l Given positive integers a and b, there exist

unique integers q and r satisfying

a = bq + r, 0 r < b. This result is known as
Euclids division lemma.
l An algorithm is a series of well defined steps
which gives a procedure for solving a type of
problem.
l A lemma is a proven statement used for proving
another statement.
l HCF of two positive integers a and b is the larg-
est positive integer d that divides both a and b.
l Euclids Division Algorithm : To obtain the
HCF of two positive integers, say c and d with
c > d, we follow the steps below :
Step 1. Apply Euclids division lemma to find q
and r where
c = dq + r, 0 r < d.
Step 2. If r = 0, then, d is the HCF of c and d.
If r 0, then apply Euclids division lemma to d
and r.
Step 3. Continue this process till the remainder is
zero. The divisor at this stage will be the required
HCF.
l The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:
Every composite number can be expressed (fac-
torised) as a product of primes, and this factorisa-
tion is unique, apart from the order in which the
prime factors occur. Or the prime factorisation of
a natural number is unique, except for the order
of its factors.
l Any number which cannot be expressed in the
form
p
q
where p, and q are integers and q 0
is called an irrational number.
REAl NuMbERS
l Let p be a prime number. If p divides a
2
, then p
divides a, where a is a positive integer.
l The sum or difference of a rational and an ir-
rational number is irrational.
l The product and quotient of a non-zero rational
number and an irrational number is irrational.
l Let x be a rational number whose decimal ex-
pansion terminates. Then x can be expressed
in the form
p
q
where p and q are coprime and
the prime factorisation of q is of the form 2
n
5
m
,
where n and m are non negative integers.

l
Let x =
p
q
be a rational number such that the
prime factorisation of q is of the form 2
n
5
m
,
where n and m are non negative integers. Then,
x has a decimal expansion which terminates.

l
If x
p
q
= is a rational number, such that the
prime factorisation of q is of the form 2
m
5
n
,
where m and n are whole numbers. If m = n, then
the decimal expansion of x will terminate after
m places of decimal. If m > n, then the decimal
expansion of x will terminate after m places of
decimal. If n > m, then the decimal expansion
of x will terminate after n places of decimal.

l Let x =

p
q

be a rational number, such that the
prime factorisation of q is not of the form 2
n
5
m
,
where n and m are non negative integers. Then x
has a decimal expansion which is non terminating
repeating (recurring).
l The decimal expansion of every rational number
is either terminating or non-terminating repeat-
ing.
IMPORTANT TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND RESulTS
l An expression of the form

p(x) = a
a
+ + + a x a x a x
n
n
1 2
2
.... ,
where ax bx c
2
+ + , is called a polynomial in x
of degree n.
Here, a
o
, , ,... , a a a
n 1 2
are real numbers and each
power of x is a non-negative integer.
l The exponent of the highest degree term in a
polynomial is known as its degree. A polynomial
of degree 0 is called a constant polynomial.
l A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear
polynomial. A linear polynomial is of the form
p(x) = ax + b, where a 0,.
lA polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic
polynomial. A quadratic polynomial is of the
form p(x) = ax bx c
2
+ + , where a 0,.
l A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic poly-
nomial. A cubic polynomial is of the form
p(x) = ax
3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d, where a 0,.
l A polynomial of degree 4 is called a biquadratic
polynomial. A biquadratic polynomial is of the
form p(x) = ax
4
+ bx
3
+ cx
2
+ dx + e, where
a 0,.
l If p(x) is a polynomial in x and if

is any
real number, then the value obtained by putting
x = in p(x) is called the value of p(x) at x
= . The value of p(x) at x =

is denoted by
p( ).
l A real number is called a zero of the polyno-
mial p(x), if p( ) . = 0

l

A polynomial of degree n can have at most n real
zeroes.
l Geometrically the zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are
the x-coordinates of the points, where the graph
of p( ) . = 0 intersects x-axis.
l Zero of the linear polynomial ax + b is
POLYNOMIALS
=
b
a
constant term
coefficient of x

l

If and are the zeroes of a quadratic poly-
nomial p(x) = ax
2
+ bx +

c, a 0,, then

+ = =
b
a
x
x
coefficient of
coefficient of
2
,
= =
c
a x
constant term
coefficient of
2

l If , and are the zeroes of a cubic poly-
nomial p(x) = ax
3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d, a 0, then

+ + =

=
b
a
x
x
coefficient of
coefficient of
2
3


+ + = =
c
a
x
x
coefficient of
coefficient of
3

= =
d
a
constant term
coefficient of
3
x

l A quadratic polynomial whose zeroes are ,

is given by
p(x) = x
2
( ) + + x = x
2
(sum of the
zeroes) x + product of the zeroes.
l A cubic polynomial whose zeroes are , , is
given by

p x x x x ( ) ( ) ( ) = +
3 2
+ + + +
= x
3
(sum of the zeroes)x
2

+ (sum of the products
of the zeroes taken two at a time)x
product of the zeroes.
l The division algorithm states that given any poly-
nomial p(x) and any non-zero polynomial g(x),
there are polynomial q(x) and r(x) such that p(x)
= g(x)q(x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or degree r(x)
< degree g(x).
IMPORTANT TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS
l An equation which can be put in the form ax +
by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers
and a and b are not both zero, is called a linear
equation in two variables x and y.
l Every solution of the equation ax + by + c = 0 is
a point on the line representing it. Or each solu-
tion (x, y), of a linear equation in two variables
ax + by + c = 0, corresponds to a point on the
line representing the equation and vice-versa.
l A linear equation in two variables has an infinite
number of solutions.
l

If we consider two equations of the form
a x b y c a x b y c
1 1 1 2 2 2
0 0 + + = + + = , , a pair of
such equations is called a system of linear equa-
tions.
l We have three types of systems of two linear
equations.
(i) Independent System, which has a unique
solution. Such system is termed as a
consistent system with unique solution.
(ii) Inconsistent System, which has no
solution.
(iii) Dependent System, which represents a
pair of equivalent equations and has an
infnite number of solutions. Such system
is also termed as a consistent system with
infnite solutions.
l A pair of linear equations in two variables which
has a common point, i.e., which has only one
solution is called a consistent pair of linear equa-
tions.
lA pair of linear equations in two variables which
has no solution, i.e., the lines are parallel to each
other is called an inconsistent pair of linear equa-
tions.
l A pair of linear equations in two variables which
are equivalent and has infinitely many solutions
are called dependent pair of linear equations.
Note that a dependent pair of linear equations is
always consistent with infinite number of solu-
tions.
l If a pair of linear equations

a x b y c
1 1 1
0 + + =

and

a x b y c
2 2 2
0 + + =

represents

(i) intersecting lines, then

a
a
b
b
1
2
1
2

PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

IN TWO VARIABLES
ImPORTANT TERmS, DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS

(ii) parallel lines, then

a
a
b
b
c
c
1
2
1
2
1
2
=

(iii) coincident lines, then

a
a
b
b
c
c
1
2
1
2
1
2
= =
Converse of the above statement is also true.
l Graphical method of Solving a Pair of Linear
Equations
(a) To solve a system of two linear equations
graphically :
(i) Draw graph of the frst equation.
(ii) On the same pair of axes, draw graph of
the second equation.
(b) After representing a pair of linear equations
graphically, only one of the following three
possibilities can happen :
(i) The two lines will intersect at a point.
(ii) The two lines will be parallel.
(iii) The two lines will be coincident.
(c) (i) If the two lines intersect at a point,
read the coordinates of the point of
intersection to obtain the solution and
verify your answer.
(ii) If the two lines are parallel, i.e., there is
no point of intersection, write the system
as inconsistent. Hence, no solution.
(iii) If the two lines have the same graph,
then write the system as consistent with
infnite number of solutions.
l Algebraic methods of Solving a Pair of Linear
Equations
(a) Substitution method :
(i) Suppose we are given two linear equations in
x and y. For solving these equations by the
substitution method, we proceed according to the
following steps :
Step 1. Express y in terms of x in one of the given
equations.
Step 2. Substitute this value of y in terms of x in the
other equation. This gives a linear equation
in x.
Step 3. Solve the linear equation in x obtained in
step 2.
Step 4. Substitute this value of x in the relation taken
in step 1 to obtain a linear equation in y.
Step 5. Solve the above linear equation in y to get the
value of y.
Note : We may interchange the role of x and y in the
above method.
(ii) While solving a pair of linear equations, if we
get statements with no variables, we conclude as
below.
(a) If the statement is true, we say that the
equations have infnitely many solutions.
(b) If the statement is false, we say that the
equations have no solution.
(iii) When the two given equations in x and y are such
that the coeffcients of x and y in one equation
are interchanged in the other, then we add and
subtract the two equations to get a pair of very
simple equations.
(b) Elimination method :
In this method, we eliminate one of the variables
and proceed using the following steps.
Step 1. Multiply the given equations by suitable
numbers so as to make the coeffcients of
one of the variables equal.
Step 2. If the equal coeffcients are opposite in
sign, then add the new equations Otherwise,
subtract them.
Step 3. The resulting equation is linear in one
variable. Solve it to get the value of one
of the unknown quantities.
Step 4. Substitute this value in any of the given
equations.
Step 5. Solve it to get the value of the other
variable.
(c) Cross multiplication method :
(i) The system of two linear equations

a x b y c a x b y c
1 1 1 2 2 2
0 0 + + = + + = , , where
a
a
b
b
1
2
1
2

has a unique solution, given by

x
b c b c
a b a b
=

( )
( )
,
1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1

y
c a c a
a b a b
=

( )
( )
1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1
We generally write it as

x
b c b c
y
c a c a a b a b
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
1

The following diagram will help to apply the

cross-multiplication method directly.
The arrows between the numbers indicate that
they are to be multiplied. The products with
upward arrows are to be subtracted from the
products with downward arrows.
(ii) The system of equations

a x b y c
1 1 1
0 + + =
...(i)
a x b y c
2 2 2
0 + + = ...(ii)
(a) is consistent with unique solution, if
a
a
b
b
1
2
1
2
, i.e., lines represented by equa-
tions (i) and (ii) intersect at a point.
(b) is inconsistent, if
a
a
b
b
c
c
1
2
1
2
1
2
= , i.e., lines
represented by equations (i) and (ii) are
parallel and non coincident.
(c) is consistent with infinitely many solutions,
if
a
a
b
b
c
c
1
2
1
2
1
2
= = , i.e., lines represented by
equations (i) and (ii) are coincident.
l In trigonometry, we deal with relations between the sides and angles of a
triangle.
l Ratios of the sides of a right angled triangle with respect to its acute angles, are
called trigonometric ratios of the angle.
l For A, AC is the base, BC the perpendicular and AB is the hypotenuse. For B,
BC is the base, AC the perpendicular and AB is the hypotenuse.
l Six trigonometrical ratios

(i) Sine =

Perpendicular
Hypotenuse
=
y
r
.

Sine is written as sin .

(ii) Cosine =

Base
Hypotenuse
=
x
r
.

Cosine is written as cos .

(iii) Tangent =

Perpendicular
Base
=
y
x
.

Tangent is written as tan .

(iv) Cotangent =

Base
Perpendicular
=
x
y
.

Cotangent is written as cot .

(v) Secant =

Hypotenuse
Base
=
r
x
.

Secant is written as sec .

(vi) Cosecant =

Hypotenuse
Perpendicular
=
r
y
.

Cosecant is written as cosec .
l Relations between trigonometric ratios
(a) Reciprocal relations

(i) cosec

=
1
sin

or sin
=
1
cosec

or sin

cosec = 1

(ii) sec

=
1
cos

or cos

=
1
sec

or cos

sec = 1

(iii) cot

=
1
tan

or tan

=
1
cot

or tan

cot = 1
(b) Quotient relations

(i) tan

=
sin
cos

(ii) cot

=
cos
sin
l sin A is a symbol which denotes the ratio

perpendicular
hypotenuse
.

It does not mean the product of sin and
A,
i.e., sin A sin A. In fact sin separated from A has no meaning. Similar interpretations follow for other
trigonometric ratios.
l Table of values of various trigonometric ratios of 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90.
INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY
IMPORTANT TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS
T- 0 30 45 60 90
ratios

sin 0

1
2

1
2

3
2

1
l Trigonometric ratios of complementary angles
(i) sin (90 ) = cos ,
cos (90 ) = sin
(ii) tan (90 ) = cot ,
cot (90 ) = tan
(iii) sec (90 ) = cosec ,
cosec (90 ) = sec
l Trigonometric Identities
(a) An equation involving trigonometric
ratios of an angle (say) is said to be
a trigonometric identity, if it is satisfed
for all values of for which the given
trigonometric ratios are defned.
(b) Some i mpor t a nt t r i gonome t r i c
identities :
(i) sin
2
+ cos
2
= 1
or sin
2
= 1 cos
2

or cos
2
= 1 sin
2


cos 1

3
2

1
2

1
2

0

tan 0

1
3

1
3
Not defned

cot Not defned
3
1

1
3

0

sec 1

2
3

2
2 Not defned

cosec Not defned 2
2

2
3

1
Students may fnd easier to memorize the frst row (values of sine ratio) as
sin 0 30 45 60 90

0
4

1
4

2
4

3
4

4
4

= 0 =

1
2

=
1
2

=

3
2
= 1
(ii) sec
2
tan
2
= 1
or 1 + tan
2
= sec
2

or tan
2
= sec
2
1
(iii) cosec
2
cot
2
= 1
or cosec
2
= 1 + cot
2

or cot
2
= cosec
2
1
(c) The following steps should be kept in mind while
proving trigonometric identities :
(i) Start with more complicated side of the identity
and prove it equal to the other side.
(ii) If the identity contains sine, cosine and other
trigonometric ratios, then express all the ratios
in terms of sine and cosine.
(iii) If one side of an identity cannot be easily
reduced to the other side value, then simplify
both sides and prove them identically equal.
(iv) While proving identities, never transfer terms
from one side to another.
l Two figures having the same shape but not neces-
sarily the same size are called similar figures.
l All the congruent figures are similar but the
converse is not true.
l Two polygons of the same number of sides are
similar, if (i) their corresponding angles are equal
and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same
ratio (i.e., proportion).
l Two triangles are similar, if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal
(ii) their corresponding sides are in the same
ratio (or proportion).
l Basic Proportionality Theorem (B.P.T.)
(Thales Theorem)
In a triangle, a line drawn parallel to one side, to
intersect the other sides in distinct points, divides
the two sides in the same ratio.
In ABC, if DE || BC then (i)

AD
DB
=
AE
EC

(ii)

AB
AD
=
AC
AE
(iii)

AB
DB
=
AC
EC

l Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem
If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the
same ratio, the line is parallel to the third side.

In PQR, if

PS
SQ
=
PT
TR
, , then ST || QR.
l If in two triangles, corresponding angles are
equal, then their corresponding sides are in the
same ratio and hence the two triangles are similar
(AAA similarity criterion).
TRIANGLES
l If in two triangles, two angles of one triangle are
respectively equal to the two angles of the other
triangle, then the two triangles are similar (AA
similarity criterion).
l If in two triangles, corresponding sides are in the
same ratio, then their corresponding angles are
equal and hence the triangles are similar (SSS
similarity criterion).
l If one angle of a triangle is equal to the one angle
of another triangle and the sides including these
angles are in the same ratio (proportional), then the
triangles are similar (SAS similarity criterion).
l If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the
right angle of a right triangle to hypotenuse, then
the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular
are similar to the whole triangle and also to each
other.
l The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles
are equal to the ratio of the squares of any two
corresponding sides.
l The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio
of the squares of the corresponding altitudes.
l The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio
of the squares of the corresponding medians.
l If the areas of two similar triangles are equal, then
the triangles are congruent, i.e., equal and similar
triangles are congruent.

l
The Pythagoras Theorem
In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides. In fgure, = B 90 , so, AC
2
= AB
2
+
BC
2
.


l
Converse of the Pythagoras Theorem
In a triangle, if the square of one side is equal
to the sum of the squares of the other two sides,
then the angle opposite to the frst side is a right
angle.
IMPORTANT TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS
ImPORTANT TERmS, DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS
l The mean x of n values x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ...... x
n
is given by

x
x x x x
n
n

+ + + +
1 2 3
....
l mean of grouped data (without class-intervals)
(i) Direct method : If the frequencies of n observations x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ..... x
n
be f
1
, f
2
, f
3
,

..... f
n
respectively, then the
mean x is given by
x =
x f x f x f x f
f f f f
f
n n
n
i 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
+ + + +
+ + + +

...........
...........
xx
f
i
i

(ii) Deviation method or Assumed mean method

In this case, the mean x is given by x = a +

f x a
f
a
f d
f
i i
i
i i
i
( )
,

+
Where, a = assumed mean, f
i
= total frequency, d
i
= x
i
a
f
i
(x
i

a) = sum of the products of deviations and corresponding frequencies.
l mean of grouped data (with class-intervals)
In this case the class marks are treated as x
i
.

Class mark =

Lower class limit + Upper class limit
2
.
(i) Direct method
If the frequencies corresponding to the class marks x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ........ x
n
be f
1
, f
2
, f
3
, ........ f
n
respectively, then
mean x is given by x =

f x f x f x f x
f f f f
f x
f
n n
n
i i
i
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
+ + + +
+ + + +

......
......

(ii) Deviation or Assumed mean method

In this case the mean x is given by x = a +

f d
f
i i
i
,
Where, a = assumed mean, f
i
= total frequency and d
i
= x
i
a
(iii) Step Deviation method
In this case we use the following formula.

x = a +

f
x a
h
f
h a h
f u
f
i
i
i
i i
i
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
,
Where, a = assumed mean, f
i
= total frequency, h = class-size
and u
i
=

x a
h
i

l Mode is that value among the observations which occurs most often i.e., the value of the observation hav-
ing the maximum frequency.
l If in a data more than one value have the same maximum frequency, then the data is said to be multi-
modal.
l In a grouped frequency distribution, the class which has the maximum frequency is called the modal
class.
STATISTICS
l We use the following formula to fnd the mode of a grouped frequency distribution.

Mode (M
o
) = l +

f f
f f f
1 0
1 0 2
2

j
(
,
\
,
(

h, where
l = lower limit of modal class, h = size of the class-interval,
f
1
= frequency of the modal class, f
0
= frequency of the class preceding the modal class,
f
2
= frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.
l Median is the value of the middle most item when the data are arranged in ascending or descending order
of magnitude.
l median of ungrouped data
(i) If the number of items n in the data is odd, then

Median = value of

n + j
(
,
\
,
(
1
2
th

item.
(ii) If the total number of items n in the data is even, then

Median =

1
2
1 value of
2
th item + value of
2
th item
n n
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
,

,
]
]
]
l Cumulative frequency of a particular value of the variable (or class) is the sum total of all the frequencies
up to that value (or the class).
l There are two types of cumulative frequency distributions.
(i) cumulative frequency distribution of less than type.
(ii) cumulative frequency distribution of more than type.
l median of grouped data with class-intervals
In this case, we frst fnd the half of the total frequencies, i.e.,
n
2
. The class in which
n
2
lies is called the
median class and the median lies in this class.
We use the following formula for fnding the median.

Median (M
e
) = l +

n
cf
f
2

j
(
,
,
,
,
\
,
(
(
(
(

h,

Where, l = lower limit of the median class, n = number of observations,

cf = cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class,

f = frequency of the median class, h = class size.

l The three measures mean, mode and median are connected by the following relations.

Mode = 3 median 2 mean

or median =

mode
3
mean
+
2
3

or mean =

3 median
2
mode
2

l The graphical representation of a cumulative frequency distribution is called an ogive or cumulative fre-
quency curve.

l We can draw two types of ogives for a frequency distribution. These are less than ogive and more than
ogive.

l For less than ogive, we plot the points corresponding to the ordered pairs given by (upper limit, correspond-
ing less than cumulative frequency). After joining these points by a free hand curve, we get an ogive of
less than type.
l For more than ogive, we plot the points corresponding to the ordered pairs given by (lower limit, cor-
responding more than cumulative frequency). After joining these points by a free hand curve, we get an
ogive of more than type.
l Ogive can be used to estimate the median of data. There are two methods to do so.
First method : Mark a point corresponding to
n
2
, where n is the total frequency, on cumulative frequency
axis (y-axis). From this point, draw a line parallel to x-axis to cut the ogive at a point. From this point,
draw a line perpendicular to the x-axis to get another point. The abscissa of this point gives median.
Second method : Draw both the ogives (less than ogive and more than ogive) on the same graph paper
which cut each other at a point. From this point, draw a line perpendicular to the x-axis, to get another
point. The abscissa of this point gives median.
1. There are two kinds of electric charges i.e.,
positive and negative. The opposite charges
attract each other and the similar charges repel
each other. Coulomb (C) is the standard unit of
charge.
2. Conductors: The substances through which
electricity can flow are called conductors.
Silver, copper, gold and aluminium are
examples of conductors.
3. Insulators: The substances through which
electricity cannot flow are called insulators.
Glass, wood, porcelain and rubber are
examples of insulators.
4. One coulomb: A body is said to have one
coulomb charge if it has 6.25 10
18
electrons
on it or is deficit as compared to the normal
number of electrons.
5. Electric current: The rate of flow of charge
from a body at higher potential to a body at
lower potential is called electric current.
Ampere (A) is the standard unit of current.
6. Electric potential: The amount of work done
in moving a unit positive charge from infinity
to a given point in an electric field is called the
electric potential at that point. Thus, electric
potential is a condition which determines the
direction of flow of charges. The unit of
electric potential is volt (V).
7. Potential difference: The amount of work
done in moving a unit positive charge from one
point to another in an electric field is called
potential difference.
8. Closed electric circuit: An electric circuit in
which all the components of the circuit are
joined to one another, such that continuous
current flows through them, is called closed
electric circuit.
9. Open electric circuit: An electric circuit in
which electric contact is broken at some point
(say by a switch), such that no current flows
through the components of the circuit is called
an open circuit.
Electricity
10. Electric resistance: The opposition or
obstruction offered by a conductor to the flow
of the electrons is called electric resistance. In
SI system unit of resistance is ohm ().
11. Resistivity: It is the amount of resistance
offered by a conductor of unit length and unit
area of cross-section, such that current enters
and leaves from its opposite faces is called its
resistivity or specific resistance.
12. Series circuit of resistors: When a number of
resistors are connected end to end such that tail
end of one resistor is connected to the initial
end of the other resistor so as to form a closed
circuit, then such a circuit is called the series
circuit.
13. Parallel circuit of resistors: When a number
of resistors are connected in such a way that
they have common positive terminal and a
common negative terminal, then the resistors
are said to be connected in parallel circuit.
14. Ohms law: All physical conditions of a
conductor remaining the same, the current
flowing through it is directly proportional to the
potential difference at its ends.
If I is the current flowing through a conductor,
such that V is the potential difference at its
ends, then
V I V = I R
Where R is the constant of proportionality and
commonly called the resistance of a conductor.
15. Electric work: Electric work is said to be done
when a charge flows through a conductor at
some potential difference.
If W is the amount of workdone in carrying Q
charge from one point to another in an electric
field, such that, V is the potential difference,
then
V =
W
Q
W = VQ
IMPORTANT NOTES
16. Electric power: The rate of doing electric
work is called the electric power. The SI unit of
power is watt (W).
If W is the amount of electric work done in time
t, such that P is the power, then
P =
W
t
But, W = I
2
Rt
17. Overloading: Overloading of circuit means,
passing more current through the circuit than it
can tolerate without damage.
18. Short circuit: It means that live and neutral
wires come in contact with each other, thereby
bypassing the electrical device. It is caused due
to melting of insulation of connecting wires or
the live wire getting connected to earth. 19. Fuse: It is a safety device in an electric circuit.
It is the weakest point in an electric circuit,
which melts and breaks the electric circuit,
when the circuit gets overloaded.


1. Magnetic field: The space surrounding a
magnet in which its influence in the form of
magnetic force can be detected, is called
magnetic field.
2. When an electric current is passed through a
conductor, then a magnetic field is produced
around the conductor, i.e., the conductor
behaves like a magnet, as long as the current
flows through it.
3. Amperes swimming rule: Imagine a
swimmer, swimming in the direction of flow of
current and always looking towards the needle,
such that current enters from his feet and leaves
from his head. The direction in which the left
hand of the swimmer points, gives the direction
of motion of the north pole of the magnetic
needle.
4. SNOW Rule: The direction of motion of the
north pole of the magnetic needle can be found
out by the remembering the word SNOW,
where S stands for south, N for north, O for
over and W for west.
5. Right hand thumb rule: Imagine you are
holding the conductor with the palm of your
right hand, such that fingers encircle the
conductor and the thumb points in the direction
of the current. Then the direction of the fingers
encircling the conductor, gives the direction of
the magnetic lines of force around it.
6. Solenoid: An insulated copper wire wound on
some cylindrical cardboard or plastic tube,
such that its length is greater than its diameter
and it behaves like a magnet when a current is
made to flow through it, is called a solenoid.
7. Electromagnet: A solenoid which has an iron
core within it is called electromagnet. The iron
core intensifies the magnetic field of the
solenoid, as iron gets magnetised due to
magnetic induction.
8. Flemings left hand rule: Stretch the thumb,
the fore finger and the middle finger of your
left hand mutually at right angles to each other,
such that the forefinger points in the direction
of the magnetic field and the middle finger in
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
the direction of flow of current. Then thumb
gives the direction of motion of conductor.
9. Electric Motor: An electric motor is a device
which converts electric energy into mechanical
energy.
10. Commutator: A rotating device which
changes the direction of current after every half
rotation is called the commutator.
11. Flemings right hand rule: Stretch the palm
the fore finger and the middle finger are
mutually at right angles to each other. Now
point the thumb in the direction of motion of
the conductor and fore finger in the direction of
the magnetic field. Then the direction of the
middle finger gives the direction of the induced
current.
12. Electromagnetic Induction: The pheno-
menon due to which a changing magnetic field
within a conductor or closed coil induces
electric current in the conductor or a coil is
called electromagnetic induction.
13. Induced current: The alternating current
produced in a conductor or a closed coil, when
the magnetic lines of force rapidly change in it,
is called the induced current. Induced current is
always alternating in nature.
14. Lenzs law: It states In all cases of
electromagnetic induction, the direction of
induced current is such that it always opposes
the cause (the motion of the conductor) which
produces it.
15. Mutual Induction: The phenomenon of
production of induced e.m.f. in a closed coil, by
varying the magnetic flux in another coil is
called mutual induction.
16. Alternating current: An electric current in
which the direction of current changes after
equal intervals of time is called alternating
current (AC). The electric current supplied for
domestic or industrial use is alternating current.
17. Electric generator: It is based on the
phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. It
converts mechanical energy to electric energy.
IMPORTANT NOTES
of your right hand in such a way that the thumb,
18. Household wiring is done in parallel. It is
provided with safety devices such as fuse and
earthing.
19. Electricity for domestic purposes is supplied at
220 V and 50 Hz. Commercial electricity is
supplied at 440 V and 50 Hz.


1. Acids generally have a watery touch and sour
taste. Some acids are highly corrosive in nature
and can cause severe burns.
2. Bases generally have a soapy touch and bitter
taste. Soluble bases have a corrosive action on
the skin and can cause severe burns.
3. Aqueous solutions of acids and bases are good
conductors of electricity.
4. An acid is a compound, which on dissolving in
water gives hydronium ions or H
+
(aq) ions as
the only positively charged ions.
5. An alkali is a compound, which on dissolving
in water gives hydroxyl or OH

(aq) ions as the

only negatively charged ions.
6. An oxide or a hydroxide of a metal which reacts
with acids to form salt and water as the only
products, is called a base.
7. All bases/alkalises have a positively charged
metallic ion except ammonium hydroxide
[NH
4
OH] which has a positive NH
4
+
radical.
8. The separation of H
+
(aq) ions from an acid
takes place only in the presence of water. The
separated H
+
(aq) ion can exist independently
and hence combines with water molecule to
form hydronium ion [H
3
O
+
].
9. An acid containing least possible amount of
water is called a concentrated acid.
10. An acid containing fairly large amount of water
is called a dilute acid.
11. The process of mixing water in an acid is called
dilution of acid. While diluting an acid always
add acid slowly to water and continuously
stir the mixture. It is because the reaction is
generally exothermic and can cause spurting.
12. An alkali containing least possible amount of
water is called a concentrated alkali.
13. Dilution of an acid/ alkali, lowers the
concentration of H
+
(aq)/OH

(aq) ions per unit

volume.
IMPORTANT NOTES
Acids, Bases and Salts
14. pH scale measures the concentration of H
+
(aq)
ions in a particular solution. In the word pH,
p stands for potenz meaning power and H for
the H
+
(aq) ions.
15. On the pH scale, the concentration of H
+
(aq)
ions is measured from 0 to 14. Zero (0) is for
highly acidic solution and 14 is for highly
alkaline solution.
16. pH of distilled water and neutral salt solution
is 7.
17. If the pH of a solution is less than 7, then it is an
acidic solution. When the pH of a solution
decreases from 7 to 0, the concentration of
H
+
(aq) ions in it goes on increasing and so does
the acidic character of the solution.
18. If the pH of a solution increases from 7 to 14,
the concentration of H
+
(aq) ions decreases and
that of OH

(aq) ions increases. So, the neutral

solution becomes more and more alkaline, till at
pH 14 it is highly alkaline.
19. pH is generally measured by pH paper, which
is prepared by impregnating a filter paper in a
solution of universal indicator and then drying.
20. The colours produced on the pH paper at
different values are listed below.
pH Colour pH Colour
0 Dark red 8 Greenish blue
1 Red 9 Blue
2 Red 10 Navy Blue
3 Orange red 11 Purple
4 Orange 12 Dark Purple
5 Orange yellow 13 Violet
6 Greenish yellow 14 Deep violet
7 Green
21. Acid-base indicators are organic dyes derived
from plant materials which shows the presence
of acids and bases.


22. Litmus is a natural indicator, extracted from a
plant, belonging to the thallophyta family.
23. The dyes from the plants, such as red cabbage
leaves, coloured petals of plants such as
Petunia, and Turmeric are other natural
indicators.
24. Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are
synthetic indicators which show the presence of
acids and bases.
25. Blue litmus solution turns red in acidic
solutions, but is not affected in basic solutions.
26. Red litmus solution turns blue in basic
solutions, but is not affected in acidic solutions.
27. Phenolphthalein solution turns pink in basic
solutions, but turns colourless in acidic
solutions.
28. Methyl orange solution is yellow in basic
solutions and pink in acidic solutions.
29. Turmeric solution turns brown in basic
solutions, but remains yellow in acidic
solutions.
30. The substance whose smell changes in acidic or
basic medium are called olfactory indicators.
31. Acids react with active metals to form the salts
of the metals and liberate hydrogen gas. Active
metals are sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron.
Active metal + Acid Metal salt +
Hydrogen(g)
32. Acids react with metal carbonates to form their
respective metal salts, water and carbon
dioxide gas.
Metal carbonate + Acid Metal salt + Water
+ Carbon dioxide gas.
33. Acids react with metal hydrogencarbonates
(metal bicarbonates) to form their respective
metal salts, water and carbon dioxide gas.
Metal hydrogencarbonate + Acid Metal
salt + Water + Carbon dioxide.
34. Acids react with metal oxides to form their
respective salts and water as the only products.
Metal oxide + Acid Metal salt + water.
35. Acids react with metal hydroxides to form their
respective salts and water as the only product.
Metal hydroxide + Acid Metal salt +
Water
36. Substances which react with acids to form salt
and water as the only products are called basic
substances. Thus, oxides and hydroxides of
metals are bases.
37. A chemical reaction in which an acid reacts
completely with a base to form salt and water as
the only products, is called a neutralisation
reaction.
38. All oxides of metals are insoluble in water.
39. All hydroxides of metals are insoluble in water,
except the hydroxides of sodium, potassium,
calcium and magnesium.
40. Soluble hydroxides of metals are called
alkalises.
41. An acid solution which produces more H
+
(aq)
ions for an aqueous solution of 1 molar
concentration is called a strong acid.
42. An acid which produces few H
+
(aq) ions for an
aqueous solution of 1 molar concentration is
called a weak acid.
43. Sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid
and phosphoric acid are the examples of
strong acids.
44. Carbonic acid, sulphurous acid, acetic acid,
etc., are the examples of weak acids.
45. An alkali which produces more OH

(aq) ions in
an aqueous solution of 1 molar concentration, is
called a strong alkali.
Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are
the examples of strong alkalies.
46. An alkali which produces few OH

(aq) ions for

an aqueous solution of 1 molar concentration, is
called a weak alkali.
Calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide and
ammonium hydroxide are examples of
weak alkalies.
47. Some animals and plants employ acids/alkalises
for their self defence.
48. An ionic compound containing a positive ion
other than hydrogen ion and a negative ion
other than hydroxyl ion is called a salt.
49. All the salts having the same negative ion/
radical, but different metallic ions is called a
family of salts.
Conversely, all the salts having the same
positive metallic ion and different non-metallic
ions/radicals is called a family of salts.


50. The salts formed by the action of strong acids
with strong bases, are called normal salts.
51. The salts formed by the action of strong acids
and weak bases are called acid salts.
52. The salts formed by the action of weak acids
and strong alkalises are called basic salts.
53. Common salt is the most important and most
abundant salt in nature. In addition to its use as
an edible salt it is also a raw material for
producing chemicals, such as chlorine,
hydrogen, sodium and hydrochloric acid.
54. When saturated common salt is electrolysed, the
products are sodium hydroxide, hydrogen and
chlorine gas.
55. Hydrogen gas is used in (i) oxy-hydrogen
flame (ii) hydrogenating vegetable oils,
(iii) manufacture of ammonia and hydrochloric
acid, (iv) as a rocket fuel.
56. Chlorine gas is used in : (i) disinfecting water
(ii) in the manufacture of bleaching powder,
hydrochloric acid and pesticides (iii) in
bleaching wood pulp and cotton fabrics (iv) in
the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride and
chlorofluorocarbons.
57. Sodium hydroxide is used : (i) in the
manufacture of all kinds of soaps and detergents
(ii) making paper pulp in paper industry (iii)
making artificial fibres like rayon and nylon (iv)
for de-greasing surface of metals (v) and
making bleaching agents such as sodium
hypochlorite.
58. Bleaching powder is prepared by passing
chlorine gas through freshly prepared slaked
lime paste, till it stops reacting.
59. Bleaching powder is used : (i) for bleaching
cotton-fabrics and wood pulp (ii) making
unshrinkable wool (iii) in the manufacture of
chloroform (iv) in sterilisation of drinking
water, and (v) in disinfecting laboratories,
drains, ditches, etc.
60. Baking soda is prepared industrially from
common salt, by passing carbon dioxide gas
through saturated ammonical common salt
solution.
NaCl
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)
+ NH
3(g)
+ CO
2(g)

NH
4
Cl
(aq)
+ NaHCO
3(s)
61. Baking soda is used : (i) in making baking
powder (ii) as a constituent of antacids and (iii)
in fire extinguishers.
62. Soda ash (anhydrous sodium carbonate) is
prepared by strongly heating baking soda.
2NaHCO
3(s)
Na
2
CO
3(s)
+H
2
O
(l)
+ CO
2(s)
63. Washing soda (hydrated sodium carbonate) is
prepared by dissolving soda ash in water and
then crystallising it.
Na
2
CO
3(s)
+ 10H
2
O
(l)
Na
2
CO
3
.10H
2
O.
64. Washing soda and soda ash is used (i) in
softening of hard water (ii) in the manufacture
of glass and dry soaps (iii) as a common
cleansing agent in the household (iv) in the
manufacture of caustic soda, boron and sodium
phosphate.
65. The fixed number of water molecules, which
are in loose combination with one molecule of a
salt, is called water of crystallisation.
66. Plaster of Paris is chemically calcium sulphate
hemihydrate [(CaSO
4
)
2
.H
2
O or CaSO
4
.
1
2
H
2
O]. It is prepared by prolonged heating
gypsum at a controlled temperature of 100C.
CaSO
4
.2H
2
O
(s)

heat
100 C
CaSO
4
.
1
2
H
2
O
(s)
+
3
2
H
2
O
(g)
67. Plaster of Paris reacts with water to give a hard
mass called gypsum.
(CaSO
4
)
2
.H
2
O
(s)
+ 3H
2
O
(l)
2CaSO
4
.
2H
2
O
(s)
68. Plaster of Paris is used : (i) for keeping
fractured bones in position (ii) in making
decorative toys and panelling ceilings (iii) in
making fire proof materials and (iv) in making
blackboard chalk.


1. The changes which take place in substances
can be broadly classified as physical changes
and chemical changes.
2. During a physical change, only the state of the
substance changes, but not its chemical
composition. Furthermore, a physical change is
a temporary change, which can be reversed by
changing the physical experimental conditions.
At the same time no net energy is absorbed or
given out.
3. During a chemical change, the state as well as
the chemical composition of a substance
changes. Furthermore, a chemical change is a
permanent change, which cannot be reversed
by changing the physical experimental
conditions. At the same time, either energy is
absorbed or given out.
4. Whenever, a chemical change occurs, the
process which takes place, is called a chemical
reaction.
5. During a chemical reaction one or more of the
following changes occur :
(i) Energy (generally in the form of heat or
light) is either absorbed or given out.
(ii) New substances are formed.
(iii) The state of the reacting substances
changes.
(iv) There may be a change in colour of the
reacting substances.
(v) The temperature of the reacting
substances changes.
(vi) A gas may be evolved during the
chemical reaction.
(vii) The substances formed during a chemical
reaction do not change back to the
original substance, when the physical
experimental conditions are altered.
6. A chemical equation which represents a
chemical reaction briefly in words is called a
word equation.
7. The substance/substances which take part in a
chemical reaction are called reactants.
Chemical Reactions and Equations
8. The new substance/substances formed as a
result of chemical reactions, are called
products.
9. A plus sign is put in between reactants or
products, if their number is two or more.
10. An arrow ( ) is put between reactants
and products. This sign is read as to yield or
to form.
11. The direction of the arrow points in the
direction in which the reaction proceeds.
12. A chemical equation is a statement that
symbols and formulae.
13.
formulae, such that the number of atoms of
different elements towards the side of the
reactants is not equal to number of atoms of
the same elements towards the side of the
products, is called a skeletal equation or an
unbalanced equation.
14. An unbalanced equation is unacceptable or is
no equation, because, it goes against the law
of conservation of mass.
15. A chemical equation in which the number of
atoms of each element are same on the side of
reactants and products, is called a balanced
chemical equation.
16. A balanced chemical equation tells us :
(i) about the substances taking part in a
chemical reaction and the products
formed.
(ii) about the symbols and formulae of the
reactants and products.
(iii) about the number of atoms or molecules
of the reactants and products involved in
the chemical reaction.
(iv) about the weights of the reactants and
products involved in the chemical
reaction.
17. A balanced chemical equation does not tell
us :
(i) the physical state of the reactants and
products.
IMPORTANT NOTES
describes a chemical reaction in terms of
A chemical equation expressed in symbols and


(ii) whether the reaction will come to
completion or not.
(iii) about the speed of the chemical reaction.
(iv) about the physical conditions which bring
about the chemical reaction.
(v) about changes, such as precipitation,
change in colour, evolution of heat, light,
etc., during the chemical reaction.
18. When one or more substances (elements or
compounds) undergo a chemical change, with
the absorption or release of energy (generally,
heat energy) so as to form one or more
products, then the change which takes place, is
called a chemical reaction.
19. Chemical composition reaction : When two
elements or compounds react chemically to
form a single new compound, the chemical
reaction which takes place is called a chemical
composition reaction or a chemical
combination reaction.
A + B AB.
20. Chemical decomposition reaction : When a
chemical compound decomposes on heating or
absorbing some other kind of energy, so as to
form two or more new substances (elements or
compounds), then the chemical reaction which
takes place is called a chemical decomposition
reaction or a chemical decombination reaction.
AB A + B
Chemical decomposition reaction can be
further classified into three types.
(a) Thermal decomposition reaction :
When a chemical compound decomposes
on heating so as to form one or more
substances (elements or compounds),
then the chemical reaction is called a
thermal decomposition reaction.
(b) Photo-decomposition reaction : When a
chemical compound decomposes on
absorbing light energy, so as to form two
or more different substances, then the
reaction which takes place is called a
photo-decomposition reaction.
(c) Electrochemical reaction : When a
chemical compound in an aqueous or
fused state decomposes into two different
substances on the passage of electric
current then the reaction is called an
electrochemical reaction.
21. Chemical displacement reaction : When a
more active element displaces a less active
element from its aqueous ionic solution, the
reaction which takes place is called a chemical
displacement reaction.
22. Metals arranged in tabular form in the order of
their decreasing chemical activity is called
metal activity series.
series in which potassium is the most active
metal and gold is the least active metal.
23. Chemical double displacement reaction :
A chemical reaction in which two ionic
compounds in their aqueous solutions, react by
new compounds is called a chemical double
displacement reaction.
A
+
B

+ C
+
D

AA
+
D

+ C
+
B

.
Chemical double displacement reaction can be
further classified into two kinds.
(a) Precipitation reaction : When aqueous
solutions of two ionic compounds react
by exchanging their ions/radicals, to form
two or more compounds, such that one of
the products formed is an insoluble salt,
and hence, forms a precipitate, the double
displacement reaction is said to be a
precipitation reaction.
(b) Neutralisation reaction : When an
aqueous solution of an acid reacts with a
base (alkali) by exchanging their ions/
radicals to form salt and water as the only
products, the reaction which takes place
is called a neutralisation reaction.
24. Exothermic reactions : A chemical reaction
which proceeds with the release (evolution) of
heat energy, is called an exothermic reaction.
25. Endothermic reaction : A chemical reaction
which proceeds with the absorption of heat
energy, is called an endothermic reaction.
26. Oxidation reaction : When a substance gains
oxygen or loses hydrogen, the reaction taking
place is called an oxidation reaction.
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Sn > Pb
> [H] > Cu > Hg > Ag > Au.
The above list constitutes the metal activity The above list constitutes the metal activity The above list constitutes the metal activity The above list constitutes the metal activity The above list constitutes the metal activity
27. Reduction reaction : When a substance gains
hydrogen or loses oxygen, the reaction taking
place is called as reduction reaction.
28. Corrosion of metals : Formation of layers of
undesired compounds, such as metallic oxides
or hydroxides on the surface of metals is called
a corrosion of metals.
29. Rusting : Slow conversion of iron into
hydrated ferric oxide, in the presence of
moisture and air is called rusting.
30. Rust : The flaky, non sticky brown powder
formed on the surface of iron, when iron is
exposed to moist air, is called rust.
31. Conditions for rusting : Iron should be
exposed to : (i) water, (ii) air, at the same time.
32. Rancidity : The oxidation of food materials,
so that they become stale and start smelling is
called rancidity.


1. Element is a substance which cannot be
further subdivided into simpler substances by
any physical or chemical means.
2. Metals are the elements (except hydrogen)
which form positively charged ions by losing
electrons from their valence shell and form
oxides which are basic in nature.
3. Non-metals are the elements which form
negatively charged ions by accepting electrons
in their valence shell and form acidic or neutral
oxides.
4. All metals have one to three electrons in their
valence shell.
5. All non-metals have four to seven electrons in
their valence shell.
6. Physical Properties of Metals
Metals generally : (i) are solids, (ii) are hard,
(iii) have lustre, (iv) have high densities,
(v) have high melting and boiling points,
(vi) are malleable, (vii) are ductile, (viii) have
high tensile strength, (ix) are good conductors
of heat and electricity, (x) are monoatomic,
(xi) and can form alloys.
7. Physical Properties of Non-metals
Non-metals generally : (i) are brittle solids or
gases, (ii) are soft, (iii) have low densities,
(iv) have no lustre, (v) have low melting and
boiling points, (vi) are not malleable, (vii) are
not ductile, (viii) have no tensile strength,
(ix) are bad conductors of heat and electricity,
(x) are polyatomic, (xi) do not form alloys.
8. Chemical Properties of Metals :
(i) Metals generally react with oxygen to
form their oxides which are basic in
nature.
(ii) Metal oxides of aluminium, zinc, lead
and tin react with alkalises as well as
acids. Such oxides are called
amphoteric oxides.
(iii) Active metals like potassium, sodium,
calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc
and iron react with water or steam to
IMPORTANT NOTES
Metals and Non-metals
form their hydroxides/oxides and
hydrogen gas.
(iv) Active metals react with dilute mineral
acids to form their respective salts and
hydrogen gas.
(v) Active metals displace less active
metals from their aqueous salt
solutions. The reaction which takes
place is called chemical displacement
reaction.
(vi) A table of metals arranged in the order
of their decreasing chemical reactivity,
is called metal reactivity series.
9. Chemical Properties of Non-metals
(i) Non-metals generally react with oxygen
to form their oxides, which are either
neutral or acidic in nature.
(ii) Neutral oxides of non-metals are CO,
NO, H
2
O and N
2
O.
(iii) Non-metals do not displace hydrogen
from water or dilute mineral acids.
(iv) Non-metals react with one another to
form covalent compounds.
(v) Non-metals react with metals to form
ionic compounds.
10. An atom or an ion having duplet or octet
configuration like noble gases is said to be in
the minimum state of energy and hence is
chemically inactive.
11. The atoms of an element can attain stable
electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas :
(i) by donating (losing) one or more electrons
from their valence shell to another atom,
(ii) by accepting (gaining) one or more electrons
in their valence shell from another atom,
(iii) by sharing electrons from their valence shell
with another atom/atoms.
12. The atom which accepts or donates electron/
electrons from its valence shell so as to acquire
a configuration of the nearest noble gas gets
electrically charged and becomes an ion.


13. The metals generally donate electrons from
their valence shell and hence form positively
charged ions. These positively charged ions
are called cations, because, they discharge at
the cathode to form neutral atoms.
14. The non-metals generally accept electrons in
their valence shell and hence form negatively
charged ions. The negatively charged ions are
called anions, because, they discharge at the
anode to form neutral atoms.
15. Characteristics of Cations :
(i) Only metals form cations, because, they
have 1 to 3 electrons in their valence
shell which they can easily donate to
acquire a stable configuration of the
nearest noble gas.
(ii) There is no change in atomic number of
an element as it forms a cation, because,
the number of protons do not change.
(iii) The atomic radii of a cation is smaller
than neutral atom, because of the
disappearance of the valence shell.
16. Characteristics of Anions :
(i) Only non-metals form anions, because,
they have 4 to 7 electrons in their
valence shell. Thus, they accept
electrons in their valence shell to acquire
a stable configuration of the nearest
noble gas.
(ii) There is no change in the atomic number
of an anion as the number of protons in it
are the same as in the neutral atom.
(iii) The atomic radii of an anion slightly
increases, because the effective pull of
the nucleus slightly decreases due to
addition of extra electron/electrons in
the valence shell.
17. Electropositive elements : The elements
which have a tendency to donate electrons
from their valence shell and become positively
charged ions (cations) are called
electropositive elements. All metals and
hydrogen are electropositive elements.
E e

E
+
from
Metal valence shell Cation
18. Electronegative elements : The elements
which have a tendency to accept electrons in
their valence shell and become negatively
charged ions (anions) are called electronegative
elements. All non-metals are electronegative
elements.
E + e

into
Non-metal valence shell Anion
19. Electrovalent bond or Ionic bond : A
chemical bond formed between two different
atoms, by the transfer of one or more electrons
from the valence shell of an electropositive or
metallic element to the valence shell of a non-
metallic element, is called an electrovalent
bond or an ionic bond.
20. Electrovalency : The number of electrons
which an atom of an element donates or accepts
in its valence shell, so as to have a stable
configuration like that of the nearest noble gas
is called electrovalency.
21. Electropositive valency : The number of
electrons which an atom of an element (metal or
hydrogen) donates from its valence shell, so as
to have a stable configuration like that of a
noble gas, is called electropositive valency.
22. Electronegative valency : The number of
electrons which an atom of an element (non-
metal) accepts in its valence shell, so as to have
a stable configuration like that of a noble gas is
called electronegative valency.
23. Electrovalent compound or Ionic compound:
The chemical compound formed as a result of
transfer of electrons from the valence shell of an
atom (metal or hydrogen) of an element to the
valence shell of an atom of another element
(non-metal) is called electrovalent compound
or ionic compound.
24. Properties of Electrovalent (ionic)
Compounds :
(i) They are generally hard and crystalline
solids.
(ii) They are generally non-volatile and
hence have high melting and boiling
points.
(iii) They are good conductors of electricity
in the fused state.
(iv) They are generally soluble in water and
their aqueous solutions are good
conductors of electricity.
(v) The chemical reaction between the
aqueous solutions of ionic compounds is
very fast.


25. Metallurgy encompasses various processes in
the extraction of a metal from its ore and then
refining the metal including study of its
properties and uses.
26. Gangue or Matrix are the unwanted
impurities, such as sand, stones, mud,
limestone, mica, etc. associated with the
naturally occurring ore.
27. Dressing of ore involves processes, (such as
hand picking, grinding and crushing and
pulverizing) which give an ore such a physical
form, so that gangue can be easily removed
from the ore.
28. Concentration of ore involves processes,
which help in the removal of gangue from the
dressed ore, thereby increasing the
concentration of the metal in the ore.
29. Electromagnetic separation is the
concentration process followed for the dressed
ore, if
(i) the ore is magnetic in nature.
(ii) ore contains magnetic impurities (such
as Fe
2
O
3
).
30. Gravity process or Hydraulic washing
method of concentration is followed for such
dressed ores which have metallic ores of high
density as compared to the density of gangue. It
is not followed in case of sulphide ores.
31. Froth floatation process for the concentration
is followed for sulphide ores only. In this
process, the sulphide ore is immersed in a
mixture of pine oil and water and then strongly
agitated with compressed air. The sulphide ore
rises up along with the froth produced by the
oil, but the gangue sinks to the bottom.
32. Chemical method for the concentration of
ore is followed for such ores (ore of
aluminium), in which density of the ore and the
gangue is almost same.
33. Calcination is the process of heating the
concentrated ore in the absence of air, such that
it decomposes to form its metallic oxide.
Following are the objectives achieved during
calcination:
(i) removes moisture from the ore
(ii) makes the ore porous
(iii) expels the volatile impurities
(iv) decomposes carbonate ores to oxide
ores.
34. Roasting is the process of heating the
concentrated ore (only sulphide ores) in the
presence of excess of air, such that it changes
to the oxide ore.
Following are the objectives achieved during
roasting :
(i) removes moisture from the ore
(ii) makes the ore porous
(iii) expels the volatile impurities
(iv) oxidises sulphide ores to oxide ores.
35. Smelting or reduction of ore is the process of
conversion of the metal oxide ore into metal,
by reducing it with a suitable reducing agent.
The reducing agents commonly used are coke,
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. For reducing
ores of highly active metals, electrolytic
reduction is employed.
36. Refining of metals is done by a number of
methods. However, the best method is
electrolytic method. In this method the pure
metal is made the cathode, and the impure
metal is made the anode. The cathode and the
anode are immersed in the aqueous solution of
metal. On the passage of electric current, the
pure metal from the anode is transferred to the
cathode.
37. Thermite mixture consists of three parts of
ferric oxide and one part of powdered
aluminium. It is commonly employed in spot
welding, such as broken railway lines.
38. Alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or
more metals, obtained by melting them
together.
39. (a) Major alloys of aluminium are
(i) Duralumin or Dural
[A1 = 95%; Cu = 4%; Mn = 0.5%;
Mg = 5%]
(ii) Magnalium [Al = 95%; Mg = 5%]
(b) Major alloys of iron are
(i) Stainless steel
[Fe = 73% 80%; C = 1.0%; Cr = 18%;
Ni = 1%]
(ii) Manganese steel
[Fe = 83% 84%; Mn = 15%; C =
1% 1.5%]

(iii) Tungsten steel
[Fe = 79% 85%; W = 10% 20%;
C = 1%] and
(iv) Alnico
[Fe = 60%; Al = 12%; Ni = 20%,
Co = 5%]
(c) Major alloys of copper are :
(i) Aluminium bronze [Cu = 90%; Al =
10%]
(ii) Brass [Cu = 60% 80%; Zn = 20%
40%]
(iii) Bronze [Cu = 80%; Zn = 10%; Sn =
10%]
(iv) Gun metal [Cu = 88%; Sn 10%; Zn
= 1% 2%] and
(v) German silver
[Cu = 30% 60%; Zn = 25% 35%;
Ni = 15% 35%].
40. Gold is alloyed with metals like copper, silver,
cadmium, so as to make it hard and workable at
low temperature.
41. Purity of gold is measured in carats. 100% pure
gold is 24 carat, while 1 carat = 4.1666 g per
100 g of alloy.
42. Corrosion of metals is the formation of
layers of undesirable compounds on the
surface of metals due to the action of moist
air containing impurities.
43. Corrosion of metal take place only, if the
surface of metal comes in direct contact with
moist air for prolonged time.
44. Rusting : The slow conversion of iron into
hydrated ferric oxide in the presence of moist
air is called rusting.
45. Rust is a flaky, non-sticky brown powder
formed on the surface of iron, when the iron
is exposed to moist air.
46. Factors which promote rusting : In
addition to moist air : (i) the presence of salts
such as sodium chloride, (ii) presence of
more active metals than iron and the
presence of pollutants such as NO
2
; SO
2
;
CO
2
in air, promote rusting.
47. Rusting can be prevented by coating the
metal surface with (i) red lead (ii) paints
(iii) enamel (iv) oil or grease (v) plastic
coating (vi) galvanising (vii) tinning
(viii) electroplating with nickel or chromium
(ix) converting iron into stainless steel.


1. Stimulus is defined as any change in the external
or internal environment of an organism which
brings about a response from it.
2. The working together of the various organs in
a systematic manner is called coordination.
3. Chemical coordination in both plants and
animals is responsible for growth and
development.
4. The plant movement which is dependent on
growth, is called tropic movement or tropism.
5. The type of movement which is independent of
growth is called nastic movement.
6. The plants use electro-chemical means to convey
the information from cell to cell.
7. In plants, there is no specialised tissue for the
conduction of information, unlike animals.
8. Movement of a plant or its parts due to light is
called phototropism.
9. Movement of a plant or its parts due to water is
called hydrotropism.
10. Movement of a plant or its parts due to gravity
is called geotropism.
11. Certain chemical substances in plants necessary
for growth are plant hormones also called
phytohormones.
12. Some of the hormones stimulate plant growth
while others act as growth inhibitors. For this
reason, plant hormones are often referred to as
growth regulators.
13. Five main groups of growth regulators are auxin,
gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene and abscisic acid.
auxin stimulates cell elongation and growth.
gibberellin stimulates growth and flowering.
cytokinin stimulates cell division and
chlorophyll retention.
abscisic acid is a growth inhibitor and brings
about fall in leaves and fruits.
14. The coordinated activity of an organism depends
on the continuous input of information for the
internal and external environment.
15. Animals possess a number of sense organs to
perceive different sensations.
16. The functional junction between nerves is called
synapse.
17. In animal, the nervous system controls and
coordinates various functions in the body.
18. NERVES
Sensory Nerves (carry messages from the
sense organs to the brain)
Motor nerves (carry messages from the
brain to the effector organs like muscles/
glands)
Mixed Nerves (function as both sensory
and motor nerves)
19. Brain is the ultimate coordinator of the body.
The three parts of the brain are:
(a) Fore-brain mainly consists of cerebrum, the
largest and the specialised portion of the
brain. It is further divided into four parts:
(i) frontal lobe controlling muscular
activities.
(ii) parietal lobe controlling touch, smell,
etc.
(iii) temporal lobe controlling hearing.
(iv) occipital lobe controlling vision.
(b) Mid-brain controls a few motor activities.
(c) The hind-brain is in turn made of
(i) cerebellum, deals with coordination of
postures.
(ii) pons varolii, controlling respiration
and its regulation.
(iii) medulla oblongata regulates reflexes
like swallowing, coughing, etc.
20. The brain being an extremely delicate organ is
well protected by the cranium or the brain box,
three coverings called meninges and a fluid in
between the meninges called the cerebrospinal
fluid.
21. The functional unit of the nervous system is the
neuron, whose structure can be detailed as
follows :
IMPORTANT NOTES
Control and Coordination


22. Reflex actions are unconscious or involuntary
responses of the effector organs to a stimulus,
which is monitored through the spinal cord. The
route thus taken by the impulse (i.e., from the
receptor organs to the spinal cord) and the
response thereof (i.e., from the spinal cord to
the effector organs) is known as the reflex arc.
Sneezing, coughing, withdrawal of the hand
upon touching a hot object are examples of
reflex action.
23. Hormones are chemical substances secreted in
trace amounts by endocrine glands and are the
means of information transmission.
24. The hormones in animals show following
characteristic features:
(i) They are synthesised by endocrine glands.
(ii) They are produced at a place other than the
site of action. They travel through blood to
other parts where they cause changes.
(iii) They are secreted directly into the blood
stream.
(iv) They act on specific tissues or organs. The
tissues or organs that respond to the
hormones are called as target organs. For
example, the target organs for the hormone
adrenaline includes the heart.
(v) They are secreted in response to changes in
the external or the internal environment of
the body and are also called chemical
messengers.
(vi) They may stimulate or inhibit the activity
of the target organ, thus regulating its
activity.
(vii) They are effective in minute quantities,
often in trace amounts which are difficult
to detect at times.
(viii) Excess or deficiency of a hormone may
lead to serious consequences.
25. The chemical messengers of our body are the
hormones produced by the endocrine system.
Hormones are carried by the blood to their target
organs where they bring about appropriate
actions.
26. The master endocrine gland of the body is the
pituitary gland also known as the hypophysis.
Hypophysis is in turn under the control of
hypothalamusa part of the brain located at
the base of cerebrum.
27. Endocrine glands, their hormones and functions
Endocrine glands Hormones Functions
Hypothalamus Releasing hormones Regulation of the secretion of hormones from pituitary
glands.
Pituitary (i) Growth hormones Development of bones and muscles.
(hypophysis) (ii) Trophic hormones Regulation of the secretion of hormones from
endocrine gland like adrenal, thyroid, testes and ovary.
(iii) Prolactin Regulation of function of mammary glands.
(iv) Vasopressin Regulation of water and electrolyte balance.
(v) Oxytocin Regulation of the ejection of milk during lactation.
Thyroid Thyroxin Regulation of metabolism of carbohydrate, fat and
protein.
Endocrine glands Hormones Functions
Parathyroid Calcitonin Regulation of blood calcium and phosphate.
Adrenal Adrenaline and Regulation of blood pressure, heart rate, carbohydrate
Corticoids metabolism and mineral balance.
Pancreas (i) Insulin, Lowering of blood glucose.
(ii) Glucagon Increase of blood glucose.
Testes Testosterone Regulation of male accessory sex organs and secondary
sexual characters like moustache, and voice.
Ovary (i) Estrogen Regulation of female accessary sex organs and
(ii) Progesterone secondary sexual characters like mammary gland, hair
pattern and voice.
Maintenance of pregnancy.


1. Every living organism has a need of nutrition as
it is through nutrition that one obtains energy.
2. The process of intake and utilisation of nutrients
(i.e. substances that either release energy or
help in the manufacture of biomolecules) is
known as nutrition.
3. Green plants are autotrophs as they synthesise
their own food using sunlight, chlorophyll,
carbon dioxide and water.
4. Photosynthetic equation
6CO
2
+ 12H
2
O
sunlight
chlorophyll
C
6
H
12
O
6
+
6H
2
O + 6O
2
5. Chlorophyll is a light receiver which can trap
solar energy within its molecule.
6. The site of chlorophyll activity is the special
plant cell organelles called chloroplasts.
7. In humans the alimentary canal is basically a
long tube extending from the mouth to the anus.
When we eat something we like, our mouth
waters. This watery fluid is called saliva
secreted by the salivary glands.
8. The gastric glands present in the stomach wall
of human, release hydrochloric acid, pepsin and
mucus.
9. Tooth decay or dental carries causes gradual
softening of enamel and dentine. Brushing the
teeth after eating removes the dental plaque.
10. Factors that affect photosynthesis are (i) Light,
(ii) Temperature, (iii) Water, and (iv) Carbon
dioxide.
11. Animal nutrition shows a very wide range.
Unicellular organisms like Amoeba obtain food
by the process of phagocytosis. The human
digestive system climaxes the evolutionary
development of the digestive system with
numerous glands, digestive juices and organs
working together. The various steps of nutrition
are ingestion, digestion, absorption and
assimilation.
12. The energy-rich molecule in which energy is
first captured is adenosine triphosphate or ATP.
IMPORTANT NOTES
Life Processes
13. Breathing is a physical process which involves
inhalation and exhalation.
14. Respiration is a biochemical process which
includes breathing and oxidation of food.
15. Respiration in the presence of oxygen is known
as aerobic respiration.
16. Respiration that occurs in absence of oxygen is
known as anaerobic respiration.
17. During aerobic respiration, food (glucose) is
completely broken down into carbon dioxide
and oxygen and energy is released in the form
of ATP.
18. Aerobic respiration occurs in higher organisms
including human being.
19. Anaerobic respiration occurs in certain bacteria,
yeast and also in our muscles.
20. The muscles of vertebrate animals can continue
working for a minute or two without oxygen.
21. Micro-organisms such as yeast and certain
bacteria obtain their energy by anaerobic
respiration which is termed fermentation.
22. Common type of fermentation is alcoholic
fermentation which is performed by yeast.
23. Direct respiration is seen in unicellular organisms
like Amoeba, Paramecium, bacteria and
Chlamydomonas.
24. Diffusion is defined as the movement of a
substance from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration.
25. Rate of respiration in plants is much slower than
in animals.
26. In higher plants, the exchange of gases occurs
through stomata and lenticels.
27. Organs of respiration in animals are skin,
trachea, gills, lungs, etc.
28. Thin-walled air sacs called alveoli are present
in lungs.
29. The blood contains a pigment, haemoglobin,
which helps in the transport of carbon dioxide
and oxygen.


30. In human beings, four basic processes are
involved in respirationbreathing, gaseous
transport, tissue respiration and cellular
respiration.
31. In the thoracic cavity, the lungs are bound by a
convex muscular and elastic sheet called
diaphragm.
32. Diffusion is a major method by which
transportation of material occurs in single celled
organisms like bacteria.
33. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a
region of higher concentration to that of lower
concentration resulting in their uniform
distribution.
34. The entire surface of the root is not associated
with absorption of water and nutrients.
35. Only 1% to 2% of the total water absorbed by
the roots, is used up in photosynthesis and
metabolic activities.
36. The main process involved in the upward
conduction of water and minerals is called
transpiration.
37. Through transpiration pull, movement of water
and minerals take place.
38. The transportation of food from the leaves to
other plant parts is termed translocation.
39. In case of plants, xylem is made of tracheids
and vessels. Both are thick walled with
perforations in their cell wall.
40. Water and mineral salts are absorbed by root
hair and are transported in the plant by xylem
vessels which are long interconnected tubes.
41. Transpirational pull works as a suction force
for the upward movement of the sap.
42. Long distance transportation of food material
from the leaves to the other parts of the plant is
known as translocation.
43. Phloem is the living tissue that translocates
prepared food in aqueous solution. Phloem is
made of living cells called sieve tubes.
44. In human beings the main transporter is the
blood which flows in blood vessels and is
pumped by the heart.
45. Blood Vessels
Arteries Veins Capillaries
(carry blood away (carry blood (Interconnectors
from the heart) towards the between arterioles
heart) and veinules)
46. Blood Vessels
Plasma Red blood White blood Platelets
cells cells
47. Lymph: Lymph is also known as tissue fluid. It
is another type of fluid involved in
transportation. It is colourless and contains less
protein. Some amount of plasma, proteins and
blood-cells escape into intercellular spaces in
the tissues in the form of lymph. It drains into
lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular
spaces. It drains excess fluid from the extra
cellular space back into the blood. Lymph
carries digested as well as absorbed fat from the
intestine.
48. The pathway indicating the flow of blood within
the human heart.
The right half of the heart always has
deoxygenated blood while the left half has only
oxygenated blood.
49. As the blood flows, a part of it gets filtered out
of the capillary walls. This forms the lymph.
Lymph carries digested fats.
returns proteins and other fluids for
circulation.
lymphocytes contribute towards
immunity.
50. The waste products in animals include carbon
dioxide, nitrogenous compounds like ammonia,
urea and uric acid, bile pigments from the
breakdown of haemoglobin, excess salts and
vitamins.
51. The most poisonous of all waste by-products of
metabolism is ammonia.
52. The kidneys extract urea from the blood and
excrete it from the body as part of a liquid called
urine.
53. Excretion of waste products is very simple and
much less in plants as compared to animals.
54. Excretory system of human, mainly consists of
a pair of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
urethra, etc.
55. Excretory organs in animals are lungs, skin,
kidneys and liver.
56. An artificial kidney machine works on the
principle of dialysis.
57. Dialysis is a process of separating small
molecules from larger ones using a semi-
permeable membrane.
58. Bowmans capsule is a cup shaped body
enclosing glomerulus part of a nephron.
59. Glomerulus is a network of finely divided blood
capillaries enclosed in Bowmans capsule.
60. Structural and functional unit of kidney is
nephron.
The parts of a nephron are (a) a tuft of capillaries
called glomerulus, (b) Bowmans capsule, (c)
extended tubular system and a collecting duct.
61. Carbon dioxide produced during respiration is
carried by (i) haemoglobin in the blood and, (ii)
water in which it gets dissolved.
62. The kidneys perform two major functions(i)
help to remove toxic wastes like urea from the
blood and thereby clean the blood, (ii) control
water balance and levels of mineral salts in the
body.
63. The filtration of blood for the removal of wastes
can be done by an artificial kidney, in cases of
renal failure. Such a system is called Dialysis.

Model Test Paper Model Test Paper Model Test Paper Model Test Paper
[For Summative Assessment-1 (Term - I)]

(Question numbers 1 to 10 are of 1 mark each.)
1. The decimal expansion of
21
45
is :
(a) terminating (b) non-terminating and repeating
(c) non-terminating and non-repeating (d) none of these
2. The zero of the polynomial px + q is :
(a) q (b)
q
p

(c)
p
q

(d)
q
p

3. If the system of linear equations
1 1 1
0 a x b y c + + = and
2 2 2
0 a x b y c + + = are inconsistent then :
(a)
1 1
2 2
a b
a b
(b)
1 1 1
2 2 2
a b c
a b c
= = (c)
1 1 1
2 2 2
a b c
a b c
= (d) N.O.T
4. The areas of two similar triangles are 169 cm
2
and 121 cm
2
. If the longest side of the larger triangle
is 26 cm, then the longest side of the other triangle is :
(a) 12 cm (b) 14 cm (c) 19 cm (d) 22 cm
5.
( )
2 2
1 cos cos A ec A is equal to :
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) not defined
6. If
1
cos ,
2
= then the value of
2
2sec
1 tan

+
is :
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) not defined
7. The value of
0 0
sin 39 cos 51 is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) none of these
8. The graphical representation of a cumulative frequency distribution is called :
(a) bar graph (b) histogram (c) ogive (d) frequency polygon
9. In DEF
2 2 2
DE DF EF = + then :
(a) E = 90 (b) F = 90 (c) D = 90 (d) none of these
10. In the figure, line XY divides the ABC into two parts of equal areas such that XY || AC, then
BX
AB
is :
(a) 1: 2 (b) 2 : 1

(c) 2 :1 (d) 1: 2


Section-A

(Question numbers
11. Write whether the square of any positive integer can be of the form
number. Justify your answer.
12. If and are the zeroes of a quadratic
13. A number consists of two digits .When it is divided by the sum of its digit, the quotient is 6 with no
remainder. When the number is diminished by 9 ,
14. In ABC, D and E are points on the sides AB and AC respectively. If AB =
AE = 12 cm and AC = 18
15. Prove that
4 2 4 2
cos A cos A sin A sin A
16. Prove that
0 0 0 0
sin17 cos 73 cos17 sin 73 1
17. Find the sum of the deviations of the variate values
18. Find the value of x, if the mode of the following data is
25, 20, x, 18.
19. Prove that if x and y are odd positive integers, then
20. Two brands of chocolates are available in packs of 24 and 15 respectively. If I need to buy an equal
number of chocolates of both kinds, what is the least number of boxes of each kind I would need to
buy.
Prove that the 11 is irra
21. If and are the zeroes of the polynomials
2 2
21
4
+ + = , then find the value of k for this to be possible
22. Solve
2 2 1 3 2
, 0
3 6 x y x y
+ = + =
23. If A be the area of a right triangle and a one of the sides containing the right angle, prove that the
length of the altitude on the hypotenuse is





Question numbers 11 to 18 carry 2 marks each.)
Write whether the square of any positive integer can be of the form 3m +
number. Justify your answer.
are the zeroes of a quadratic polynomial
2
2 3 x x + ,then find value of
A number consists of two digits .When it is divided by the sum of its digit, the quotient is 6 with no
remainder. When the number is diminished by 9 , the digits are reversed. Find the number
ABC, D and E are points on the sides AB and AC respectively. If AB =
18 cm, then show that DE || BC.
4 2 4 2
cos A cos A sin A sin A = .
0 0 0 0
sin17 cos 73 cos17 sin 73 1 + =
Find the sum of the deviations of the variate values 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 14 from their mean.
Find the value of x, if the mode of the following data is 25. 15, 20, 25, 18, 14, 15, 25, 15, 18, 16, 20,


(Question numbers 19 to 28 carry 3 marks each.
Prove that if x and y are odd positive integers, then
2 2
x y + is even but not divisible
Two brands of chocolates are available in packs of 24 and 15 respectively. If I need to buy an equal
number of chocolates of both kinds, what is the least number of boxes of each kind I would need to
OR
is irrational number.
are the zeroes of the polynomials
2
2 5 x k x + + satisfying the relation
, then find the value of k for this to be possible.
2 2 1 3 2
, 0
x y x y
+ = + = and hence find a for which y = ax 4.
If A be the area of a right triangle and a one of the sides containing the right angle, prove that the
length of the altitude on the hypotenuse is
4 2
2
.
4
Aa
a A +

Section-B
Section-C

m + 2, where m is a natural
then find value of
4 4
+ .
A number consists of two digits .When it is divided by the sum of its digit, the quotient is 6 with no
the digits are reversed. Find the number
ABC, D and E are points on the sides AB and AC respectively. If AB = 12 cm,AD = 8 cm,
from their mean.
25. 15, 20, 25, 18, 14, 15, 25, 15, 18, 16, 20,
marks each.)
is even but not divisible by 4.
Two brands of chocolates are available in packs of 24 and 15 respectively. If I need to buy an equal
number of chocolates of both kinds, what is the least number of boxes of each kind I would need to
satisfying the relation
If A be the area of a right triangle and a one of the sides containing the right angle, prove that the

24. Prove that
sec 1 sec 1
2cos
sec 1 sec 1
ec

+
+ =
+
.
OR
Prove that
cos 1 sin
2sec
1 sin cos
A A
A
A A
+
+ =
+

25. Prove that
( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0 0
sin cos 90 cos cos sin 90 sin
1
sin 90 cos 90



+ =


26. If
3
tan ,
4
= find the value of
1 cos
1 cos

+
.

27. Find the mean of the following distribution :
x : 4 6 9 10 15
y : 5 10 10 7 8


28. Draw the less than ogive for the following frequency distribution :
Marks : 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
Number of
students :
7 10 23 51 6 3




(Question numbers 29 to 34 carry 4 marks each.)
29. Given that 5 x is a factor of the cubic polynomial
3 2 3 3
5 13 5 x x x + find all the zeroes of
the polynomial.

30. Let a, b, c, d, be positive rationals such that a b c d + = + , then show that either
( ) ( ) a c and b d = = or b and d are squares of rationals.
31. In a two digit number, the tens digit is three times the units digit. When the number
is decreased by 54, the digits are reversed. Find the number.

Or
Solve :
x y
a b
a b
+ = + ,
2 2
2
x y
a b
+ =
32. If cos sin 2 cos + = shows that cos sin 2 sin =
Or
If cos sin x y a = and sin cos x y b + = prove that
2 2 2 2
x y a b + = +
Section-D

33. Prove that if a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle intersecting the oher two sides,then it
devides the two sides in the same ratio.

34. Calculate the median from the following distribution:

Class: 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45
Frequency: 5 6 15 10 5 4 2 2

Model Test Paper
[For Summative Assessment-1 (Term -
I)]


1. Give an example of a displacement reaction in which a gas is
evolved. [1]
2. What is the meaning of the term tensile? [1]
3. If 12J of work is done in moving 2 coulombs of electric charge
through a conductor, what is the potential difference at the ends
of the conductor? [1]
4. How is biomass used as fuel? [1]
5. (i) Name the products formed when sodium hydrogen
carbonate is heated.
(ii) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved. [2]
6. Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the
following reactions : [2]
(i) Solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water
react to give insoluble barium sulphate and solution of sodium
chloride.
(ii) Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with
hydrochloric acid solution (in water) to produce sodium
chloride solution and water.
7. Why are all alkalis bases, but not all bases alkalis? [2]
8. Enumerate any two functions of the gastric HCl. [2]
9. Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances
that are reduced in the following reactions. [2]
(i) 4Na(s) + O
2
(g) 2Na
2
O(s)
(ii) CuO(s) + H
2
(g) Cu(s) + H
2
O(l).
10. (a) What is the potential of the Earth?
(b) By drawing a diagram show the movement of electrons when
a positively charged sphere is connected to the Earth. [2]
11. An electric iron draws a current of 0.5 A, when the voltage is
200 V. Calculate the amount of electric charge flowing through
it, in one hour. [2]
12. (i) What is the nature of electric current produced in the coil
of any electric generator?
(ii) Draw a diagram to represent the current named by you. [2]
13. Explain why fossil fuels are classified as non-renewable
source of energy. [2]
14. Write the name and formula of one salt which contains: [3]
(i) Two molecules of water of crystallisation
(ii) Seven molecules of water of crystallisation.
(iii) Ten molecules of water of crystallisation.
15. What will you observe when a spoonful of black copper
oxide is placed in a beaker containing warm and dilute
sulphuric acid? Write a balanced equation in support of your
answer and state the nature of copper (II) oxide in this reaction.
[3]
16. What are plant hormones? [3]
17. A sodium salt is placed in a dry test tube. To this salt is
added 5 ml of hydrochloric acid when a lot of effervescence
takes place with the liberations of a colourless gas. The gas on
passing through a colourless solution, turns it milky. Answer the
following questions. [3]
(i) Which gas is produced during the chemical reaction?
(ii) What is the colourless solution and why does it turn milky?
(iii) Why is effervesence produced during the chemical reaction?
18. How does control and coordination take place in plants? [3]
19. Give three characteristics of fuels that determine their
quality. [3]
20. Name an instrument used for measuring electric potential
difference by drawing a diagram, Show how this instrument is
connected in an electric circuit. Why does this instrument
practically not consume any electric energy from the electric
circuit? [3
21. Give three properties of magnetic field around a straight
conductor carrying current. [3]
22. The overall resistance of the circuit diagram given below is
0.5 W. Calculate the value of the resistance r3. [3]

23. What is galvanised iron? How is iron galvanised? What is
the advantage of galvanised iron? How does galvanised iron get
its name? State its two uses. [5]
OR
(a) What method of concentration of ore is preferred in each of
the following cases and why? [5]
(i) The ore has higher density particles interspersed with a large
bulk of low density impurities.
Section-A
(ii) The ore consists of copper sulphide intermixed with clay
particles.
(b) Give an example of an amalgam.
24. (a) What is a magnetic field ? How can the direction of
magnetic field lines at a place be determined? [5]
(b) State the rule for the direction of the magnetic field produced
around a current carrying conductor. Draw a sketch of the
pattern of field lines due to a current flowing through a straight
conductor.
OR
(a) What is a solenoid? Draw a sketch of the pattern of field
lines of the magnetic field through and around a current
carrying solenoid. [5]
(b) Consider a circular loop of wire lying in the plane of the
table. Let the current pass through the loop clockwise. Apply the
right hand rule to find out the direction of the magnetic field
inside and outside the loop.
25. How does an artificial kidney or a dialysis machine work?
[5]
OR
Give stepwise detail of the working of human kidneys leading to
the formation of urine. [5]


26. The lowest pH is associated with:
(a) 0.01 m H
2
SO
4
(b) 0.01 m HNO
3
(c) 0.01 m HCl (d) 0.01 m
NaOH
27. Red litmus when dipped in hydrogen chloride gas turns:
(a) red (b) blue (c) yellow (d) green
28. A gas that turns blue litmus red and does not support
combustion is :
(a) CO2 (b) CO (c) Cl2 (d) H2
29. Stomata are guarded by :
(a) palisade cells (b) guard cells (c) mesophyll cells (d) sieve
cells
30. Main function of leaves is :
(a) transpiration (b) photosynthesis (c) respiration (d) both (a)
and (b)
31. Plants undergo respiration in :
(a) dark (b) light (c) both in dark and light (d) only in the
morning
32. The reaction between iron nails and copper sulphate solution
is :
(a) a chemical combination reaction
(b) a chemical decomposition reaction
(c) a chemical displacement reaction
(d) a chemical double decomposition reactions
33. Key used in electric circuits should be kept off to :
(a) avoid heating of the resistor
(b) avoid resistance variation
(c) avoid breakdown of the circuit
(d) all of these
34. A current of 2A flows through a conductor whose ends are at
a p.d of 4V. The resistance of the conductor is :
(a) 9 W (b) 0.5 W (c) 6 W (d) 2 W
35. What do you observe when water is poured over quicklime?
(a) Quicklime crumbles to form a white powdery mass
(b) Steamy fumes are given off.
(c) The reaction mixture becomes hot.
(d) All of these
36. The equivalent resistance of the circuit diagram below is 18
W. The resistance of D is :
(a) 5 W (b) 7 W (c) 12 W (d) 9 W
37. The equivalent resistance when two equal resistors are
connected in parallel is :

(a) R (b) 2 R (c) R/2 (d) 3R/2
38. If two resistors 2W and 1W are connected in parallel, the
equivalent will be :
(a) equal to 1 W (b) less than 1 W
(c) less than 2 W (d) greater than 2 W
39. In angiosperms, stomata usually do not open at :
(a) noon (b) 11 AM
(c) mid-night (d) 3 PM
40. During photosynthesis sunlight is trapped by :
(a) heomocynin (b) chlorophyll
(c) carotenoid (d) stomata
41. Higher respiration is evident in :
(a) buds
(b) root and shoot tips
(c) germinating seeds
(d) all of these
Section-B