River Features V-Shaped Valley and Interlocking Spurs V-Shaped valleys are large, steep land formations which

are enclose either side of a river and are V in shape on a valley cross-profile. They are formed in the prior stages of the upper course river where the river has not yet enough energy for lateral erosion but succeeds in vertical erosion. The valley walls are composed of mud and rock with mass vegetation upon them. Interlocking spurs are extended areas of the valley sides which interweave, resulting in the river curving around them. They are a result of rock in the valley that is resistant against vertical erosion which subsequently forces the river to find a path of less resilience down the mountainside. Waterfalls and Gorges Waterfalls are a vertical drop in a rivers path which results in a cascade of constant flowing water. They can vary in size from being a couple of metres high to hundreds of metres high. They are mainly found in the upper course of a river; where the channel is often narrow and its path is significantly steep. They are formed where the flow of water encounters resistant rock which means vertical erosion is practically non-existent. Therefore, in the next area of soft rock the river encounters, vertical erosion occurs more rapidly which results in a vertical drop in the altitude of the channel. Hence, a waterfall is formed. Over 1000s of years, however, the flow of a river may eventually carve a path through the hard rock, creating a narrow, but steep, crevice in the rock. This is known as a gorge. Meanders and Oxbow Lakes A meander is simply a turn or bend in a rivers course. They are U, or horseshoe, in shape and vary from a wide gradual bend to a thin tight turn. They also vary in size, becoming larger as the river channel widens and develops downstream. Meanders are usually found next to flood plains and levees. They form as the river flows faster on the outside of a small bend than on the inside. This results, over time, in lateral

erosion of the outside bank and deposition of sediment on the inside bank, forming a tighter and tighter turn of the river channel. Erosion continues until both sides of the meander meet and form what is called an Oxbow Lake. Oxbow lakes occur when erosion in a meander causes each side to meet and then detach from the main river, forming a crescentshaped still-water lake to the side of the rivers path, where a meander once was. Flood Plains and Levees Flood plains are large expanses of green areas that occur on either side of a river, more commonly in the lower course. They are commonly composed of layers of porous rock and soil which allow the infiltration of water. These areas, as the name suggests, are the first expanses of land that are underwater when excessive water enters a river and it floods. They purposefully increase the lag time of a flooded river which in theory prevents flooding in different areas. They act as a temporary store for excess water in the river where said water slowly infiltrates and percolates before flowing back into the main channel once the river discharge decreases. Levees are either naturally or artificial steep angled ridges at either side of a river, between the channel and the floodplain. They act as a barrier against potential flooding by widening and heightening the main river channel so excess water can be accommodated. They form when a river floods and deposits sediment at the tops of the natural banks of the channel; or are man-made from concrete. Incised Meanders and River Terraces

Incised meanders and river terraces are the result of a process called rejuvenation. Rejuvenation is where the sea level in an area decreases which subsequently has an effect on any adjoining rivers. If the sea level falls, land emerges from where sea once was and therefore steepens the river gradient, lending more power to the erosional attributes of the river. Incised meanders are an effect of rejuvenation where the sea level falls. The increased erosional power results in large and relatively rapid vertical erosion of the channel. They most

commonly occur in areas of soft rock where the rock is more easily eroded and deep, wide crevices can be produced. They are still the typical horseshoe model of a standard meander. River terraces are areas of flat land which lie above and to the side of flood plains. They are what used to be the natural flood plains of the river until rejuvenation, where the sea level has fallen, has resulted in vertical erosion of the river channel.

Knickpoints A knickpoint is a term that describes any location in a river that features a steep change in channel gradient which has come about due to differing rates of erosion above and below the knickpoint. It also is a product of rejuvenation due to the increased erosive power of a steeper river gradient. Its shape is most commonly in the form of a waterfall or lake where cascading water has eroded the bottom of the knickpoint faster than the top, or vice versa. The size varies on how long the erosion has been taking place; the knickpoint could be a few metres tall/wide to a few hundred metres tall/wide. They are found throughout the river where this erosive action has taken place.