equivalent static or gradually applied load which would produce an extension of

Velocity is the measurement of the rate and direction of change in the position of an object. It is a vector physical quantity; both magnitude and direction are required to define it.

The kinetic energy of an object is the energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity.

The Strain Energy in the bar at the point of maximum extension is If the loss of energy at Impact is neglected then the following equation can be written: Loss of Potential Energy by the Weight = Increase in Strain Energy in the Bar i.e. (see equations (1) and (2)) Hence,

Rearranging and multiplying through by

a quadratic in

is produced. i.e.

Solving and discarding the negative root:

(3) Using the resulting value for maximum extension it is now possible to calculate both the value of the and the resulting Direct Stress.

The particular case where Stress.

(i.e. the Load is suddenly applied gives the value

i.e. The Stress produced by a suddenly applied load is twice the Static The above simple analysis assumes that the whole of the rod attains the same value of maximum Stress at the same moment. This is however not strictly true. A wave of stress is set up by the Impact which is propogated along the rod. The actual maximum Stress set up will then depend upon the dimensions of the rod, its density and the velocity of the load at impact. Usually this approximate analysis gives results that err on the "Safe side" but this is not always the case.
Example:123

[imperial]

Example - Example 2
Problem

Referring to the diagram shown above, let a weight of onto a collar at the end of a If the rod is
Workings

fall a distance

diameter steel rod.

long what is the maximum Stress set up.

Using the results of equation (3)

Note the length of the bar is

i.e. Although the Load only dropped 2 inches ( Approx 5 cms.) the maximum Stress was nearly 64 times the "Static" Stress.
Solution

The maximum Stress was nearly 64 times the "Static" Stress.

Varying Cross-section And Load

Weight is the force that gravitation exerts upon a body, equal to the mass of the body times the local acceleration of gravity: commonly taken, in a region of constant gravitational acceleration, as a measure of mass.

It is usual to assume that the load is uniformly distributed over the cross-section and that therefore the Stress is inversely proportional to the area. The load may also vary as in the case of a column where its own weight needs to be taken into account and of course the case of inertia loadings on members in motion.
Example:123

Example - Example 5
Problem

A rod of length tapers uniformly from a diameter the other. Find the extension caused by an axial load
Workings

at one end to a diameter

at

At a distance

from the small end the diameter is given by:

At

the load

will extend a short length

by:

And for the whole rod the extension is given by:

Solution

The extension is

Compound Bars
Any Tensile or Compressive member which consists of two or more bars or tubes in parallel is called a Compound Bar. The bars are usually of different materials. The method of analysis is shown in the following examples.
Example:12

[imperial]

Example - Example 8
Problem

A compound bar is made up of a rod of area equal length of area shared.

Workings

and modulus

and a tube of

and modulus

If a compressive load is applied to the Compound Bar find how the Load is

Since the rod and tube are of the same length and must remain so, the strain in each must be the same. The total load carried is shared as and . and we can assume that it is

From the Strain equation (See Direct Stress Introduction equation (2))

(1) And by equilibrium, (2) Combing equations (1) and (2), And Re-arranging, Also,
Solution

The load is shared as , where and

and

Temperature Stresses
If a Compound bar is made of several different materials with different coefficients of thermal expansion, then if it is subjected to a change in temperature, then the different parts will tend to expand by different amounts.
Temperature is a measurement of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in an object or system and can be measured with a thermometer or a calorimeter. It is a means of determining the internal energy contained within the system.

If the parts are constrained to remain together, then the actual change in length must be the same for each. This change will be the result ( taking into account positive and negative Strains) of the effects due to both temperature and Stress conditions.
Example:1

[imperial]

Example - Example 10
Problem

A steel tube of copper rod of

external diameter and

internal diameter encloses a

diameter to which it is rigidly joined at each end. there is no longitudinal Stress, calculate the Stresses

If at a temperature of

in the rod and tube when the temperature is raised to

The coefficients of linear expansion:

Workings

From the constants given it can be seen that the copper rod would expand more than the steel tube if it were free to do so.

Since the two are joined together the copper will be prevented from expanding by as much as it would like and is therefore put into compression. The steel is tube is stretched and the compound bar takes up an intermediate position. Let be the tensile Stress in the steel tube and be the compressive Stress in the copper rod. Using the Equilibrium Equation:

The Strain Equation: It is assume that the original lengths of the rods were the same. Hence the temperature Strain of the rod - the compressive Strain = The temperature strain of the tube + the tensile Strain. Substituting values

(3) Substituting from equation (3),

Solution

Springs
An analysis of the common types of engineering springs.
View other versions (5)
Contents 1. Introduction 2. Closed-coiled Helical Springs 3. Open-coiled Helical Spring. 4. Leaf Springs 5. Page Comments

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Introduction
Springs are load bearing elastic objects that are used to store and transfer mechanical energy. They are usually made from a low alloy, medium or high carbon steel. Their relatively high yield strength allows them to return to their original shape and size after a temporary deformation. There are several types of springs, including helical springs, flat springs and torsion springs among others. Each of these types is suited to its own specific application, however there are all constructed from a pliable / resilient material that can withstand a certain degree of deformation without fracture or failure.

In engineering applications springs are often used for their compression or loadbearing ability, as well as for dampening out the effects of shock or impact loads.

Compression helical springs. Image courtesy Master Spring & Wire Form Co.http://www.masterspring.com/

Closed-coiled Helical Springs

Definitions D = Mean coil diameter d = Wire diameter n = Number of coils

1 - Under Axial Load, W

As the angle of the helix is small, the action on any cross section is approximately a pure torque and the effects of bending and shear can be neglected. The value of the torque is given by:

(1) The wire can therefore be considered to being twisted like a shaft. If is the total angle of twist along the wire, and x is the deflection of W along the axis of the coil, then

(2) and (3) Applying the formula for torsion of shafts and making the above substitution

(4) or

(5) The spring stiffness

(6) The strain energy

(7) Which by substitution in terms of from equation (7) can be reduced to:

(8)

2- Under Axial Torque Load, T

This will produce approximately a pure bending moment of magnitude T at all cross sections. The total strain energy is therefore given by:

(9) But if T causes a rotation of one end of the spring through an angle about the axis relative to the other end, then:

(10) Substituting this in equation (8)

(11)

(12)
Example:123

[imperial]

Example - Helical Spring Under An Axial Torque T

Problem

A close-coiled helical spring is to have a stiffness of 5lb./in.in compression, with a maximum load of 9 lb. and a maximum shear stress of 18,000lb./in2. The solid length of the spring(i.e. coils touching) is 1.8in. Find the wire diameter; mean coil radius and the number of coils.
Workings

We know that,

(1)

(2)

(3) Again,

(4) (5) (6) Substituting from equations(5) and (6) in equation (3)

(7)

(8) Substituting this value in equation (3) i.e. mean coil radius = And from equation (5) the number of coils,
Solution

Wire diameter, d = 0.1145 in Mean coil radius = 0.56 in The number of coils, n = 15.7

Open-coiled Helical Spring.

Let be the angle of the helix, then the length of the wire

In the diagram OX is the polar axis (axis of twisting) at any normal cross section, and is inclined at an angle to the vertical OV. All the axes OX,OY,OH,and OV are in the vertical plane, which is tangential to the helix at O. If now an axial load W and an axial torque T are applied to the spring, the latter tending to increase the curvature, the actions at O are couples WD/2 about H and T about OV (the effect of the shearing force W may be neglected). Resolving these couples about the axis OX and OY the combined twisting couple

(13) and the combined bending couple

(14) both of which tend to increase the curvature. The total strain energy due to bending and twisting is given by:

(15) Using Castiliano's Theorem, the axial deflection and the axial rotation

. The general case can be derived from the above expressions but usually the loading is either W only or T only and the solution to these cases is given below.

1 - Under Axial Load Only, W

(16)

(17)

(18)

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

(24)

2 - Under Axial Torque Only, T

(25)

(26)

(27)

(28)

(29)

(30)

(31)

(32)
Example:1

[imperial]

Example - Axial extension of spring subjected to a load

Problem

An open coiled spring is made having ten turns wound to a mean diameter of 4.5 in. The wire diameter is 3/8 in. and the coils make an angle of 30 degrees with a plane perpendicular to the axis of the coil. Find the axial extension when subjected to a load of 20 lb. and find the angle through which the free end will turn with this load if free to rotate.

Workings

Axial extension

(9)

(10)

(11) Angle of rotation of free end.

(12)

(13)

(14) (15)
Solution

Axial extension = 0.672 in Angle of rotation of free end =

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Engineering Materials Bending Stress

Moments of Inertia
Worked examples involving Bending Stess and Moments of Inertia.

Overview
Bending moment refers to the algebraic sum of all moments located between a cross section and one end of a structural member; a bending moment that bends the beam convex downward is positive, and one that bends it convex upward is negative.

The General Equation for bending is used throughout. The proof of this is to be found in "Engineering/Materials/Bending Stress". For convenience the equation is written here and is as follows:

Where is the Bending Moment is the Moment of Inertia of the section is Young's Modulus is the Radius of curvature is the stress at a distance from the Neutral Axis It is obviously important to use the same units throughout!
Example:123456

Example - Example 1
Problem

The beam of a symmetrical

section is simply supported over a span of 30 ft.

If the maximum permissible stress is 5 tons/sq.in., what concentrated load can be carried at a distance of 10 ft from one support?
Workings

Whilst it is not stated in the question, it is normal practice to load an with as the axis of bending. Thus the Bending Moment is in the tons then the maximum Bending Moment is given by: or i.e. Maximum Bending Moment = If the load is

-section plane.

Using the method for establishing the Moment of Area of an shown in "Engineering/Materials/Bending"

-section beam

Using the General equation of Bending

Solution