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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.

0 Introduction
The world today is experiencing an unprecedented increase in the number of young people. Of an estimated 1.2 billion young people in the world, 85% live in developing countries. Sub-Saharan Africa has one of the worlds youngest populations. At the beginning of the 21st century, about one out of every four persons in sub-Saharan Africa was 10-19 years old (United Nations, 1999). This is the largest group of young people ever in the region to enter adulthood (Tetteh, 2001). In Nigeria, children aged 0-15 years accounts for 40-45% of Nigerias total population, which was 107 million in 1997. About 56% of the populations are under 20 years of age whilst about 30% (28.7%) are aged between 10 and 24 years (Nigerian Census, 1991). This largest group is generally referred to as the adolescents.

Adolescence is generally understood as the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. It describes both the development to sexual maturity, and to psychological and relative economic independence. Adolescents are generally thought to be healthy, yet many of them die prematurely. By the second decade of life, they have survived the diseases of early childhood, and health problems associated with ageing are still many years away. Every year, an estimated one million young men and women between the ages 10-19 years lose their lives mostly through accidents, suicides, violence, pregnancy related complications and illnesses that are either preventable or treatable (WHO/FRH/ADH; 1998). The four major causes of death amongst adolescents are road traffic accidents, suicide, tobacco use, and sexual and reproductive health disorders (Tetteh, 2001).

However, one major cause of death for young people this study would be focusing on is sexual and reproductive health problems in the society.

The onset of sexual activity has become progressively earlier, and at least half of young people survey in nine sub-Saharan African countries have had sex before 18 years of age, and yet adolescents knowledge on reproductive function about sexuality is generally very poor (Population Reference Bureau, 2001). In our constantly developing society, it is not surprising to note that adolescents' sexual attitudes and behaviours have greatly changed within the past two decades. It is not uncommon to find teenagers of about eight years or even less involved in early sexual activity. And worse still is that early sexual activity among teens is no longer frowned at, instead it is seen as normal and from all indications all aspects that relates with moral and virginity at marriage have been thrown to the winds. Today, the cultural regulations regarding premarital sex are no longer adhered to; the ideal virginity marriage or virginity at marriage no longer exists. Renne (1993) has observed that not only is virginity at marriage no longer perceived as socially desirable in southwestern Nigeria, but it is now perceived as socially backward, antisocial or even associated with infertility related diseases such as gonorrhea and epilepsy. In Nigeria, premarital sexual experimentation was culturally prohibited in most Nigerian societies although the sanctions had always been less for the males than the females. Adults supervised the sexual lives of the young ones until they are married. The result of the cultural sanctions and codes against premarital sex was that the sexual urge of the young was not given opportunity for expression (Owuamanam, 1995).

Current research worldwide indicates that fifty-three percent of females between the ages of 12 and 19 are sexually experienced. Teenagers at the end of the 1980s were more likely to be sexually active than teenagers at the beginning of the decade despite the advent of programs to encourage sexual abstinence during this same time period. Darling, Kallen & VanDusen (1984), in their study of college students, found a major increase in the number of young people reporting to have had early sexual intercourse. These findings of increased promiscuity among adolescents inevitably evoke a strong sense of curiosity and raise the question: which factors have been the most influential in regards to increased teenage promiscuity? Today, not only are there more youths who are sexually active but research shows that the majority of them do not use contraceptives on a regular basis (Chng, 1983).

The reasons behind adolescents engaging in sexual intercourse so early in life are extensive and yet it becomes increasingly evident that cultural changes within our society have played the single most influential role in this area. Society's attitudes towards sex have dramatically changed in the past two decades and this has directly influenced sexual activity not only among our youths but throughout all of society as well. Today, sex is exploited throughout the media in an attempt to increase business revenue. The increasing number of dual income families is directly proportionate to the decrease in parent/child time-sharing. Also, the prevalence of divorce sometimes makes the family unit one of the unstable forces in an adolescent's life. The saying do as I say, not as I do may be a common standard in many homes (Darling et al., 1984). As a result of these factors that negatively affect parent/child interaction, children often lose out on positive role models who they can turn to with questions or problems. Rather, many have no choice but to talk with their friends about sexual matters or remain in the dark in the area of sexuality. It is an 3

unfortunate reality that when youths do turn to their peers about sex, the message they receive is often very clear yet terribly misguided: sex is an expected and accepted part of any relationship and also part of growing up. Children grow up, not in isolation, but in ever-widening environments. There is need to emphasize that children are first and foremost influenced by their immediate family, then by their peers, their school, the work settings, and the community in which they live. Development has no single cause; rather multiple factors working together influence development (Small, 1994)

The purpose of the study is to identify factors that facilitate the involvement of adolescents in early sexual activities. Also, the study intends to find out the extent to which family background influences adolescents sexuality and likewise initiation in early sexual debut. Also, this study intends to proffer probable solutions and also find possible ways of reducing early adolescent sexual activity

1.1

Statement of Problem

In every society, the problem of early sexual intercourse within the adolescent years has been shown to be a result of the society in which these youths are growing up. The reasons behind adolescents engaging in sexual intercourse so early in life are extensive and yet it becomes increasingly evident that cultural changes within our society have played the single most influential role in this area. As Darling, et al., (1984) put it, sexual behaviour is social behaviour regulated by society and learned through the socialization process. The attitudes reflected in our society are becoming more and more accepting of sexual stereotypes, sexual exploitation and most importantly teenage sex. Also, due to a constant breakdown of the family unit, there is a decrease in parent/child communication and time-

sharing, which results in a lack of sex education within the home.

The problem of this study is the behaviour of teens towards early sexual activities. Today, it is no longer rare to find that adolescents and under aged teens are becoming more and more involved in sex at a very tender age. Worse still is the fact, that amongst so many of the adolescents, morality is a thing of the past, rarely would you find an appreciation for virginity like it used to be in the old times. Adolescents attitudes towards intercourse itself have changed, as sexual activity increases, there is a noticeable decrease in sexual guilt, especially among females. As such, there is an increased teenage promiscuity amongst adolescents which cannot be explained, sex which used to be considered a sacred subject which must only be spoken in low tones and discussed within married couples is now a play tool and even a subject well dissected and well resourced about by most adolescents. Today, most adolescents see nothing wrong with becoming sexually active at a very early age, rather there is a perceived belief amongst the adolescents that keeping oneself till a later date is quite harmful, that a girl who is still a virgin at a later age will have problems of fertility later on in life, as such there is an increased number of adolescent involvement in early sexual activities.

Studies reveal that a substantial proportion of young people in many countries, however, engage largely in unprotected premarital sex (De Silva, 1997). As a consequence, the risk of unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, has increased significantly for adolescents and youths. Furthermore, since a large proportion of pregnancies are unwanted, they are more likely to end up as induced abortions, often under unsafe conditions with a high risk of serious and long-term complications and even death.

Adolescents are especially vulnerable to Sexually Transmitted Diseases, including HIV/AIDS, because of higher risk-taking behaviour, less knowledge of preventive methods, greater biological susceptibility to the infections and limited access to health facilities for treatment.

Today, sex has become a tool being exploited by many young people, the media, culture, environment and the society as a whole. The attitude of adolescents towards sex is so unbecoming, as most adolescents feel proud to talk about sex, their sexual escapades, the number of boys or girls slept with, the best style of sex that gives more pleasure and all talks about sex outside freely without any form of remorse, guilt or regrets. This of course, has brought about an increased number in teenage pregnancies, contraction of sexually transmitted diseases and also increased cases of infertility owing to some kinds of sexually transmitted diseases.

In all, the study seeks to understand the influence that family background, peer groups and the environment plays in shaping adolescent sexuality. Also, the study attempts to find out what factors have triggered adolescents unexplainable hunger or passion for sex at an early age Therefore, the summary for the statement of problem underlying this study is: There is a relationship between adolescents family background and environment and adolescents involvement in early sexual activity.

1.2

Aims and Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this study is to identify the influence of family background as it affects adolescents sexuality and behaviour and their involvement in early sexual activities. 6

Specifically, the study intends to: Ascertain whether or not Family Background influences adolescents sexuality and behaviour and their exposure to early sexual activities. Identify socio-cultural factors influencing adolescents sexuality and behaviour. Ascertain whether or not adolescents from broken homes are more likely to be involved in early sexual activities than adolescents whose parents are not divorced or separated. Ascertain the effect of environmental factors on the adolescents sexuality and behavioral pattern. Identify other related factors that influence adolescents sexuality and Behaviour. Proffer possible solutions to the observed trend.

1.3

Justification for the Study

The rational for this study is basically to possibly empower adolescents on benefits gained in delaying premarital sex and the perils of teenage pregnancy. Also, sensitize parents on the role of parents in child development, as well as the importance of parent-child communication in the development of a child. In addition, the study hopes to proffer solution that could help reduce adolescent exposure to risk factors as individual, sociocultural and environmental hazards that increase their vulnerability to negative developmental outcomes or problems.

1.4

Significance of Study

The significance of this study cannot be overemphasized, as it emphasizes the importance of parent-child communication in shaping the sexuality of adolescent. This is because 7

adolescents with good parent-child communication are more apt to confide in the parents on whatever issue and most likely delay early sexual activity compared to adolescents who do not enjoy the benefits of good parent-child communication.

Also, it would serve as a medium to sensitize adolescents on the dangers and consequences of pre-marital sex. In order words, this research study intends to educate adolescents on their sexual rights, as well as guide them on the importance of delaying early sexual activity and maintaining purity until marriage in order to protect their future, prevent the contraction of the dreaded HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancy that could hamper their child bearing capabilities or fertility in life.

In addition, to proffer possible solutions that would help reduced the observed trend. This is because it is not enough to identify a problem without being able to proffer solutions that would help alleviate the problem, thus, the importance of the research study to proffer probable solutions that could help combat sexuality and reproductive health issue.

1.5: Scope and Focus of Study


The studys main focus is centered on factors influencing teens sexuality and behaviour and exposure to early sexual activities. It would consider the family background, the environment and neighbourhood structure, the family structure and other socio-cultural and socio-economic forces that have influenced teens attitude, sexuality and behaviour. The study would use Kosofe metropolis as a case study and would focus on teens sexuality and early sexual activities as well as impact of family background on the teens sexuality and behaviour.

1.6

Expected Benefits of the Study

It is expected that at the end of the study, adolescents attitude, sexuality and behaviour towards early sexual activities would change for the better. Also, it is expected that there would be a drastic reduction in the number of adolescents getting involved in early sexual activities. It is expected that the suggested recommendations, if implemented would go a long way to address the factors influencing adolescences initiation into early sexual activities.

1.7

Research Methodology

The research methodology that the study would adopt is the survey method, reasons being that survey methods of data collection are especially useful for the study of non-observable events, such as attitudes, dispositions etc. (examples of surveys include studies of reproductive attitudes, etc.). Under the survey method, the probability sampling method would be adopted, as it would allow for representativeness of all the various stratums in the society. The respondents of the research study are adolescents between the ages 10-19, and the sampling frame would include persons from the densely populated areas and the sparsely populated areas. The probability study would be the basis for the study. However, the non-probability method, which is the purposive sampling method, would be used in some instances to obtain information from some selected sample groups. The reason for the purposive sampling is to obtain information that would serve as bedrock for the study. For instance, adolescents from broken homes would be sought for, from the rich and the poor areas, also, the study would span towards adolescents from working class parents and those whose parents are not working class. Further details of the methodology would be given in

the chapter three of the research project.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK


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2.0: Introduction
Various scholars have examined issues surrounding adolescent behaviour and sexuality, with the aim of analyzing their behaviour, as well as recognizing various factors that explains the behaviour of an adolescent. In addition, this chapter would focus on theoretical standpoint various schools of thought, which would further help in explaining the reasons for the behaviour of the adolescent. In this chapter, the review of relevant literature and theoretical framework is presented under sub-headings in order to capture dominant issues.

Literature Review
The studys review of literature would span on issues that influence the adolescent and shapes their behaviour and lifestyle. This study hopes to explore more of the African text and journals and few foreign journals, in order to broaden knowledge as well as view sexual and reproductive issues from society to society. The review would also include the age at entry into sexual experience for all societies. Moreover, issues on adolescent sexuality and pubertal development would be considered and other factors that contribute to affect the adolescent are captured under sub-titles to expand the knowledge of the research study.

2.1: Adolescence and Sexuality


Adolescence is a distinct and dynamic phase of development in the life of an individual. Adolescence has been described as a phase of life beginning in biology and ending in society (Petersen, 1988). Indeed, adolescence may be defined as a period within the life span when most of a persons biological, cognitive, psychological, and social characteristics are changing from what is typically considered child-like to what is considered adult-like (Lerner & Spanier, 1980). It is a period of transition from childhood 11

to adulthood and is characterized by spurts of physical, mental, emotional and social development. Adolescence is generally viewed as a period in which many changes take place in the lives of children and their families (Buist, DeKovic, Meeus & VanAken, 2004). Although traditionally viewed as a time of severe storm and stress, this appears to be more of an exception than rule (Coleman, 1993; Steinberg, 2001).

Adolescence is a time of opportunity and risk. A time of opportunity because during this time attitudes, values and behaviours that determine a young persons future begin to crystallize and take shape. Young persons are more likely to adopt and maintain older people with well-established habits; they are therefore good candidates for reproductive health prevention efforts. Adolescence is a time of risk, as young people have increased exposure to the world and are more likely to succumb to peer pressure and experimentation. They are particularly at risk because the society does not provide them with information, skills, health services and support that they need to make well-informed and responsible decisions about their sexual behaviour (Tetteh, 2001). Nevertheless, adolescents are faced with many challenges, the resolution of which could prove to be influential on their subsequent development (Liable, Carlo, Rafaelli, 2000). World Health Organization, 2001 considers "adolescence" to be the period between 10 and 19 years of age, which generally encompasses the time from the onset of puberty to the full legal age. The hallmark of adolescence is change. The obvious physical changes that we associate with adolescence are as dramatic as those seen in a growing infant. Yet physical growth is only a fraction of the changes that adolescents experience. They are also changing cognitively, emotionally, socially and behaviourally (Pierno, 2003). The course of these changes and their outcomes depends very much on social factors in the lives of the 12

adolescents.

Numerous individual adolescent characteristics and traits are associated with early sexuality. The most basic is puberty development. Studies incorporating hormonal testing have demonstrated increased sexual interest and activity with the onset of puberty, particularly among adolescent males (Udry, 1988; Udry, Talbert, & Morris, 1986). For most adolescents, sexual maturation is virtually complete by the tenth grade (Kimmel & Weiner, 1985). Timing of sexual maturity is likely to be salient only for the earlier starters, with these effects diminishing with the age of adolescent (Zabin, Smith, Hirsch, & Hardy, 1986). While the onset of adolescence is usually associated with the commencement of puberty and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics, the end of adolescence is less well defined. It varies from culture to culture as far as the attainment of adult independence is concerned. It is a time when influences outside the family take on greater significance. During this period adolescents face new opportunities and are eager to assume new responsibilities. It is also a formative stage in terms of sexual and reproductive maturity. During puberty, adolescents undergo five or more changes that culminate to affect them either positively or negatively. During this phase of transition from childhood, adolescents are often confused about the physical and emotional changes in their bodies and feel hesitant and embarrassed to discuss them with anyone. Therefore, adolescence is a critical period, which influences one's reproductive health and well being throughout life. Adolescent girls are especially vulnerable to the biological and social changes taking place during this time and their effects, owing to the existing inequity between the sexes. While adolescent development does not occur on a perfect continuum, it is needful to identify the three stages of adolescent maturation. The three stages are: 13

Early adolescence: ages 9-13 Middle adolescence: ages 14-16 Late adolescence: ages 17-19

It is needful to emphasize that, the behavioral pattern or rather the behaviour of an adolescent is being established from the early period by the immediate family and it is modified by external forces around the child. These external forces include the peer group, culture, neighbourhood, school and the larger community as a whole. The essence of the table below is to describe the processes of change that occurs in adolescents at the early stage of their life, and the significant role of good role model around them to answer questions that bothers them as they continue to observe changes in their physical, cognitive, emotional, social and behavioral life. At the cognitive level, adolescents develop a sense of identity, which involves experimenting with different ways of appearing, sounding and behaving. Adolescents develop a self-concept that revolves round a set of beliefs about oneself, including attributes, roles, goals, interest, values and religious or political beliefs, leading to a development of their self-esteem.

2.2: Family Structure and Adolescent Sexuality


A variety of family characteristics have been hypothesized to be precursors of early sexual activity. One of the most fundamental family predictors of early sexual intercourse is family configuration. Research evidence indicates that adolescents in single-parent families tend to become sexually active earlier than those in two-parent families (Forste & Heaton, 1988; Miller & Moore, 1990) and that the effects of family configuration persist even when other important predictors such as social class, race, age, and religiosity are controlled

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(Day, 1992; Miller & Bingham, 1989). Evidence for effects of family processes on early sexuality, however, has been less conclusive (Miller & Moore, 1990). Parenting is both a biological and social process (Lerner, Castellino, Terry, Villarruel & McKinney, 1995; Tobach & Schneirla, 1968). It is likely that the effects of parenting on adolescent
sexuality are largely indirect through their influence on children's emotional states

(Whitbeck, Conger, & Kao, 1993) or the child's affiliation with deviant peers (Whitbeck, Simons, & Goldberg, 1996). However, specific parenting processes, such as monitoring and harsh discipline consistently, have been shown to affect other minor deviant behaviors that are highly correlated with early sexual intercourse (Simons, Johnson, & Conger 1994), that are likely to play a role in early sexual activity.

Many studies highlight the fact that parents play a key role in the well being and functioning of adolescents (Rice, 1990), whether in the development of identity (Allen et al., 1994), or positive self-image (Wenk et al., 1994), life satisfaction (Leung & Leung, 1992), social competence and other skills (Paterson et al., 1992; Siddique & DArcy, 1984; Whitbeck et al., 1993) and problem behaviour (Windle &Miller-Tutzauer, 1992). Some studies show that the quality of the parental bond has psychological effects when viewed longitudinally (Allen et al., 1994; Burge et al., 1997; DuBois et al., 1992; Whitbeck et al., 1993). The positive effects of the parental bond on young adults (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Roberts & Bengston, 1993) and adult children (Amato, 1994; Barnett et al., 1991; Barnett et al., 1992) have not been studied exhaustively, but available data reveals that the parental bond remains of considerable importance (Frits, Bogt & Raaijmakers, 2002). The influence of the mother may be important than that of the father (Field et al., 1995) or vice versa (Allen et al., 1994), but the effects of the bond with the mother and the father on the 15

well being and functioning of adolescents are usually the same (Barnes & Farrell, 1992; Paterson et al., 1994; Wenk et al., 1994). The effects of the parental bond may also be gender specific. It usually has been found that the relational variables have a stronger impact on the psychological functioning of girls and women (Lopez et al., 1992; Scheier & Botvin, 1997).

Among American youth, warm parental interactions are associated with effective problem solving ability in both the adolescents and the family as a whole; however, hostile interactions are associated with destructive adolescents solving behaviours (Ge, Best, Conger & Simons, 1996a; Rueter & Conger, 1995). Similarly, among German adolescents, parental behaviours marked by approval and attention to the positive behaviour of the youth is associated with an adolescent who feels he or she is capable of controlling events that can affect him or her (Krampen, 1989); however, when parental behaviours disparage the child and fail to attend to his or her specific behaviour, the adolescent feels that chance determines what happens to him or her in life. Although there is evidence that warm, supportive, and communicative parents delay sexual experience among their offspring (Inazu & Fox, 1980; Simon, Berger, & Gagnon, 1972; Zelnick, Kantner, & Ford, 1981) compared to harsh and hostile parents who are not communicative, warm or supportive to their offspring. As illustrated by the above studies, warmth, non-hostility, and closeness seem to be characteristics of parent-adolescent interaction that are associated with positive outcomes among youths (Lerner, 1998). Furthermore, parental religiosity, cohesive family relationships, and low interpersonal conflict are associated with low levels of problem behaviours and with self-regulation among rural, African American youth (Brody, Stoneman, & Flor, 1996). 16

Conclusively, studies have shown that the presence of sexually active older siblings is an often-overlooked factor that tends to influence adolescents sexuality and behaviour and sometimes involvement in early sexual activities. There is evidence that siblings' attitudes regarding sexual permissiveness and levels of sexual activity are related (East, Felice, & Morgan, 1993). Older siblings are powerful role models for younger brothers and sisters. Sibling reports also provide an additional source of information regarding the effects of family processes on child outcomes. Whitbeck et al (1992, 1993) have found evidence of a positive relationship between early intercourse and depressive symptoms between two samples of rural white girls. Girls who had poor relationships with their parents were more likely to report symptoms of depression and were more likely to be sexually active than girls who had more positive relationships with their parents. These findings suggest that low quality primary relationships with parents result in depressed emotional states that increase vulnerability to peer influence and peer support. In addition, a girls history of sexual abuse, a tendency to conform to peers, and having parents whose rearing style was either authoritarian or reflective of low monitoring was predictive of her being a target of unwanted sexual advance. Similarly, in divorced families, a mothers dating behaviour and her possession of sexually permissive attitudes influences both daughters and sons sexual activity (Whitbeck, Simons, & Kao, 1994).

2.3: Deviance and Sexuality


The most robust and researched predictor of early adolescent intercourse has been adolescent participation in other adult-like or deviant behaviours. There is evidence that early sexuality is associated with delinquency (Jessor & Jessor, 1977), alcohol and drug use (Yamaguchi & Kandel, 1987; Zabin, Hardy, Smith, & Hirsh, 1986), and less serious

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deviant behaviours such as cheating in school and smoking (Rodgers & Rowe, 1990). Associations between other deviant behaviours and early sexuality are so consistent that researchers have suggested a common deviance trait (Rowe, Rodgers, Meseck-Bushey, & St. John, 1989) or an underlying problem behaviour syndrome (Costa, Jessor, Donovan, & Fortenberry, 1995). This is because participation in various deviant behaviours may follow a progressive pattern (Rosenbaum & Kandel, 1990), extent or type of involvement may differentially predict early coitus by age of adolescent. For example, very early sexual activity may be predicted by relatively minor offenses such as tobacco use (Zabin, 1984).

Early initiation of smoking and drinking are well known to have both immediate and longterm adverse health and social consequences (Centre For Disease Control -CDC, 1994). Premarital sex during adolescence is often unprotected against unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections, and as a consequence, often results in adverse social, economic, and health consequences (UNICEF, UNAIDS and WHO, 2002; WHO, 2001). For these reasons, substance use and premarital sex during adolescence are regarded as risk-taking behaviour. Limited studies on substance use and premarital sex also indicate that the prevalence of these risk-taking behaviours among adolescents is increasing in Asian countries (Corraro and others, 2000; Tan, 1994; Issarabhakdi, 2000). Previous studies (mostly in the United States of America) have found that a range of community, family and individual characteristics affect substance use and premarital sex among adolescents (Blum and Rinehart, 1997; Goodson and others, 1997; Jessor, 1998; Jessor, Turban and Costa, 1998; Kirby, 2001; Neumark - Sztainer and others, 1996; Resnick and others, 1997; Udry and others, 1986) are of the opinion that adolescent risktaking behaviour is more common in communities that have more permissive norms than in 18

other communities. At the family level, adolescents who spent their childhood in twoparent families and who have close relationships with their parents are more likely than others to avoid risk-taking behaviour. A high level of parents education is often found to be associated with low likelihood of risk-taking behaviour. It is likely that parents with high levels of education are better able to provide appropriate guidance for their childrens behaviour than other parents with lower levels of education, resulting in lower level of risktaking among their children. In developing countries, however, a higher level of parents education, through better economic conditions, may be associated with easy access to substances and opportunities for premarital sex, and therefore, higher prevalence of substance use and premarital sex during adolescence among their children. At the individual level, physical maturity is found to be associated with a desire to engage in risktaking behaviour. In addition, aspirations for a higher level of education, high level of selfesteem and strong religious belief are found to be associated with low level of risk-taking (Choe, et al., 2004).

In general, risk-taking behaviour during adolescent years, such as substance use and premarital sex, are found to have similar risk and protective factors. Furthermore, the initiation of premarital sex during adolescence is found to be much more common among those who have initiated substance use (Choe, Hatmadji, Podhisita, Raymundo & Thapa; 2004). It seems that large proportions of Asian youth view smoking and drinking as acceptable behaviours among adults and they begin to initiate these behaviours sometime during their transition to adulthood, even when they are aware of adverse health consequences (Choe and Raymundo, 2001). Premarital sex during adolescence, however, seems to be viewed more as risk-taking behaviour and the young people who have a 19

protective environment are less likely to initiate it during adolescence. Overall, the probability of initiation of substance use during adolescence is positively associated with social and economic development factors (Choe, Hatmadji, Podhisita, Raymundo & Thapa; 2004).

Figure 1: Percent who ever smoked or drank or who ever had Premarital sex among Adolescents aged 15-19 years by gender
90 80 70
Percentages

78 66

72

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Males Females Males


Ever smoked or drank

40 30 15 7 2 8 31 13 1 0.3 4 4 Females 28

Ever had pre-marital sex

Indonesia

Nepal 2000

Philiphines 1994

Thailand 1994

Source: (Choe, Hatmadji, Podhisita, Raymundo & Thapa; 2004) Having initiated that substance use has a large effect on the probability of initiating premarital sex during adolescent years in the Philippines and Thailand, for both boys and girls, but not among Nepalese boys. The prevalence of substance use is much higher than the prevalence of premarital sex for both male and female adolescents in these countries. Both the prevalence of substance use and premarital sex is higher among male adolescents

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than among female adolescents. The gender difference is much larger for premarital sex than for substance use. These gender differences seem to reflect norms on substance use and premarital sex in these countries (Choe, Hatmadji, Podhisita, Raymundo & Thapa; 2004). One possible explanation is that reporting of premarital sex is biased owing to prevailing double standard regarding sexual behaviour: being tolerant towards young mens premarital sexual experiences and being restrictive towards young womens premarital sexual experiences (Prasartkul and others, 1987; Thapa and others, 2001; Tan, 1994).

Characteristics of the childhood family and relationship with parents, on the other hand, have some effect on the probability of early initiation of premarital sex. Thai youth who grew up with both parents, both males and females, have a low probability of initiating premarital sex during adolescence. Among Filipino male youth, having parents whose marriage is not stable increases the probability. A close relationship with parents has some effects on the early initiation of premarital sex. Among Thai male youth, having a close relationship with the father decreases the probability of initiation of premarital sex during adolescent years (Choe, Hatmadji, Podhisita, Raymundo & Thapa; 2004). However, when examining critical studies, it becomes apparent that in the various stages of life, the influence of parents on the self- image and psychological well being of their children carries more weight than that of their peers (Greenberg et al., 1983; Leung & Leung, 1992; Lasko et al., 1996; Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Paterson et al., 1994). Nevertheless, the influence of peers can be significant, especially regarding certain risky behaviours such as the use of drugs (Kandel, 1974, 1990). However, parental monitoring may counterbalance the negative influence of peers on substance use (Bogenschneider et al., 1998). 21

2.4: Gender and Sexual Activity in Adolescence


Adolescence is a period characterized by rapid rate of physical growth and development with the attainment of secondary characteristics occurring under the influence of sex hormones. Teenage sexual activity is increasing globally with a trend towards early onset (Anochie & Ikpeme, 2001). The initiation of sexual intercourse is a milestone in the physical and psychological development of men and women in all societies, and both the timing of this event and the context within which it occurs can have immediate and longerterm consequences for the individual (Singh, Wulf, Samara & Cuca, 2000). In developing countries, factors such as early onset of menarche, changing values due to increasing urbanization, exposure to foreign cultures through migration, tourism and mass media, erosion of traditional norms and values, peer influence and lack of parental control have been implicated (Anochie & Ikpeme, 2001). Numerous individual adolescent characteristics and traits are associated with early sexuality. The most basic is pubertal development. Studies incorporating hormonal testing have demonstrated increased sexual interests and activity with the onset of puberty, particularly among adolescent males (Udry, 1988; Talbert, & Morris, 1986). For most adolescents, sexual maturation is virtually complete by the tenth grade (Kimmel & Weiner, 1985). Timing of sexual maturity is likely to be salient only for the earlier starters, with these effects diminishing with the age of adolescent (Zabin, Smith, Hirsch, Hardy, 1986).

Research in three Caribbean countries, for example, suggests that girls who have experienced physical or sexual abuse as children are more likely than others to have early first intercourse and more sexual partners as adolescents and young adults (Handwerker,

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1991). In most countries, roughly one-third or more of teenage women have had intercourse; in four countries (Ghana, Mali, Jamaica and Great Britain), about three in five are sexually experienced. Between about one-half and three-quarters of adolescent males in seven countries have ever had intercourse, but the proportion is one-third or less in Ghana, Zimbabwe, the Philippines and Thailand. In most countries, sexual intercourse during the teenage years occurs predominantly outside marriage among men but largely within marriage among women (Singh, Wulf, Samara & Cuca, 2000). Anderson 1982, in his study showed that premarital sexual activity among young girls is more common in developed countries, Africa and the Caribbean than in Latin America, Asia or the Middle East. He further reported that in the late 70s in the United States, France and England, 40-50% of girls and 80% in Sweden have had intercourse by age 17.

Ladipo (1983) and Taylor (1985) in a survey in urban Nigerian and Liberia found that 50% to 60% of adolescents by age 19 were sexually active. Ladipo (1983) also reported that in Ibadan, 49% of 16 years old boys reported premarital intercourse compared to 28% of 16 years old girls. In a 1973 study, Sorense found that by age 16, 90% of American adolescents have had some sexual experience and at age 16-19 years, 72% of boys and 57% of girls had experienced sexual intercourse. A similar finding was also observed in Zelnick and Kantners (1977) study, and the study findings showed that at age 19, 55.2% of girls have had sexual intercourse. Also, Haas (1979) in his survey of 15-16 years old discovered that 28% of the boys and 7% of the girls have had ten or more sexual partners. Boys and Girls face different challenges in different cultures and may have different emotional needs during adolescence. Girls tend to have a lower self-esteem than boys (Bolognini, Plancherel, Bettschart &Halfon, 1996). Mc Farlane (1999) revealed that boys 23

perceive social encouragement and pressure to be sexually active, while girls who have sex (especially if a pregnancy reveals their sexual activity), are labeled as having poor moral character.

Literature on sexual behaviour on Sub-Saharan Africa indicates that young men and women often exhibit different patterns of sexual behaviour. In many African societies, young men and women have different interests, motivations and strategies for engaging in premarital sexual relationships (Standing & Kisekka 1989). Males and females have been found to have different attitudes about sexual issues and to be influenced by different factors (Moreau-Gruet, Ferron, Jeannin and Dubois-Arber, 1996). The sexual attitudes of female adolescents have been found to be more influenced by family factors and males more by individual factors (Werner-Wilson 1998). In rural Australia, female youths were more worried about their reputation (i.e. being thought to be promiscuous) than were males (Warr & Hillier 1997). Young women enter into sexual relationships for various reasons including the enhancement of their marriage prospects, (Orubuloye et al., 1994) proving their fertility to their future husbands and for financial benefits (Dinan 1993). Men on the other hand are more likely to engage in premarital sexual relationship for sexual experience and sexual satisfaction (Calves, Cornwell & Eloundou, 1996). It was not surprising that boys were more sexually active than girls were, boys are by their nature more adventurous and therefore, more likely to try out new experiences (AHRTAG / AIDS Action, 1994). Boys also talk about their sexual exploit more readily than the girls. Boys often pressurize girls to commence sexual activity, but girls are biologically more vulnerable to developing sexually transmitted infections (Rogers and Dearing 1990).

24

In Nigeria, the society exhibits double standards in sexual matters. While girls are encouraged to be chaste, boys and men are not encouraged to limit their sexual activity, but only to exercise discretion so that sexual pressures do not cause them to resort to visiting commercial sex workers (Orubuloye, Caldwell & Caldwell, 1990). Abega et al., (2001), noted that in Cameroon, traditional attitudes towards premarital sexual activity vary across ethnic groups. Today, sexual activity before marriage tends to be the norm among both females and males. Nevertheless, in most societies, there is double standards regarding the tolerance of sexual activity of young women compared with that of men, there is no expectation that young men remain celibate before marriage (Meeker & Calves 1999). Qualitative data from Yaounde suggests that the family environment may affect levels of sexual activity among adolescents and the example set by parents and older siblings, exposure to the media and peer group in the school (Calves, Cornwell & Eloundou, 1996). Abega et al., (2001), further noted however, that one of the driving forces behind adolescents sexual activity is believed to be economic gain, especially for girls. And because of the economic crisis, poor girls are tempted to initiate sexual activity at an early age for financial benefits (Meeker & Calves 1999). Sexual activity for financial purposes starts around puberty when students are still in high school, and at the university level the phenomenon becomes widespread. Meeker and Calves (1999) from their study in Cameroon, noted that the timing of sexual initiation shows that males tends to become sexually active at an earlier age than females. Nevertheless, by the time they reach the age of 18, majority of adolescents males and females alike, are sexually experienced.

Table II: Year of survey, type of survey and sample size, 14 study countries

25

Region, country and survey year

Type of survey DHS DHS DHS DHS

Women 15-19 20-24 803 1,920 1,729 1,472 829 1,632 1,694 1,269 2,357 541 1,991 737 1,553 1,064 610 5,200 1,173 1,525

Men 15-19 20-24 224 448 493 605 3,074 553 614 781 478 350 566 454 552 1,729 182 292 375 399 2,183 535 479 624 353 295 486 374 933 692

Sub-Saharan Africa
Ghana (1993) Mali (1995-1996) Tanzania (1996) Zimbabwe (1994)

Asia
Philippines (1994) Thailand (1994) Brazil (1996) Costa Rica (1991) Dominican Rep. (1996) Haiti (1994-1995) Jamaica (1994) Peru (1996) National* 3,261 National* 552 DHS YARHS DHS DHS YARHS DHS National National 2,537 845 1,838 1,290 540 6,054 710 1,396

Latin America & Caribbean

Developed countries
Great Britain (1991) United States (1995)

*Independent survey of youth with design similar to that of the YARHS. Adolescents 16-19 were sampled, not 15-19. Sources: DHS data--Public use data files, provided by Macro International. YARHS and similar data--Latin America: special tabulations provided by Leo Morris and Moises Matos, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Philippines: special tabulations provided by Corazon Raymundo and Paz Marquez, University of the Philippines Population Institute; Thailand: special tabulations provided by Chai Podhisita, Institute for Population and Social Research. Other--Great Britain: 1991 National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles, special tabulations provided by Kathleen Kiernan, London School of Economics and Political Science; United States: 1995 National Survey of Family Growth, 1995 National Survey of Adolescent Men and 1991 National Survey of Men.

Demographic and Health Survey -DHS Young Adult Reproductive Health Survey -YARHS National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles -NSSAL National Survey of Adolescent Men -NSAM National Survey of Family Growth NSFG

Figure 2: Percentage of 15-19-year-olds who have ever had intercourse, by country, according to gender and marital status
Males Females

26

Source: Singh, Wulf, Samara & Cuca, 2000

2.5: Peer Pressure and Adolescent Behaviour


Studies have revealed that there are numerous factors influencing the sexual behavior of the adolescents, such as the need to experiment, peer influence, lack of guidance and poor role modeling by adults (parents and older siblings). The breakdown of traditional institutions, socialization and media influence have been blamed for the changing patterns of sexual activity (Bohmer and Kirumira, 1997; Busulwa and Neema 1999). Peer influence is another cited predictor of early sexuality. There is abundant evidence that adolescents are affected by the sexual attitudes and behaviours of their friends. The World Health Organization estimates that 70% of premature deaths among adults are due to behaviours initiated during adolescence. Deaths due to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and tobacco use are typical examples of this. Of the 1.1 billion smokers in the world, 90% started before the age of 19 years. HIV infection contracted during adolescence leads to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (Tetteh, 2001).

27

Their perceptions that their friends hold sexually permissive attitudes and are sexually active influence their sexual decision-making. Young peoples attribution regarding their friends sexual activity is more strongly associated with their sexual behaviours than are their friends actual behaviours (Cvetkovich & Grote, 1980). Moreover, the number of sexually active girlfriends that an adolescent female has, as well as the number of her sexually active sisters, and whether she has an adolescent childbearing sister, are linked to her possessing permissive sexual attitudes, having positive intentions for future sex, and being more likely to be non-virgin (East, Felice, & Morgan, 1993). Thus, both peer and family contexts can combine to influence adolescent sexuality. Peer Pressure is a significant force making youth engage in early and unprotected sex. Adolescent engages in unprotected sex because their friends are doing it. Neema et .al., (2000) revealed that adolescent both in school and out of school were engaging in unprotected sex due to bad groups they associate with. Peer pressure motivates many adolescents to initiate sexual activity.

2.6: Socio-Economic factors and Adolescent Sexuality


Throughout human history, and in almost all societies, the sexual behaviour of young people has been felt to threaten the existing social order and stability in the society. It might undermine parental authority, endanger family relationships and ruin the future of the young people themselves. The common concern about the sexual behaviour of young people provided an opportunity to deal with the global crisis of adolescence. This crisis is manifested in adolescents initiating sexual relationships even when cultural rules do not permit this; they get pregnant and most times resort to illegal induced abortion; because of poverty, they become victims of sexual exploitations by older and wealthy men, and they

28

contract Sexually Transmitted Diseases on a staggering scale including the deadly HIV which causes death for many of them. Studies on adolescents sexual behaviour have always investigated socio-economic factors and have associated it, with adolescents sexual activity (Odimegwu et al., 2002). Poverty is one of the leading problems particularly among the girls. Some of these girls who get involved in sex at an early age is because some lack financial support from their parents and guardians. Parents might not satisfy their daughters financial need which forces their daughters to go out and expose themselves to risks of unprotected sex. Search for support by girls could result into early and unwanted pregnancies and acquiring of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (Korukiko and Ampaire 1997). Accepting gifts from men binds some adolescents to these men and end up paying in kind through sex.

Most of the studies uncovered financial benefits as major motivations for girls to engage in sexual relations with older partners. Although varied and complex, these benefits can be divided into three primary categories: Assistance with economic survival A way to secure longer-term opportunities A means of increasing status among peers

With respect to economic survival, evidence from several studies indicates that many girls use resources from older men for basic needs or in times of economic crisis (Calves et al., 1996; Feldman et al., 1997; Hof and Richters 1999; MacPhail and Campbell 2001; Kaufman and Stavrou 2002). For example, young mothers may be particularly vulnerable or parents may pressure their daughters directly to enter into relationships with older, well

29

off men because they need assistance (Komba-Malekela and Liljestrom 1994; Gage 1998; Silberschmidt and Rasch 2001). The findings of numerous studies suggests that adolescent girls are motivated to secure opportunities and enhance long-term goals of achieving higher economic status and stability through their involvement with older partners. Much of the evidence describes the situations of female secondary school students who need the financial support of older men to stay in school and pay for school necessities, such as fees and supplies (Akuffo 1987; Caldwell et al., 1989; Orubuloye et al., 1992; Ulin 1992; Meekers and Calves 1997a and 1997b; Calves 1999; Weiss et al., 1996; Nyanzi et al., 2000; Machel 2001; Kaufman and Stavrou 2002).

As observed by Anochie & Ikpeme (2001), more than 20% of secondary school girls in Nigeria are sexually active, or have had sexual relationship at least once. Anochie & Ikpeme (2001), noted from their research study of female secondary school students in Port Harcourt that 54.1% of students were from large families with low socio-economic background. This is consistent with arguments and reports that economic hardship encourages girls to become sexually active at an early age for economic reasons. Similar financial constraints appear to affect university students, and older partners help pay for tuition, living expenses, university housing, clothes, and food (Abang 1996; Calves et al., 1996; Kaufman and Stavrou 2002). Older partners help girls achieve the goal of increasing their status among peers in two ways. First, older partners help fulfill the expectation that girls will have boyfriends and be sexually active (Wood et al., 1998). Second, older men can provide girls with money and gifts for luxuries, such as nice clothes, soap, makeup, perfume, jewelry, and modern hairstyles, items that parents are often unable or unwilling to pay for (Akuffo 1987; Gorgen et al., 1993; Calves et al., 1996; Meekers and Calves 1997a; 30

Nyanzi et al., 2000; Rasch et al., 2000; Machel 2001; Silberschmidt and Rasch 2001; Longfield et al., 2002). These things help girls enjoy an upscale lifestyle and look modern (Akuffo 1987; Haram 1995; Calves and Meekers 1997; Meekers and Calves 1997a; Gage 1998). Fuglesang (1997) in Luke (2003), reports that girls in Tanzania, aged 10-11, were lured into sexual relations with older men for chips, coca-cola, transport to school, money for videos or just extra little things. On the whole, transactional relations have become common in many places in Africa and that girls expect to receive some sort of payment for sex (Webb 1997; Silberschmidt and Rasch 2001).

Womens increasing dependence on mens economic support throughout much of the region over the last century (Caldwell et al., 1993) has meant that womens personal resources, including their sexuality, have newfound economic potential. Premarital and extramarital sexual encounters increasingly involve the transfer of material resources, such as money and gifts, from a man to his female partner (Dinan 1983; Vos 1994). This development has been labeled by some as the commoditization or commercialization of sexual relations, and ranges from commercial sex to more informal transactions between individual partners (Haram 1995; Bohmer and Kirumira 1997; Webb 1997). Thus, what is being exchanged and between whom has been recently modified: Cash and gifts have increasingly entered into informal sexual relations, and the negotiating parties are more likely individual men and young females than parents and families (Luke, 2003). Furthermore, adolescents peers emphasize status and material goods, and they mimic adult norms of sexual behaviour (Hughes and McCauley 1998). These realities leave girls ignorant of their bodies and of sexual processes while leading them to value sexual relationships that confer status and financial rewards. Gifts have become a symbol of a 31

girls worth and a mans interest, and girls feel offended if they do not receive something in return for sex. A study in Burkina Faso concluded: Receiving gifts or money in exchange for several favours is considered unremarkable. A girl would feel humiliated and

disrespected if she receives nothing for engaging in sex (Gorgen et al., 1993; Caldwell et al., 1989). Interestingly, none of the adolescents in the studies reviewed associated these examples of economic exchange with prostitution, a socially unacceptable activity in their eyes (Komba-Malekela and Liljestrom 1994; Webb 1997; Rasch et al., 2000; Silberschmidt and Rasch 2001; Kaufman and Stavrou, 2002).

2.7: Education and Adolescent Sexuality


Many factors have been linked to the early onset of sexual activity among adolescents, such as peer influences, level of educational achievement, community characteristics, gender, race, and parental influences (Brewster, 1994; Furstenberg, Morgan, Moore, & Peterson, 1987; Miller, Norton, Curtis, Hill, Schvaneveldt, & Young, 1997). There are also many consequences; early sexual activity has been linked to a wide range of social problems, including lower levels of academic achievement (Brooke, Balka, Abernathy, & Hamburg, 1994; Miller & Sneesby, 1988), higher rates of unwanted pregnancies (Hayes, 1987; Zabin & Howard, 1993), sexually transmitted diseases (Greenberg, Magder, & Aral, 1992), multiple sexual partners, and involvement in other risky behaviors, such as substance use and delinquency (Donovan, 1996; Jessor & Jessor, 1975). An understanding of b oth the factors predicting early sexual activity and its consequences is important for more effectively preventing and ameliorating the social costs of early sexual intercourse.

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There is considerable evidence that academic achievement and involvement are negatively related to early sexuality. Regardless of how it is measured, adolescents who do better academically and who have aspirations for college are more apt to delay becoming sexually active (Donovan & Jessor, 1985; Hofferth & Hayes, 1987). Similarly, adolescents who are highly involved in extracurricular activities at school with conventional peers may be more likely to delay intercourse (Miller & Sneesby, 1988). In some longitudinal research, lower academic aspirations and achievement have been shown to increase the likelihood of subsequent sexual activity (Costa, Jessor, Donovan, & Fortenberry, 1995; Jessor & Jessor, 1975; Marini, 1984; Rindfuss, Bumpass, & St. John, 1980; Upchurch & McCarthy, 1990). However, evidence also suggests that initiating sexual intercourse at a young age, particularly prior to age 15, has a significant negative effect on subsequent academic goals and achievement (Billy, Landale, Grady, & Zimmerle, 1988; Brooke, Balka, Abernathy, & Hamburg, 1994; Jessor, Costa, Jessor, & Donovan, 1983; Meilman, 1993; Mott & Marsiglio, 1985). Ohannessian and Crockett (1993) reported a bidirectional relationship between educational investment and adolescent sexual activity in a longitudinal sample from Pennsylvania.

A study on Ugandan out-of-school adolescents regarding sexuality, economics and family issues found that those adolescents clearly lack information and opportunities compared with in-school adolescents (Bohmer and Kirumira, 1997). Yet, out-of-school adolescents are undoubtedly different from those in school. They are likely to have experienced sexual activity; they are less likely to experience such protective factors as close adult relationships, life and negotiating skills; they are more likely to live in conditions of poverty; and to be engaged in economic activities (Nnko, Chiduo, Nwaluko & Urassa, 33

2001). Out-of-school youths often experienced strong financial pressures. Lack of access to cash and employment opportunities for females resulted in risky sex. Approximately 22% of females and 27% of males have had intercourse by age 15, and about 76% and 85%, respectively, by age 19 (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1998). Moreover studies have shown that nine out of every ten male and female out-of-school adolescents are sexually active.

A study in Lagos state reported that 40% of secondary school students had already had sexual intercourse. Most adolescents have their first sexual intercourse between ages 10 and 16years (Sumola et al., 2002). The picture is similar in many urban and rural areas in the country. In Calabar, 54% of female and 52% of male adolescents had sex before age 15 (Nichols, Ladipo, Paxman & Otolorin 1986). Studies in rural and urban Enugu, Kaduna, Lagos, Onitsha and Zaria shows that sexual activity among adolescents is high. In Benin City, 77% of adolescents schoolgirls are sexually active (Nichols et al., 1986). In Ilorin, 62% of in-school adolescents are sexually active, of which 30% of females and 58% of males had sex by age of 19years. A slightly lower proportion of 55% of adolescents was reported to be sexually active in a survey among in-school adolescents in the South Eastern parts of the country (Amazigo, Silva, Kaufman & Obikeze, 1997). In addition, 67-71% of females in the northern parts and 38-44% in southern parts of the country were sexually active. Furthermore, females and males without education were more sexually active than their counterparts with either primary or secondary school education of those in the 1519years age group. Sumola et al., (2002) noted in their study that generally about one-third of adolescents of all socio-economic status in Niger state have already experienced their first sexual intercourse.

34

Educational attainment also is related to sexual activity, in that dropping out of school significantly increases the odds of intercourse for males and females (Dorius et al., 1993). Women with more years of education report a later age at first sexual intercourse (Wyatt, 1989). Rindfuss, et al., (1980) estimated that for each additional year of education that women attain, sexual activity is delayed by .75 years. Educational goals also have been shown to influence sexual activity for males and females. Having low educational goals is associated with a high incidence of sexual activity during the teen years (Handler, 1990; Hendricks & Montgomery, 1984; Hogan & Kitagawa, 1985). Scott-Jones and White (1990) observed that 50% of adolescents with no self-reported college plans were sexually active, compared to 29% with college plans and 13% of those who planned to go to graduate school. Others have reported that adolescents with higher educational goals have first sexual intercourse later (Benda & DiBlasio, 1991; Capaldi et al., 1996; Kraft, 1991; Miller & Sneesby, 1988; Peterson, Moore, & Furstenberg, 1991; Scott-Jones, 1991; Wyatt, 1989). Research also has found initiation of sexual intercourse to significantly increase the likelihood of dropping out of school (Dorius et al., 1993). Specifically, women who were sexually active in their early teens were 70% more likely to drop out of school than teens who were not sexually active (Upchurch & McCarthy, 1990). The early onset of sexual activity appears to be associated with a range of problem behaviors, including a decline in academic achievement and goals. Jessor et al. (1983) showed that several educational variables changed for adolescents who initiated sexual activity. Teens who made the transition to sexual activity placed lower value on academic achievement and had lower expectations for academic achievement than teens who had not yet become sexually active.

Miller and Sneesby (1988) found that father's and mother's educational attainment 35

correlated positively with adolescents' educational plans, their perceptions of the importance of good grades, and self-reported school grades. All of these educational variables, with the exception of mother's educational attainment, were inversely related to adolescents' sexual activity (i.e., intercourse). Thornton and Camburn (1989) found that parents with higher levels of education had children who had a lower level of sexual activity, possibly because highly educated parents influence their children not to engage in sexual intercourse through increased emphasis on academics and monitoring of their children's school-related activities. Moreover, due to a constant breakdown of the family unit, there is a decrease in parent/child communication and time-sharing, which results in a lack of sex education within the home. This, in turn, places the responsibility for sex education on the shoulders of our school boards, which do not always provide adequate or appropriate education.

2.8: Society and Sex


The reasons behind adolescents engaging in sexual intercourse so early in life are extensive and yet it becomes increasingly evident that cultural changes within societies have played the single most influential role in this area. The problem of early intercourse within the adolescent years has been shown to be a result of the society in which these youths are growing up. As Darling, et al., (1984) put it, sexual behaviour is social behaviour regulated by society and learned through the socialization process. The attitudes reflected in our society are becoming more and more accepting of sexual stereotypes, sexual exploitation and most importantly teenage sex. Society has created the unhealthy notion that sex is an expected norm at any age or at any stage in a relationship. Unfortunately, teenagers use of contraceptives is not rising in proportion to their increase in sexual activity (Fisher, 1983).

36

Today, sex is exploited throughout the media in an attempt to increase business revenue. The youth of today seem to be the most easily manipulated group by sexual propaganda due to their conformist vulnerability. Young people have no choice but to deal with other's ideas about sexuality before they have been able to form their own opinions and beliefs. This liberalization is not necessarily bad in itself but rather it is sexual exploitation coupled with a lack of quality education that creates unhealthy attitudes and beliefs about sex within the minds of our youth. As a result of this extensive and powerful media, society has an increasing amount of influence in our children's decision making than it did in the past. In the past, the Church used to set the moral code which parents then enforced. Today, teens listen to their peers and the media much more than to their parents or religious affiliations (Carlson, 1985). Therefore, in a society where attitudes are strongly influenced and even controlled by the sexually suggestive powers of the media it is no wonder that sexual intercourse is increasingly prevalent among our adolescent population. Societal goals such as money and power have also had an enormous effect on the family structure. The increasing number of dual income families is directly proportionate to the decrease in parent/child time-sharing (Darling, et al., 1984). Also, the prevalence of divorce sometimes makes the family unit one of the most unstable forces in an adolescents life. Similarly, possession of attitudes that reject societal norms, when combined with non conforming behaviour, is associated with early initiation of sexual intercourse among both African American and European American adolescents (Costa, Jessor, Conovan & Fortenberry, 1995). In addition, among both male and female adolescents, poor psychological adjustment is linked to early initiation of sexual intercourse (Bingham & Crockett, 1996).

37

The onset of sexual activity has become progressively earlier, and at least half of young people surveyed in nine Sub-Saharan African countries had had sex before 18 years of age, and yet adolescents knowledge on reproductive function and sexuality is generally poor.
Race consistently has been identified as an important variable in adolescent sexual

activity. Blacks tend to initiate sexual intercourse at a younger age than whites. Furstenberg et al. (1987) found that black females were four times more likely than white females to have sex early, and black males were twice as likely as white males to have sex. One possible explanation for the younger age at first sexual intercourse and higher rates of sexual activity among blacks is that they may perceive fewer employment and educational opportunities. This could reduce the perceived costs of sexual activity among blacks and increase their perception that the benefits of sexual activity are greater than its costs (Hogan & Kitigawa, 1985). In Uganda the initiation of sexual activity starts as early as 1014 years of age with a mean of 15 years (Turyasingura, 1998). In an analysis of premarital sexual behaviour in Lagos, Nigeria, Adegbola and Babatola reported that the median age at first sexual encounter differed on the basis of ethnicity, religion and the social status of the parents (Adegbola & Babatola, 1999). They however, reported a generally low age at first sexual encounter among respondents. From a study of the context of initial sexual encounter among people of Senegal, Engelhard and Seek observed a generally low age at first sexual encounter and also noted that prostitutes were most likely the first partners for adolescent males and older men (Engelhard & Seek, 1991). Simasiku et al., (2000), found out that in Zambia, the average age at sexual initiation stood at 10years for males and 12years for females (Simasiku et al., 2000). Similarly, median age for first sexual intercourse among Nicaraguan male youth was 16.2years, compared with

38

17.8years for female (Zelaya, Marin, Garcia, Berglund, Liljestrand and Persson, 1997). Among high school students in the Dominican Republic, reports of previous sexual intercourse were higher among males (61.2%) than females (10.0%) (Westhoff, Holcomb & McDermott, 1996).

Most adolescents sexual activity is unprotected resulting in a far-reaching health, social, and demographic problems. In Mulago National Hospital 44.7% of the women who died as a result of abortions complications were adolescents (MoH, 1999). Studies have revealed that there are numerous factors influencing the sexual behavior of the youth, such as the need to experiment, peer influence, lack of guidance and poor role modeling by adults (parents and older siblings). The breakdown of traditional institutions, socialization and media influence have been blamed for the changing patterns of adolescent sexual activity (Bohmer and Kirumira, 1997; Busulwa and Neema 1999). Similarly, in Cameroon, a survey was conducted on sexual behaviour of the young people of Bamenda, 1995. Available results have it that the average age at first intercourse was 15.6 for males and 15.8 for females. The main reason given for initiating sexual activity was curiosity (53% of males and 42% of females) (International Family Planning Perspectives, 2000). A survey conducted by the Brazilian Center for Analysis and Planning of the Ministry of Health from December 1997 to December 1998 shows that among young people 16 to 19 years old, 61% had already engaged in sexual relations. Among those, 40 percent said their first time was before age 15. Boys had sex earlier than girls and blacks earlier than whites. The same survey, published in 2000, found that adolescents who lived with their parents and had formal education tended to initiate sexual activities later.

39

Comparison of the respective male and female ages at sexual initiation in older cohorts reveals three major traditional models of entry into sexual activity. First is the large group of societies where parental and family strategies are designed to avoid any delay in female entry into conjugal, reproductive and sexual life through pressure to form a union as near puberty as possible with significantly older men, compounding gender domination by age domination. While in such societies male may be later than female sexual initiation, males generally experience a significant period of pre-marital sexual activity. This model is traditionally found in sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Mali, Senegal and Ethiopia), and very likely also in the Indian sub-continent (represented here only by Nepal). This contrasts with a second group, which includes the Latin and Latin-American cultures, where social control is exerted to delay womens union formation and entry into sexual activity by strenuous efforts to preserve their virginity, pre-marital loss of which breaks a cardinal rule and dishonour the family group and the spouse (Bozon, 2002). By contrast, young males are urged to prove their manhood early on, either with prostitutes or older women, and their sexual initiation takes place well before that of females. This group of countries includes Southern Europe (from Portugal to Greece and Romania), Latin America (Brazil, Chile, Dominican Republic), but also Thailand and other Asian societies for which quantitative data are not available. In Brazil, for example, in the 45 - 49 age group, the median age gap between first intercourse and first union is seven years for males, but just one year for females.

In the two models described, women are under great pressure to conform to social norms, but there are equally strong injunctions for males in due course to behave as real men. There is a third group of societies, less homogeneous than the other two, characterized 40

among the older cohorts by closely matched male and female timings of entry into sexual life. This may reflect later marriage and strict supervision of the conduct of young people, including males, as in Singapore or Sri Lanka (and doubtless also China and Vietnam). The trend towards later male and female sexual initiation is found in non-Latin Catholic societies like Poland and Lithuania. Finally, many European societies, like those of northern Europe, but also Switzerland, Germany and the Czech Republic, have for several generations been gender-equal in rather early sexual initiation timings. In cultures where female is significantly earlier than male sexual initiation, the trend has reversed in two ways over the past twenty years, with a slight increase in female age at first coitus, and a sharp drop in the male age. The female-male timing gap has narrowed in sub-Saharan Africa, as in Senegal, Togo, Cameroon, Mozambique and Zimbabwe likewise Nepal.

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Table III: Median ages at first sexual intercourse, males and females, by country and age group at survey date
Median age at first sexual intercourse (a) Cohorts born around: 1950 1975 (45-49) (45-49) Median age at first sexual intercourse (a) Cohorts born around: 1950 1975 (40-49) (20-24)

F AFRICA West Africa


Benin (1996) Burkina Faso (1998-1999) Ghana (1998) Guinea (1999) Mali (1995) Niger (1997) Nigeria (1999) Senegal (1997) Togo (1998) 17.2 17.6 17.3 16.2 15.7 15.0 18.1 16.5 17.3 15.8 15.9 15.8 16.7 16.3

M ASIA
Japan (1999) Kazakhstan (1999) Nepal (2001) (d) Sri Lanka (1991) (e) Singapore (1989) (e) Thailand (1990) (e)

F
21.3 21.0 16.6 -

M
19.8 19.1 19.2 -

F
19.5 20.1 16.9 23.5 26.8 21.5

M
19.6 18.6 17.8 27.2 28.3 18.3

18.7 20.6 19.4 20.2 22.2 20.9 20.4 22.4 19.5 20.4 17.4 18.8 18.7 18.1

17.2 17.5 17.4 15.9 15.8 15.5 18.1 18.8 17.2 18.1 17.2 15.9 16.8 17.2

17.5 20.1 19.5 17.6 18.7 20.3 19.8 19.0 18.0 21.3 15.9 17.2 19.4 17.8

EUROPE and USA Central and eastern Europe


Hungary (1993) (f) Latvia (1995) (g) Lithuania (1996) (g) Poland (1996) (g) Romania (1999) (h) Slovak Republic (1995) (i) Czech Republic (1996) (f) Slovenia (1994) (f) 19.1 20.8 21.5 20.9 20.1 19.5 18.4 18.9 18.5 19.0 20.4 21.7 18.3 18.3 18.4 18.4 18.5 18.5 19.5 19.6 19.5 18.8 17.8 18.1 18.0 18.2 18.6 19.7 17.3 18.3 17.2 18.0

East Africa
Ethiopia (2000) Kenya (1998) Mozambique (1997) Uganda (2000-2001) Tanzania (1996)

Central and Southern Africa


Cameroon (1998) Gabon (2000) Central African Republic (1994) Chad (1997) Zambia (1996) Zimbabwe (1999) LATIN AMERICA, CARIBBEAN Bolivia (1997) Brazil (1996) Chile (1998) (b) Haiti (1994) Nicaragua (1997) Peru (1996) Dominican Republic (1996)

15.5 15.8 15.9 15.4 16.1 18.5

18.9 17.6 18.1 18.9 18.5 19.9

16.2 16.3 16.0 16.0 16.5 19.1

17.0 15.9 17.0 18.4 16.0 19.1

Western Europe Western Germany (1990) Belgium (1993) (j)


Denmark (1989) Spain (2001) (k) Finland (1992) France (1992, 1998) (I) United Kingdom (1991) Greece (1999) (g) Iceland (1992) Italy (1995) Norway (1992) Netherlands (1989) Portugal (1997) (g) Switzerland (1992) USA (1994) (m)

18.8 20.5 20.6 19.0 17.8 18.6 18.4

17.9 17.1 16.9 18.4 15.5 16.9 16.3

19.5 18.6 18.9 18.7 18.0 19.6 18.7

17.0 16.2 17.4 17.7 15.8 17.4 16.1

18.6 20.0 18.3 20.1 19.0 18.9 19.5 19.8 18.0 20.6 18.8 19.7 21.5 19.5 19.1

18.4 19.0 18.2 18.5 18.2 17.9 18.3 17.4 17.5 18.6 18.8 19.1 17.5 19.2 18.6

17.7 18.4 16.7 19.1 18.0 17.6 17.4 19.0 16.6 20.3 17.5 18.3 19.8 18.4 17.6

17.7 17.9 17.4 18.2 18.0 17.4 17.1 17.4 16.6 18.4 18.1 18.3 17.4 18.2 17.1

Notes: (a) the median age at first sexual intercourse is the age at which half the respondents had their first coitus, the other half not yet having done so- (b) older cohorts: 1944-1953- (c) age 20-29- (d) currently married women, and ever-married men- (e) age 15-24: median calculated on share trend of individuals whose sexual initiation occurred at each age between ages 15 and 24 (f) age 40-44 (g) 45-49 (h) ages 40-44 for females, 45-49 for males (i) age 34-43 (J) age 20-26 (k) older cohorts born between 1956 and 1961, younger cohorts born post 1975 (l) younger cohort born around 1980. The median for this cohort is calculated on the share trend of individuals whose sexual initiation occurred at each age between ages 15 and 19 (m) younger cohort: ages 18-24. Sources: For Africa, Latin America and part of Asia, the DHS surveys using the 25-29 age groups for the 1999 and 2000 surveys. For Europe, the fertility and family surveys (FFS) (Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Czech Republic, Slovenia) and sexual behaviours surveys [3]. Other Sources: Chile (Cosecon survey, 1998), Japan (Japanese Sexual Behaviour, NHK, 1999), Spain (Conducta sexual de riesgo ante el VIH, 2001), Slovakia (Bianchi, Sexual Behaviour and HIV/AIDS, 1995). For Sri Lanka, Singapore and Thailand, WHO surveys [4].

Source: Bozon M. (2003).

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A new trend emerging in some countries (Kenya, Gabon and Zambia), is that male ages are now slightly earlier than females. In some societies, finally (Niger, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia), there is barely any discernible change. One common trait in all these trends is that young people are breaking free of a series of traditional controls, males to become sexually active earlier, and females to lighten the constraint of early marriage without necessarily relinquishing entry into sexual life. So, in eastern Africa countries, 40% to 50% of young women have at least two years of sexual activity before their first union (Bozon, 2001). In some AIDS- ravaged countries, campaigns to delay first sexual intercourse may have had an inhibiting effect, particularly among females.

In the group of societies that prize early male and late female sexual activity, any changes have mainly concerned women their comparatively late age at first intercourse has tended to fall, while the male age has remained unchanged. So, female-male timing gaps have narrowed in Brazil, Chile and Spain, while in other countries like Bolivia, Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic they are unchanged. In Portugal and Romania, sexual initiation timings are highly gender-specific, as in Italy, where female age at first intercourse has actually risen in the last decade. Even as virginity at marriage becomes a receding ideal and reality, high gender-differentiation remains. Where male remains much earlier than female first intercourse, initiation by prostitution remains a significant factor, as in Central America and Thailand. But prostitution as a vehicle for first coitus declines where timing gaps narrow, as in Japan, where they have dropped from 26% in older cohorts to 11% in younger cohorts. Where male and female ages at first intercourse were already close, they have fallen simultaneously. In many European countries and United States, they have

dropped by approximately a year in the last two decades, although age at first union now very distinct from age at marriage has trended upwards over the same period (Corijn et al, 2001). That this fall is not sharper may be due to a stabilizing and synchronizing effect of spreading secondary education on sexual initiation timings, which now occur within an increasingly shorter interval towards the end of secondary education. They mark the end of adolescence and entry into an age of personal free agency youth rather than transition to an increasingly later adulthood.

The Scandinavian countries, especially Iceland, have become the earliest of developed countries, to point where some (Norway, Denmark), females enter their sexual life before males. French males and females aged either side of 50 in 2000 (birth cohorts 1944 and 1953) averaged their first coitus at ages 17.9 and 18.9 respectively. The most recent available survey the 1998 Barometre sante jeunes (young peoples health survey) shows that ages at first intercourse converged 17.4 for males and 17.6 for females in the cohorts born around 1980 (Arenes et al., 1998). While the behaviours of French cohorts that entered into sexual activity around 1950 were akin to those of Latin countries (wide gender age gap at first intercourse) they have now grown closer to those of northern Europe.

2.9: Age and Sexual Activity


A number of characteristics of the teens themselves have been linked to whether or not they are sexually active. Obviously age is important, the older the teen, the more likely it is that they are sexually experienced (Hayes, 1987). Boys are more likely than girls to be sexually experienced at each age; however, by the late teens there are few differences

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between boys and girls in rates of sexual activity. Thus, as teens get older, they are increasingly likely to emulate adult sexual behavior. These age differences do vary by race. African-American adolescents initiate intercourse at younger ages than whites for both males and females, although the difference between African American and whites has narrowed significantly over the past ten years. One explanation for the race difference is that African Americans report a greater tolerance for sexual activity outside marriage than whites; it is not clear whether these race differences are basic value differences or attitudinal adjustments to harsh living conditions (Hayes, 1987).

Mc Farlane et al (1999) carried out a survey research and a focus group discussion among adolescents in Jamaica, which reported that sexual activity, begins at an early age for many Jamaican adolescents. Even before they reach the teenage period, the sexual attitudes and behaviours of young Jamaican adolescents have been significantly shaped by socio-cultural and gender norms that send contradictory messages about the sexuality and impose different standards of behaviours for boys and girls. Amaziogo et al, 1997 carried out a survey among 2460 secondary schools students in two South-East Nigerian States. The study findings revealed that of the students who gave information about their sexual activity, 40% already had experienced sexual intercourse. The proportion of those that had already experienced sexual intercourse ranged from 26% of 14 years old, to 54-55% of 1819 years old. In a similar vein, Araoye and Adegoke (1996), in their study of 970 students aged between 10-19 years revealed that 24% were sexually active, of which 44% had ever used any method of contraception. The reason for the non-use of contraceptives by sexually active students was lack of knowledge of the methods available. Also revealed is the fact that 55.5% of those sexually active had multiple partners. In yet another study in a small 46

town located in the South-East Nigeria reported that nearly half of the girls under age of 17 years were sexually active and by the age of 20 years, 80% had experienced sexual intercourse. Moreover, only 5% of these girls were reported to have used a contraceptive and 20% of these girls already had sexually transmitted diseases. (Lancet Journal, 1995)

On the mean age at first intercourse among adolescents, Makinwa and Adebusoye (1991), revealed that 8.4% of girls and 7.6% of boys respectively had their first intercourse between 12-14 years while those that had their first intercourse between 15-19 years were 73.4% and 57.7% for female and male respondents respectively. Crane (1995) reported on a study carried out in Ibadan, that the mean age for initial sexual experience was 16 years. A study carried out by Eggleston et al; (1999) on the sexual attitudes and behaviours among young adolescents in Jamaica, reported that sexual experience was vastly different between boys and girls with 64% of boys and 6% of girls admitting to have experienced sexual intercourse. Among adolescents who reported to have experienced sexual intercourse, the mean age at first intercourse was 11.3 years for girls and 9.4 years for boys. In addition, the survey also reported that some of the respondents who have had sexual experience indicated that curiosity and love were common motivations for having sex.

2.10

Environment and Adolescent Sexual Behaviour

Several studies have indicated that sexual activity is particularly high among unmarried youth; that it has become more common over time as Nigerian society has undergone marked social change; and that premarital sexual behaviour is more common among women in urban centers (Feyisetan and Pebley, 1989; Gyepi Garbrah, 1985; Nichols et al, 1986; Makinwa - Adebusoye, 1991, 1992; Odujirin, 1991; Ogbuagu and Charles, 1993;

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Oloko and Omoboye, 1993; Omorodion, 1993; Omu et al, 1981; Onwuamana, 1982; Oyeneye and Kawonise, 1993; Renne, 1993). As previously discussed, the high incidence of premarital sexuality is attributable to decreasing moral attitudes and the slackening of traditional requirement for premarital chastity. An ever-increasing number of adolescents migrate from rural homes to urban centers in search of jobs, opportunities for higher learning, or apprenticeship, thus breaking away from constraints traditionally applied by family members and village communities. Moreover, in times of rapid social change, external forces, notably peer groups and the mass media, become more influential than parents or community elders on adolescent behaviour (Adebusoye, 1997).

Evidence from the 1990 Nigerian Demographic Survey (NDHS) has not only confirmed the high incidence of premarital sexual activity in urban centers, but also has revealed that the incidence of premarital sexual behaviour is not limited to urban centers. While 30.9 percent of never-married urban women aged 15-19 years have had sexual intercourse, 21.3 percent of their rural counterparts also have. In addition, 48.4 % of all sexually experienced adolescents in rural and urban areas have had their first sexual intercourse by age 15. According to Adebusoye (1997), during recent focus group discussions in various parts of the country, adolescents proffered several reasons for early initiation of sexual intercourse. According to a young man in a boys group, he said: People who do these things (sexual intercourse) are those who live in densely populated areas, who have people to talk with (of the opposite sex). The things that make boys meet with girls and girls meet with boys are too much exposure, music about sex, and also films.. (Male FGD participant, Kano, August 17, 1995) As observed by the environmental or ecological approach originated from the Chicago

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school, they emphasize that habit and mode of life of living organisms in their physical environment are used to address the question of crime from the point of view of the influence of physical and geographical factors on social life generally and criminal activities specifically (Nwanna 2003). The principal proponents of this school of thought, Shaw and McKay (1942), from their study of Chicago, try to explain that certain areas of any city have consistently higher crime rate than other areas. In their work Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas in 1942, they view juvenile delinquency as resulting from the breakdown of social control among the family, neighbourhood and the communities. Applying concentric zone theory and mapping system, they discovered that the highest rates of delinquency were found in zones closest to the center of the city (i.e. zone of transition). Such high crime areas were identified as the physically and socially disintegrated communities close to the individual and commercial sections of the city. The inference is that delinquency and crime tend to decrease as one moves from the center of the city inhabited by the lower class to the peripheries where the rich resides. Here slums of city are seen as crime-breeding grounds where a large army of children is crowded in a small space. With inadequate parental care and supervision, young adolescents join gangs as a result of restlessness and the desire for companionship and prestige (Nwanna 2003).

Theoretical Framework Theoretical Positions on Adolescents sexuality and Behaviour


Many scholars and schools of thought have attempted to explain adolescent and early sexuality using various factors as being responsible. For example, some schools of thought contends that puberty and the hormones drive adolescents to early sexual activities, while some others contend that the influences of family, culture, environment and society are all

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important in shaping their journey to adulthood. The developmental theorists identified the Freuds psychosexual stages, Erikson psychosocial stages and the Piagets periods of development to explain adolescent behaviour, while the differential association theory and the psychological theory of deviance attempts to explain reasons for adolescent behaviour and early sexuality. Most studies on adolescent have been based on these theories, in spite of their contentious nature. However, each of these positions would be outlined before a theoretical standpoint.

2.11

Developmental Theories

Theorists and researchers agree that notable development occurs during adolescence in a number of areas. However, there are differing viewpoints about some aspects of adolescence (De Anda, 1995), including: Whether development is continuous or discontinuous with the preceding and following stages in the life cycle. Whether the period of adolescence is one of turmoil and stress or is relatively uneventful. Whether it is crucial for adolescents to accomplish specific development tasks during this time. Whether internal or environmental factors have more significant influence on the experiences and outcomes of adolescent development. However, of the three theories of development, namely Freuds Psychosexual Stages, Erisksons Psychosocial Stages, and Piagets Periods of Development, this study would consider only Freuds theory.

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2.12 Freuds Psychosexual Stages


Psychoanalytic theories of human development began in the 1900s with the work of Sigmund Freud. The psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the instinctual and biological side of human development. According to Freuds theory, personality has three parts namely, id, ego and the super ego. More modern theories of development have now replaced those of Freud. Yet it is still important to be familiar with the basics of Freuds work, as many modern views of human development still have their roots in Freudian theory. Sigmund Freud was the first psychologist to theorize that individuals invariably pass through qualitatively different stages during the process of maturation. Freud was vitally interested in socialization, parent-child relationships, and a variety of cultural phenomena, all of which he felt were the products of the biological nature of human beings.

Freuds Theory of Emotional Development


Freud (1938) argued that individuals progress through series of stages from infancy to adulthood. In particular, he stressed the importance of infancy and early childhood experiences in determining an individuals later personality. He described the developmental process as a series of psychosexual stages in which central roles are played by sexual impulses, and he associated each stage with a particular conflict that must be resolved before the individual can proceed to the next stage. Owing to Freuds general theory of psychological development from infancy to adulthood, he believes that the mind of an infant consists only of primitive drives and instincts, such as the need for food and physical comfort, which he called the id. Thus, in infancy, sexual energy is invested in the oral region. In about a year, the source of sexual energy becomes the anal area. During the first few years of life, the self, or ego develop. The function of the ego is to find safe

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and appropriate ways for the id to be expressed. Through the ego, a child finds ways to get what he or she needs within the boundaries of what is acceptable to the parents. After the initial struggle between the id and ego, the child learns to delay gratification in response to external demands, particularly those of parents. (However, when a child is deprived of his external demands by the parents, automatically the tendency for that child to delay gratification will be very minimal, using the Nigerian situation as example, because of the high level of poverty, coupled with the mass unemployment, tendencies are that the child might be forced to seek early gratification outside the home to be able to survive).

In the late preschool years, the child develops a conscience, which Freud called the superego. The child has now internalized the parents values. He or she feels guilty for misbehaving and will try to behave even when adults are not around. (Obviously, the values of the parents is a foundation for the behavioural pattern of the child, however, when a child internalizes the values of a single parent or values of separated, tendencies are, the behaviour of that child will be quite different from a child whose values were derived from both party parents). Freud believed that a single motive governs human behaviour the desire to satisfy biological needs and thereby discharge tension. He defined stages of development in terms of the organs he thought were used to discharge tension at that age. From birth to adulthood, a child develops through these stages in sequence: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Failure to experience gratification for basic drives during a given stage could cause an individual to become fixated in that stage, stuck forever in that particular psychological mode. Freud believed that adolescence is fraught with internal struggle. He viewed the pre-adolescent latency period as a time when the child develops a balance between the ego and id. Upon entering the genital phase of adolescence, the 52

child is bombarded with instinctual impulses that disrupt this balance. The ego is torn between the strong impulses of the id and the restrictions of the superego. This conflict makes adolescence a time of tremendous stress and turmoil.

2.13 Differential Association Theory


The differential association theory was propounded by Edwin Sutherland (1947) to explain deviant behaviours. The fundamental assumption of this theory is that deviance is learned in the same way that culture, religion etc is learned. Another basic assumption of this theory is that deviant behaviour is learned through face-to-face interactions between people who are close or intimate with each other. That is primarily in primary groups. This theory further states that there exist two major factors that intensify this process. They are priority and intensity. That is to say that if one is exposed at an early age to attitudes and values (which he called definitions) favourable to deviant behaviour, the greater the likelihood that the person would become deviant.

This theory assumes that we associate with different people everyday, some with attitudes and behaviours favourable to the accepted norms and others with attitudes and behaviours, which are a deviation from societal norms. Edwin opined that those who have association and exposure with people who advocate breaking the law, norms or societal values, are likely to become deviant. Also, the more a persons close friends, relatives and acquaintance endorse deviant behaviour the more likely that such a one would end up being a deviant. The main submission of this theory is that one becomes a deviant when they have more associations with attitudes and values favourable to the violation of the accepted laws or institutionalized norms and values. In order words the theory assumes that

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adolescents who associate more with friends who are sexually permissive are more likely to engage in premarital sex, thereby putting them at a greater risk or probability of becoming sexually active and engaging in premarital sex. On the other hand, there is an assumption that adolescents who have more association with friends who are not sexually active, are less likely to engage in premarital sex. In addition, adolescents who are exposed to environment or conditions that encourages premarital sexual activity are more likely to engage in premarital sex than those whose environment is not permissive or discourages such act (Sutherland and Cressey 1978).

2.14 Psychological Theory of Deviance


Psychological theory claims that deviant behaviour is normally learned rather than being genetically determined. They see abnormal experience rather than abnormal genes as the basis for deviance. This experience produces character defects and maladjusted personalities which in turn produces deviance. Often psychological theories argue that some thing has gone wrong in the socialization process, usually in the mother-child relationship. This defective socialization involves emotional disturbance, which leads to the formation of maladjusted personality traits. Early childhood experience, it is claimed, can have a lasting effect upon adolescent and adult behaviour (Haralambos, 1980). John Bowlbys Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves is a pioneering work in the psychology of deviance. He argued that a child has certain basic needs, the most important being emotional security, which can be provided most effectively by a close, intimate relationship with its mother. If the child is deprived of maternal love, particularly during its early years, a psychopathic personality can develop. Psychopaths tend to act impulsively with little regard for the consequences of their actions. They rarely feel guilt and show little response to punishment

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or treatment. Other studies have argued that a boys relationship with his father, particularly during the early years of his adolescence, can have important effects upon his behaviour. Robert G. Andry claimed that boys who had hostile and unsatisfactory relationships with their father projected this hostility and acted it out in their relationships with other boys and authority figures. Such unsatisfactory relationships between boys and their fathers produced a chip on the shoulder mentality rather than the mere severe psychological disturbances described by Bowlby. Andry claims that the character defects which resulted were an important factor in accounting for delinquency (Haralambos, 1980).

2.15 Theoretical Standpoint of Study


Having considered the various theoretical views on adolescent behaviours and their sexuality by the various schools of thought, it can be asserted that adolescent sexuality and their behaviour can be understood using the developmental theories, Differential association theory and the Psychological Theory of Deviance.

However, the theoretical standpoint this study would adopt to explain adolescent sexuality and their behaviour would be tilted in line with all the theories mentioned earlier in the research study. Adolescent is a transitional stage from childhood to adulthood; automatically we can deduce that the childhood experience contributes immensely to the foundation of the adolescent behaviour, belief systems, values and attitudes. An adolescent who had the privilege of growing up under the watchful eyes of both father and mother cannot be compared to the adolescent who grew up with divorced or separated parents. A child is first a product of his immediate surroundings, before been affected by the larger society. A quick view at Freuds theory will automatically give us an insight into the many

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problems adolescents are facing today. Freud described the early childhood period as a basis for determining an adolescents later personality. A critical look at the theory describes what a child born into a family needs to become a balanced individual later on in life. This is because when a child is born, he or she requires attention and love, and the basic necessity from both parents. According to Freud, in the infancy period the sexual energy lies in the oral region, and later to the anal region. During this time, there is a struggle between the id and the ego, after which the child learns how to delay gratification. A child could only learn to delay gratification if it has received love, care, support and attention from both parents while a child, knowing that man by nature is selfish, therefore man is a product of his environment, when a child is deprived of love and care, most often than not he exhibits hatred, selfishness and distrust for people around him. As such the childhood period is a critical period when a child needs a lot of parental love to maintain a balance in his later personality in life. According to the Bible in book of proverbs 6 verse 22, it says Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not turn away from it, meaning that there must be a training at the childhood period that would determine the way the child would take at the later stage of his life.

Having considered the Bible, a quick look at the Nigerian situation will reveal that most delinquents who parade the streets of Nigeria are those who were deprived of proper childhood, most are from single parent homes where the mother, most times is a teenager who is not prepared for the responsibilities of adulthood, some are however victims of circumstances where both parents either died and they have none to take care of them while majority are from broken homes. Therefore, like Freud describe a deficiency at a stage could make an individual become fixated and this could lead to a psychological imbalance 56

in the later stage of the adolescent.

On the other hand, using the differential association theory propounded by Sutherland and the psychological theory of deviance, we can still connect it to Freuds theory, because when a child is not trained with love, care affection, support and under the watchful eyes of the parents there is bound to be character defects. Psychological theorists argue that something has gone wrong in the socialization process, meaning that if a child is deprived of love care and affection in the early childhood stage, a psychopathic personality can develop and psychopaths tends to act impulsively with little regard for the consequences of their actions. It is therefore, of utmost concern that early childhood has a lasting effect upon adolescent and adult behaviour. Thus, when a child does not have proper home training and at a tender age is exposed to attitudes or values that contradicts the values of the society, tendencies are that the individual will most times act contradictory to societal expectations and would not conform to the belief systems of the society. On the other hand, when a child at an early age mixes with different kinds of personality and the parents do not concern themselves with who the child gets involves with, the child would most likely adopt the behaviour of the people he associates with and this could be detrimental, knowing well that deviant behaviour is learned same way culture, beliefs and attitudes is learnt. In order words, there is need for adolescents to grow up in an environment that provides love, care, affection and the basic needs of life for him to develop a balanced personality later on in life, and such environment most often than not can be traced to loving parents themselves who are prepared to shoulder the responsibility of adulthood.

2.16:

Clarification of Concepts

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Adolescent Is a transition period from childhood to adulthood, moreover this study has adopted the WHO definition of adolescents as people between the ages 10-19years.

Family structure This term tries to explain the family pattern, in the sense that it views the family unit as comprising of the two parties that is the father and the mother. But when there is only one party existing, due to separation or divorce of either the father or the mother there is a disruption in the family structure.

Sexuality Desires, personal feelings and also the physical capacity for sexual arousal and pleasure between two opposite sex.

First Early Sexual intercourse First act of sexual intercourse at an early age or better still at an under aged period of life.

Premarital sex This is an act of sexual intercourse that occurred before the conduction of marriage rite.

Student These are categories of students who are still in junior or senior school and are yet to finish.

Out-of-School These are categories of students who are out of school and are waiting to proceed to the higher institutions for further studies.

School Drop out These are categories of students who could not finish with their academic studies as a result of one reason or the other.

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Apprenticeship These are categories of individuals who are not into formal education but the informal education.

Low-Income These are households whose income or means cannot adequately cater or meet their basic needs or necessities of life.

Middle-Income These are household who fit into the middle class. These categories of people are just comfortable and they can afford the basic necessities of life.

High-Income These are household who are affluent, very comfortable and rich and can equally afford the basic things of life and other deluxe properties.

2.17 Statement of Hypothesis


Significant variables have emerged from the review of relevant literatures and theories. Using these significant variables, the following propositions from which the hypotheses are drawn can be stated.

Proposition I : - Family structure and parent-child relationship is largely responsible for


adolescents behaviour and early sexuality

Proposition II : - The environment in which adolescents grow up affects their behaviour


and early sexual activity

Proposition III : - Socio-economic factors affect the involvement of adolescents in early


sexual activities

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From the propositions above, we can hypothesize as follows: The higher the level of socio-economic status or background of a family, the lesser the involvement of the adolescent in early sexual activity. The higher the level of parent-child communication and parental monitoring the lesser the probability of the adolescents involvement in early sexual activities. The higher the population density of a familys environmental habitation, the higher the level risk involved in spurring the adolescent into early sexual activity.

The higher the disruption of the family structure, either by divorce or separation, the higher the probability of the adolescents involvement in early sexual activity.

CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.0: Introduction


This chapter is specifically concerned with the method of investigation used to obtain the data from the respondents for the purpose of analysis. It must be stated categorically that the success of any research depends largely on the methodology adopted.

3.1: Research Design


For the purpose of the research study, the survey research method was adopted. A survey research design is a form of descriptive research aimed at collecting large and small

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samples from population in order to examine the distribution, incidence and interaction of educational and sociological phenomenon (Denga & Ali, 1989). It must be clearly stated that the reasons for the researchers choice of survey method is the inability of the researcher to influence and manipulate the respondents reply and also the effectiveness of the survey method to be highly representative and lastly, it does not leave any part of the society unattended to. The methodology of this study is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research techniques, which will rely on the facts obtained from the respondents, that is the major actors in the phenomenon being investigated upon. As a survey research, the study will draw a sample size from the research population in order to find out necessary information on the phenomenon being investigated upon, and then use its findings for the generalizations and conclusions about the research population.

3.2: Research Population


This research study is focused on the influence of family background on adolescents early sexual activity in Kosofe local government. Moreover, the research population is basically the in-school adolescents and out-of-school adolescents of Kosofe Local government area. However, because of the largeness of the research area, the research populations were restricted to some wards within Kosofe local government area. Thus, the research populations used are Ketu, Ikosi and Magodo phase I & II.

3.3: Sampling Method and Sample


The sample method this study adopted was the probability and non-probability sampling techniques. The reason for the choice of sample method is to allow for wide information

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that can only be acquired using both methods. The non-probability sampling technique using the purposive sampling method gives the opportunity of obtaining information from individuals who are knowledgeable and who also meet the requirement needed to obtain the relevant data useful for the research study. The probability sampling technique gives the benefit of being able to specify the chances of each of the sampling units being included in the sample. The advantage of the probability sampling technique is its representativeness. Another advantage is that probability sample enables us assess the extent of its accuracy. There are various types of probability sample, but for the purpose of this study, the simple random sampling and stratified random sampling was adopted (Soyombo 1999). The simple random sample involves the selection of sample independent of human judgment; the stratified on the other hand combines the randomization with stratification with the ultimate aim of increasing representativeness. The stratified random sampling allows for division of the research area into different sectors, so that no important stratum of the population may by chance be omitted from the sample. So using the stratified random sampling technique, the research area was divided into the various wards existing within the local government area. Moreover, it is necessary to mention at this stage that the research technique adopted to collect the data from the study area is Multi-stage sampling. With the Multi-stage sampling method, sampling goes through many multiple stages, they are mostly used for national survey, where a country is divided into states, then the states are divided into local government areas, before being divided into wards, streets, houses etc. (Soyombo 1999).

From the research study, a list of the total number of adolescents within the area was examined, the researcher emerged with a total of twenty-seven thousand adolescents aged 62

between 10-19years living within kosofe local government, delineated into ten wards, namely Oworonsoki, Anthony, Ojota, Ifako, Ketu, Olowora, Isheri, Agboyi I & II and Owode Onirin - Ajegunle. However, this study was limited to certain wards within Kosofe local government area. Moreover, because the research study is a multi-stage sampling technique, the total population was divided by the total number of wards under Kosofe, considering in mind that some areas are more populated than others. Thus, the probability sampling method was employed and to this end, ten percent of the total population for Ketu, the research area was calculated and there emerged 166.65 as a sample. However, because the study population being used is based on the reports of the 1991 census survey, this study would adjust the sample size to allow for proper representativeness of the sample population owing to the fact that many young ones would have attained the adolescent stage while the then adolescents would have grown to become adults. So the sample size for the research study has been adjusted to a total of 200 respondents to take care of adolescents that would not have been included based on the 1991 census reports.

3.4: Research Instrument


The research instrument the study used to collect necessary information from respondents is the questionnaire. The questionnaire contains both the close ended and open-ended questions. The questionnaire is divided into three sections and it contains a total of twentynine questions that would enable the researcher test the research hypotheses and also find out relevant information that would enrich the study. The first part contains the demographic data of the respondents; the second section contains the socio-economic background of the respondents while the third part addressed general questions. The questions in section two are directed at testing the formulated research hypotheses. For

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instance, questions 5, 17 and 21 are meant to test hypothesis II which says that The higher the level of parent-child communication and parental monitoring the lesser the probability of the adolescents involvement in early sexual activities. Questions 5 and 10 are meant to test hypothesis I, which says that The higher the level of socio-economic status or background of a family, the lesser the involvement of the adolescent in early sexual activity. Questions 5, 9, 11 and 12 are meant to test hypothesis III, which says that The higher the population density of a familys environmental habitation, the higher the level of risk involved in spurring the adolescent into early sexual activity. Questions 5, 19 and 20 are meant to test hypothesis IV, which says that The higher the disruption of the family structure, either by divorce or separation, the higher the probability of the adolescents involvement in early sexual activity. However, all other questions would be used to analyze the research findings.

3.5: Method of Data Analysis


For the purpose of analysis, the data collected will be interpreted using simple percentage distribution, uni-variate, bi-variate and multi-variate analysis to analyze the questions relating to the demographic characteristics of the respondents. However, a more rigorous statistical instrument, the Chi-square method would be adopted to test the hypotheses formulated earlier for the research.

3.6: Brief History of Kosofe Local Government Area


Kosofe is one of the twenty-five local governments in Lagos State. Kosofe means, Nothing is free hence the high commercial activities which characterizes the area. On the 27th of November 1980, the birth of the entity called Kosofe Local government was announced with four other new local governments in Lagos State. Kosofe is located at the

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Northern part of Lagos State, it is bounded by three other local governments namely: Ikeja, Ikorodu and Somolu. It shares a common boundary with Ogun State and its jurisdiction comprises of ten wards and encompasses an area of about 178.85sq/km, with its headquarters located at Ogudu road. The ten wards include, Oworonsoki, Anthony, Ojota, Ikosi, Ketu, Olowora, Isheri, Agboyi I & II and Owode Onirin - Ajegunle. Judging from the 1991 national population census, Kosofe houses 325, 522 people (172,209 males and 153, 313 females). By the 1996 Lagos State projections, Kosofe local government population then stands at approximately 394,996. However, Kosofe local government as at today houses almost 1.5million people (Brief on Kosofe, 2003). The Aworis, whose major occupations were mat weaving, farming and fishing, mostly inhabits Kosofe. However, due to its location as the gateway to the state and the hospitality of the indigenes, Kosofe houses people from the Northern and Eastern parts of the country who engage in commercial activities in the various markets such as mile 12 and Ketu. Thus, the local government has different classes of individuals inhabiting in the environment. Today, kosofe accommodates the low, medium and high income status individuals, thus, besides government reserved residential schemes, kosofe is blessed with high brow residential estates such as those located at Ogudu, Magodo phase I & II, Ikosi and Omole (Brief on Kosofe, 2003). Educationally, Kosofe has a total of 35 public primary schools, 28,839 pupils in primary school, 1,781 Teachers in public primary school, 94 private nursery and primary schools, 47 public secondary schools, 20 private secondary schools, 34 adult literacy centers, 739 adult literacy learners, and 9 public home economics centers and hand craft centers.

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Owing from the last nation wide census conducted in 1991, Lagos State alone was judged to have a total of 3,010,604 million males and 2,714,512 million females. Adolescents aged 10-14years had a total population of 347,821, while the 15-19years was 328,032 for males. The females adolescents had a total population of 363,890 for the 10-14years and 328,573 for the 15-19yearsage groups. For the Never married, the population stood at 344,474 for the 10-14years and 321,349 for the 15-19years for males and 358,558 for the 10-14years and 297,163 for the 15-19years for females. Moreover, the entire Lagos State has a total population of 2,220,792 for the Never married for males and 1,302,310 for the females. In order words, it is necessary to add that the population for adolescents between ages 10-19 years for Kosofe was done through calculations and approximations (Census, 1991)

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 4.0: Introduction
This section is mainly concerned with analyzing the data collected from the researched area, in order to interpret the findings into words that can help explain the research conclusion.

4.1: Data analysis and Interpretation


In analyzing the data collected, simple percentage distribution was used most especially to analyze the questions directed at testing the socio-demographic and socio-economic

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characteristics of the respondents. However, a more rigorous statistical analysis, which is the Chi-square, was used to test all the hypotheses formulated earlier for the research study.

SECTION 1
4.2 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

Table 1:

Distribution of Respondents by Sex Sex


Male Female Total

Frequency
87 113 200

Percentage %
43.5 56.5 100.0

Using the table of distribution indicated above, 87 (43.5%) respondents of the total 200 respondents were male, while the remaining 113 (56.5%) were female. From the table above, we can interpret that since most of the respondents were female, therefore we expect that the research findings would be tilted towards the female judgment or opinion.

Table 2:

Distribution of Respondents by Age Years


10 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Total

Frequency
1 1 8 35 52 34 26 36 7 200

Percentage %
.5 .5 4.0 17.5 26.0 17.0 13.0 18.0 3.5 100.0

From the above table of distribution, the age with the largest number of adolescents represented in the study is the 15years age bracket, representing a total of 26%, followed

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next by age 18, 14 and 16 years, representing 18%, 17.5% and 17% consecutively. We will therefore infer from the data collected that adolescents aged 14, 15, 16 and 18years were mostly available as respondents for the research study. In other words, we can conclude that most of the research findings would be tilted more towards these ages especially age 15.

Table 3: Distribution of Respondents by Ethnic Group Ethnic Group


Yoruba 0Hausa Igbo Total

Frequency
155 5 40 200

Percentage %
77.5 2.5 20.0 100.0

From the table above, it is very evident that majority of the respondents were of the Yoruba background, representing a total of 77.5%. This can be best attributed to the fact that the research area is a Yoruba speaking community dominated mostly by the Aworis hence, the representation of a larger percentage of the Yoruba ethnic background.

Table 4:

Distribution of Respondents by Religion Religion


Christianity Islam Traditionalist Total

Frequency
162 36 2 200

Percentage %
81.0 18.0 1.0 100.0

From the table above, it can be interpreted that the majority of the respondents were Christians, representing a total of 81%, which is greater than the sum total of the remaining

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two religious groups. Hence, we can conclude from the table that most of the respondents fall within the Christian religious background.

Table 5:

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity Virginity Status


Virgins Non-Virgins Total

Frequency
117 83 200

Percentage %
58.5 41.5 100.0

From the above table of distribution, it can be interpreted that majority of the respondents are virgins, representing a total of 58.5%, compared to the percentage total of the respondents who are not virgins who represent a total of 41.5%. However, having a high rate of virginity from the research area may not necessarily be true and it does not mean that the respondents who declared themselves as virgins are virgins, it could be that they declared themselves as virgins for fear of being regarded as loose or promiscuous by the people around them or their peers.

Table 6: Sex

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and Sex of student Virginity Status Virgin Non-Virgin Row Total
Male Female 40 77 117 47 36 83 87 113 200

Column Total

However, comparing the sex of student to their virginity status, we can surmise that the females respondents have a higher percentage for both virginity and non-virginity status. From the table, we can infer that more males engage in sexual activity earlier than their 69

female counterparts, while more females from the research study declared to be virgins. This is not to mean that more males in the research area engage in sexual activity earlier than the females, it could be that because of the societys expectations of females remaining chaste and pure until marriage made some of the female respondents who are not virgins declare that they are virgins for fear of being seen as sexually loose or immoral.

Figure 3: Distribution of male and female non-virgin by average age


V in ySau = o V in irg it t t s N t irg
3 0

2 0

1 0

ae g a e v ra e g
1- 2 01 1- 5 31

Count

0 mle a fe a mle

1- 9 61

s xo s d n e f tu e t

Graphically, we can infer that a larger proportion of the male respondents engage in early sexual intercourse, compared to their female counterparts. However, from the graph both sex share common similarity and that is the peak age of 13-15years, where most adolescents engage in early sexual activity. One factor that can be attributed to this trend is the double standards employed by the society towards sexual activity; this is because while males are encouraged to exploit their sexual prowess, the females are warned to remain chaste and pure till marriage, thus the high proportion of males engaging in premarital sexual intercourse. According to Prasartkul et al.,, (1987); Thapa et al., (2001); Tan, (1994) premarital sex is biased owing to prevailing double standard regarding sexual behaviour,

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being tolerant towards young mens premarital sexual experiences and being restrictive towards young womens premarital sexual experiences. This is not to say that most females maintain sexual purity until marriage, it is just that for fear of being labeled bad or morally decade, most female report or declare themselves as virgins.

Table 6:

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity Status, Average age and Sex of student Average Age Sex of Student
Male Female 10-12 Male Female 4 5 9 13-15 27 25 52 16-19 16 6 22 Not Applicable 40 77 117 Row Total

Virginity Status Virgin


Column Total

40 77 117 47 36 83

Not Virgin
Column Total

From the table above, comparing the sex of the respondents to their virginity status, we can surmise that more males engage in premarital sexual intercourse compared to the females. Moreover, comparing the average age to the sex of student and their virginity status, we can infer that at the early adolescent stage of 10-12years, more females engage in sexual intercourse to their male counterparts. One reason we can attribute to this, is that females tend to enter into puberty earlier than the males and at this age. However, for the 13-15 and 16-19years age group, more males engage in sexual intercourse compared to the females at this age. This can be attributed to the double standards of sexual purity in the society and also to peer pressure adolescent struggle with. In all, we can conclude that at the middle and late adolescent stage, more adolescents are prone to engage in premarital sexual intercourse because of certain factors that facilitate their exposure to sex. 71

Table 7: Distribution of Respondents by Age at First Sexual Intercourse Years


10 12 13 14 15 16 17 Not Applicable Total

Frequency
3 6 11 24 17 14 8 117 200

Percentage %
1.5 3.0 5.5 12.0 8.5 7.0 4.0 58.5 100.0

From the table above, we can interpret that the age at first sexual intercourse for majority of the respondents is age 14. However, one noticeable trend in the age at first sexual intercourse is that most of the respondents engage in sexual activity during the middle and the late adolescent stage. We can infer that the reason for this is that during this stage (1315years) and (16-19years), most adolescents are already in secondary school, and chances are that, adolescents will meet with other peers who have sexually permissive behaviors or could be sexually active and thus influence other adolescents. According to Neema et al., (2000), peer pressure motivates many adolescents to initiate sexual activity. Thus, we could surmise that the adolescents respondents peers at school whose behaviour is sexually permissive influence adolescents, who engage in sexual activity during the middle and the late adolescent stage.

Table 8:

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and Age at First Sexual Intercourse Average Age
10-12 13-15 16-19 Not Applicable

Virginity Status Virgin Not-Virgin Column Total

9 9

52 52

22 22

117 117

Row Total 117 83 200

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Looking at the cross tabulation between virginity status and average age at first sexual intercourse, it can be interpreted that first sexual intercourse is highest between ages 13-15, that is the middle adolescent period. From the table above, most adolescents respondents have their first sexual intercourse at age 13-15years, meaning that the period is a critical stage where most adolescents could either be influenced positively or negatively. Also, a large proportion of adolescents engage in sexual intercourse at ages 16-19, which only confirms that if adolescents are not properly guided at the early stage, chances are that they might not make it past the late adolescent stage.

Table 9:

Distribution of Respondents by Reasons for First Sexual Intercourse Reasons Frequency Percentage %

Poverty 11 5.5 Bad Gang 6 3.0 Peer Pressure 21 10.5 Sexual Assault 14 7.0 Curiosity 12 6.0 Early Exposure 19 9.5 Not Applicable 117 58.5 Total 200 100.0 From the table above, it can be interpreted that peer pressure is a strong force that facilitate early sexual intercourse amongst adolescents. This is because from the table above, peer pressure represents a total of 10.5%, while early exposure follows, representing a total of 9.5%, while sexual assault, curiosity and poverty represents a total of 7%, 6% and 5.5% respectively. Peer Pressure is a significant force making youth engage in early and unprotected sex. According to Neema et al., (2000), peer influence is another cited predictor of early sexuality. There is abundant evidence that adolescents are affected by the sexual attitudes and behaviours of their friends.

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Table 10:

Distribution of Respondents by Working Positions Working position


Student Out-of-school School Drop-out Apprenticeship Total

Frequency
171 17 7 5 200

Percentage %
85.5 8.5 3.5 2.5 100.0

The table above as interpreted means that majority of the respondents are students, representing a total of 85.5%, meaning that most of the adolescents are still in school. In addition, the out-of-school follows next representing a total of 8.5% compared with the school dropout and apprenticeship that represents 3.5% and 2.5% respectively.

Table 11:

Distribution of Respondents by Type of House House


Mansion Duplex / Bungalow Flats One Room Apartment Total

Frequency Percentage %
17 39 80 64 200 8.5 19.5 40.0 32.0 100.0

From the table above, it can be interpreted that most of the respondents comes from homes that are flats, followed by respondents living in one room apartment. However, if we compare the total number of respondents who live in mansion or duplex, we will surmise that respondents in one room apartment out-number those from the duplex or mansion category. In other words, most of our respondents come flats or one-room apartment homes.

Table 12: Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and Type of House Type of House Virginity Status
Mansion Duplex/Bungalow Flats One Room Row Total

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Virgin Not-Virgin

13 4 17

28 11 39

45 35 80

31 33 64

117 83 200

Column Total

From the table of distribution above, we can infer that more respondents who reside in mansion and duplex homes delay early sexual intercourse. This is because from the table we can see that of the 17 respondents living in mansions only 4 of the respondents are not virgins. The same also applies to respondents living in duplex or bungalow, also for respondents living in one room apartment we can conclude that of the 64 respondents residing in one room apartment, 33 respondents are already sexually active (not-virgins). This only shows that the type of house adolescents live in affects their sexuality and could determine their initiation into early sexual intercourse or not.

Table 13:

Distribution of Respondents by Socio-Economic status Frequency


66 34 100 200

Socio-Economic Status
High-Income Middle-Income Low-Income Total

Percentage %
33.0 17.0 50.0 100.0

From the table above, we can interpret that majority of the respondents come from lowincome homes. This is because a total of 100 adolescents respondents representing a total of 50% come from the low-income category, compared to respondents from high-income homes that represent a total of 33%. Thus, we can interpret that most of our adolescents respondents come from homes where their socio-economic status is low, while 34 respondents representing 17.0% come from the middle-income homes.

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Table 14:

Distribution of Respondents by Number of Persons per room Frequency


106 52 42 200

Number per room


1-2 persons 3-4 persons 5 persons and above Total

Percentage %
53.0 26.0 21.0 100.0

From the table above, it can be interpreted to mean that majority of the respondents come from homes that is characterized by 1-2persons per room, as this category represents the largest group representing a total of 53%. This further indicates that most of the adolescent respondents live in homes that are not crowded. Moreover, the other category of the 3-4 persons and the 5persons and above which indicates homes that are experiencing overcrowding represents 26% and 21% respectively.

Table 15: Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and Number of persons per room Virginity Status Number of persons per room
1-2persons 3-4persons 5persons and above Virgin 73 27 17 117 Not-Virgin 33 25 25 83 Row Total 106 52 42 200

Column Total

From the table of distribution above, more respondents in 1-2persons per room tend to delay early sexual intercourse, compared to respondents in 5persons and above who engage in sex earlier. This is because from the table, more respondents in 1-2persons are virgins, while more respondents in the 5persons and above are not virgins. Also, respondents in the 3-4persons are almost equal in terms of engaging and not engaging in early sexual intercourse. Thus, we can conclude that overcrowding in the room could affect adolescents sexuality, and also determine adolescents initiation into early sexual intercourse.

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Table 16:

Distribution of Respondents by Population Density of living area Frequency


61 50 89 200

Population Density
Sparsely Populated Densely Populated Average Population Total

Percentage %
30.5 25.0 44.5 100.0

From the table above, we can infer that most of the adolescent respondents come from neighbourhood or environment that are averagely populated, representing a total of 44.5%. Moreover, average population can be defined as neither thinly populated nor thickly populated. In addition, the next category that characterizes the living area is the sparsely populated respondents, as they represent a total of 30.5%, while the least category are the respondents from the densely populated area, which represents a total of 25%. Thus, we can infer that since less number of adolescents resides in areas that are densely populated, and more adolescents resides in areas that are averagely and sparsely populated, we expect that adolescents residing in the sparsely populated areas will delay early sexual initiation, as the population density of an area is a factor responsible for sexual initiation of adolescents.

Table 17:

Distribution of Respondents by Fathers Employment status Frequency


66 118 9 7 200

Fathers Employment status


Self-Employed Civil Servant Retiree / Pensioner Unemployed Total

Percentage %
33.0 59.0 4.5 3.5 100.0

From the table of distribution above, it can be interpreted that majority of the respondents fathers are civil servants. However, respondents whose fathers are self-employed represent

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a total of 33%, while respondents whose fathers are retirees /pensioner and respondents whose fathers are unemployed represents a total of 4.5% and 3.5% consecutively.

Table 18:

Distribution of Respondents by Mothers Employment status Frequency


79 109 3 9 200

Mothers Employment status


Self-Employed Civil Servant Retiree / Pensioner Unemployed Total

Percentage %
39.5 54.5 1.5 4.5 100.0

From the table of distribution above, it can be interpreted that majority of the respondents mothers are civil servants as their fathers. The civil servant category consists of the largest number of respondent representing a total of 54.5%, while the respondents whose mothers are self employed, represents a total of 39.5%, while respondents whose mothers are retirees/pensioner and respondents whose mothers are unemployed represents a total of 1.5% and 4.5% successively.

Table 19:

Distribution of Respondents by Fathers Educational Qualifications Frequency


9 34 25 132 200

Educational Qualification
Primary School Certificate NCE/OND University Degree Total

Percentage %
4.5 17.0 12.5 66.0 100.0

From the table of distribution above, it can be interpreted that majority of the respondents fathers posses a university degree representing a total of 66%. This indicates that majority of the respondents fathers are educated. In addition, from the table, we find that 78

respondents whose fathers have a school certificate represents a total of 17% while those with NCE/OND and the primary school category represents a total of 12.5% and 4.5% respectively.

Table 20:

Distribution of Respondents by Mothers Educational Qualifications Frequency


7 37 33 123 200

Educational Qualification
Primary School Certificate NCE/OND University Degree Total

Percentage %
3.5 18.5 16.5 61.5 100.0

Like the respondents in the fathers category, majority of the respondents within the mothers category have university degree, representing a total of 61.5%, meaning that most of the respondents come from homes with highly educated parents. Thus, we would infer that adolescents whose mothers and fathers are highly educated will delay early sexual initiation because Thornton and Camburn (1989) found that parents with higher levels of education had children who had a lower level of sexual activity, possibly because highly educated parents influence their children not to engage in sexual intercourse through increased emphasis on academics and monitoring of their children's school-related activities.

Table 21:

Distribution of Respondents by First Information on Sex First Informant Frequency Percentage %


Parents Brothers / Sisters Neighbours Peer Group School Television Total 39 16 18 66 60 1 200 19.5 8.0 9.0 33.0 30.0 .5 100.0

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From the table of distribution, we can interpret that a good number of the respondents representing a total of 33% obtain their first information on sex from their peer group, meaning that peer groups are one of the most powerful agents of information. In addition, the school is another agent of information, because it is adolescents gets to meet with other peers to share information and ideas, thus, majority of the respondents declared that their first information on sex was gotten from their peer groups and from the school. However, 39 respondents declared getting their first information on sex from their parents, which means that most adolescents get their first information on sex from their peers at school, and chances are that they could get the wrong information, which could easily facilitate their entry into early sexual intercourse.

Table 22:

Distribution of Respondents by discussion of sex with parent Frequency


60 140 200

Discussion of sex with parents


Yes No Total

Percentage %
30.0 70.0 100.0

From the table of distribution above, we can interpret it to mean that majority of the respondents do not discuss issues of sex with their parents. Moreover, from the

questionnaire administered on the adolescents on reasons why they do not discuss sex with their parents, majority of the respondents declared that they are not comfortable discussing sex with their parents, besides their parents will skin them alive if they dare discuss such words with them, also that their parents will regard the respondents as bad and irresponsible. This explains why majority of the respondents obtains their first information of sexual issues from their peer group and from the school community and would rather not discuss sex issues with their parents.

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Table 23:

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and First information on sex


First information on sex

Virginity Status Parents Virgin Not Virgin Column Total 29 10 39 Brothers / Sisters 6 10 16 Neighbour 7 11 18 Peer Group 37 29 66 School 37 23 60 Television 1 1 Row Total 117 83 200

From the above table of distribution, we can interpret that majority of the respondents who are virgins heard their first lecture or information of sex from their school and their peer group, which makes them very powerful forces of influence. However, for adolescents who had their first information on sex from their parents, a higher proportion of them are still virgins, which points to the fact that if parents teach and advise their children on sex issues before anyone does, chances are that a good number of the adolescents will not get the wrong information and would probably delay early sexual intercourse. On the other hand, for respondents who are not virgins majority of them heard their first information on sex from their peer group and their school, which still points to the fact that the peer group adolescents associates with, and the school they acquire knowledge from and also spend a greater percentage of their lives in, has a great influence on them either positively or negatively.

Table 24: Distribution of Respondents by those living with both Parents Living with both parents Frequency
Yes No Total 100 100 200

Percentage %
50.0 50.0 100.0

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Table 25: Distribution of Respondents by Reasons for staying with either of the parents Reasons for staying with either parents
Separated Divorced Death Traveled Job Transfer Not Applicable Total

Frequency
33 15 14 18 20 100 200

Percentage %
16.5 7.5 7.0 9.0 10.0 50.0 100.0

From table 22 of the distribution above, it can be interpreted that 50% of the respondents come from both parents and single parents home. From the table 23, Looking at the respondents from the single parents home, 16.5% of the respondents come from homes where the parents are separated, while respondents representing 10% come from homes that either of the two parents are on job transfer. In addition, 9%, 7.5% and 7% of the respondents come from homes where either of the parents have traveled, divorced or is dead respectively. Thus, we can infer that adolescents from single parents homes will engage in sexual intercourse earlier than adolescents from homes where the parents are staying together.

Table 26:

Distribution of Respondents by how often you discuss with parents How often Always Sometimes Once a while Rarely Never Total Frequency 42 55 49 35 19 200 Percentage % 21.0 27.5 24.5 17.5 9.5 100.0

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Table 27: Distribution of Respondents by how often you discuss with parents and Reasons for staying with either of the parents
Reasons for staying with either of the parents Separated Divorce Death Travel Job Transfer Not Applicable Column Total How often you discuss with parents Always Sometimes Once a while Rarely Never Row Total

1 2 2 5 32 42

3 4
3 5 6 34 55

8 2
3 3 6 27 49

12 4
4 7 2 6 35

9 5
2 1 1 1 19

33 15
14 18 20 100 200

From table 24 of distribution, we can interpret that, majority of the respondents discuss with their parents sometimes. This is because from the table, respondents who discuss with their parents sometimes represent a total of 27.5%, adolescents who discuss with their parents once a while represents a total of 24.5%, lastly, adolescents who discuss with their parents always, rarely or never represents a total of 21%, 17.5% and 9.5% respectively. However, from table 25, respondents staying with either of their parents were compared with how often they discuss with their parents, we interpreted that respondents from single parents home, beginning with those from the separated homes have many respondents who rarely or never discuss with their parents, meaning that their parents are never available for them when needed. In addition, it can be interpreted that majority of the respondents staying with either of their parents by reasons of factors as divorce, traveling or death rarely or never discuss with their parents. Moreover, compared with respondents staying with both parents, majority of them discuss with their parents sometimes or always. In order words, we can interpret that when respondents come from single parents home, the probability of them having time to discuss with their parents always or sometimes is low

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compared to their counterparts from the two parents home who discuss with their parents always or sometimes.

Thus, we can conclude that parent-child communications plays a vital role in shaping adolescents behaviour and sexuality, this is because, from tables 24 and 25, adolescents who grow up with both parents are more opportune to discuss with their parents always and sometimes, thus delaying their initiation into early sexual intercourse. However, when adolescents grow up in single parents homes, where their parents rarely or never discuss with them, the probability of engaging in early sexual intercourse is very high.

Lastly, there is need to infer that every adolescent who grow up with both parents will delay early sexual intercourse, thus, the need to prove hypothetically whether growing up with both parents helps delay early sexual intercourse or not, thus, the necessity of the next section.

4.3: SECTION II
TESTING OF HYPOTHESES
In this section of the study, for the hypotheses formulated earlier in the research study a more complex statistical method was adopted to analyze the data collected on the questions it was designed and directed at testing. This is so because the statistical method will help us either to accept or reject claims of knowledge by the respondents concerning the phenomenon under study. Therefore the need for Chi-square method, moreover, the tools that would be employed to help in the analysis and testing of hypotheses of the research study are: 1. Alternative Hypothesis The formulated research study hypothesis

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2. Null Hypothesis Hypothesis contrasting the research study hypothesis 3. o Observed Frequency 4. e Expected Frequency 5. o-e Observed Frequency Expected Frequency 6. X Chi-square 7. r Number of Rows 8. C Number of Columns 9. Xc Calculated Chi-square 10. Xt Table Chi-square 11. df Degree of Freedom (r-1)(c-1) 12. 0.05 Alpha level of significance 13. Acceptance When calculated Chi-square is greater than the table chi-square 14. Rejection When the table Chi-square greater than the calculated chi-square

HYPOTHESIS I Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The higher the level of socio-economic status or

background of a family, the lesser the involvement of the adolescent in early sexual activity.

Null Hypothesis (H0):

socio-economic status does not determine the initiation of

adolescents into early sexual activity.

Table 28:

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and Socioeconomic status

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Virginity Status Socio-economic Status


High Income Status Middle Income Status Low Income Status Virgin 47 21 49 117 Column Total Total x o-e 8.39 1.11 -9.5 -8.39 -1.11 9.5 66 = 38.61 (o-e) 70.3921 1.2321 90.25 70.3921 1.2321 90.25 (o-e)/ e 1.82 0.06 1.54 2.57 0.09 2.17 8.25 x Non-Virgin 19 13 51 83

Row Total
66 34 100 200

Column Total
To get our expected frequency (ef) = e.g. To get the (ef) of 47 O 47 21 49 19 13 51 E 38.61 19.89 58.5 27.39 14.11 41.5 = 117 200

Row Total

Calculated Chi-square Xc = 8.25 Table value at 0.05 alpha level of significance at degree of freedom df = (r 1)(c 1) = (2 1)(3 1) ( 1) Table Chi-square Xt x (2) = = 2 5.99

To test for the strength of relationship between variables, we need to calculate correlation co-efficient. CC = = 8.25 8.25 + 200 0.04 8.25 208.25

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Interpretation and Decision Since the calculated Chi-square of Xc = 8.25 is greater than the Chi-square value of Xt = 5.99 at 0.05 alpha level of significance at 2 degree of freedom, we hereby accept the research study hypothesis. Therefore, we would conclude that there is a relationship between socio-economic status and the initiation of adolescents into early sexual activity at correlation coefficient of 0.04 or 4%. Studies on adolescents sexual behaviour have always investigated socio-economic factors and have associated it, with adolescents sexual activity (Odimegwu et al., 2002). Poverty is one of the leading problems particularly among the girls. Some of these girls who get involved in sex at an early age is because some lack financial support from their parents and guardians. According to Anochie & Ikpeme (2001) from their research study of female secondary school students in Port Harcourt, 54.1% of students were from large families with low socio-economic background. This is consistent with arguments and reports that economic hardship encourages girls to become sexually active at an early age for economic reasons. Thus, we would conclude that socio-economic hardship facilitates adolescents initiation into early sexual activity, because from the research study hypothesis, there is a correlation between low-economic background and early sexual initiation.

HYPOTHESIS II Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The higher the level of parent-child communication and parental monitoring the lesser the probability of the adolescents involvement in early sexual activities.

Null Hypothesis (H0): Parent-child communication and parental monitoring does not determine adolescents initiation into early sexual unions. 87

Table 29:

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and how often you discuss with parents How often you discuss with parents
Always 25 17 42 Sometimes 40 15 55 Once a while 32 17 49 Column Total Total x 117 = 24.57 Rarely 12 23 35 x Never 8 11 19 Row Total Row Total 117 83 200

Virginity Status Virgin Not Virgin Column Total

To get our expected frequency (ef) = e.g. To get the (ef) of 25 = 42 200

O 25 17 40 15 32 17 12 23 8 11

E 24.57 17.43 32.175 22.825 28.665 20.335 20.475 14.525 11.115 7.885 =

o-e 0.43 -0.43 7.825 -7.825 3.335 -3.335 -8.475 8.475 -3.115 3.115 16.0952

(o-e) 0.1849 0.1849 61.230625 61.230625 11.122225 11.122225 71.825625 71.825625 9.703225 9.703225

(o-e)/ e 0.0075 0.0106 1.9030 2.6826 0.3880 0.5469 3.5080 4.9450 0.8730 1.2306 16.0952

Calculated Chi-square Xc

Table value at 0.05 alpha level of significance at degree of freedom df = = (r 1)(c 1) (5 1)(2 1) (4) = 4 = 9.49 x (1)

Table Chi-square Xt

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To test for the strength of relationship between variables, we need to calculate correlation co-efficient. CC = 16.0952 16.0952 + 200 16.0952 216.0952

0.0745

Table 30:

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and Discussion of sex issues with parents Discussion of sex issues with parents
Yes 42 18 60 e 35.1 24.9 81.9 58.1 = 4.669 o-e 6.9 -6.9 -6.9 6.9 No 75 65 140 (o-e) 47.61 47.61 47.61 47.61 Row Total 117 83 200 (o-e)/ e 1.3564 1.9120 0.5813 0.8194 4.669

Virginity Status Virgin Not Virgin Column Total O 42 18 75 65

Calculated Chi-square Xc

Table value at 0.05 alpha level of significance at degree of freedom df = = (r 1)(c 1) (2 1)(2 1) (1) = 1 = 3.84 x (1)

Table Chi-square Xt

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To test for the strength of relationship between variables, we need to calculate correlation co-efficient. 4.669 4.669 + 200 204.669 4.669

0.0228

Interpretation and Decision Since the calculated Chi-square of Xc = 16.0952 is greater than the Chi-square value of Xt = 9.49 at 0.05 alpha level of significance at 4 degree of freedom, we hereby accept the research study hypothesis. Therefore, we would conclude that there is a relationship between parent-child communication and parental monitoring and adolescent early sexual activity at correlation coefficient of 0.0745 or 7.45%. Also for the second calculated chisquare, since the calculated chi-square of Xc = 4.669 is greater than the chi-square value of Xt = 3.84 at 0.05 alpha level of significance at 1 degree of freedom, we hereby also accept the research study hypothesis. There is a relationship between parent-child communication and parental monitoring to the initiation of adolescents into early sexual activity at correlation coefficient of 0.0228 or 2.28%.

This agrees with the works of Inazu & Fox, (1980), Simon, Berger, & Gagnon, (1972), Zelnick, Kantner, & Ford, (1981) that warm, supportive, and communicative parents delay sexual experience among their offspring compared to harsh and hostile parents who are not communicative, warm or supportive to their offspring. Simons, Johnson, & Conger (1994) also assert that specific parenting processes such as monitoring and harsh discipline

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consistently, have been shown to affect other minor deviant behaviors that are highly correlated with early sexual intercourse that are likely to play a role in early sexual activity.

Using the two calculated Chi-square, we can interpret that parent-child communication and parental monitoring plays a vital role in determining the initiation of an adolescent into early sexual activity or not.

HYPOTHESIS III Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The higher the population density of a familys environmental habitation, the higher the level of risk involved in spurring the adolescent into early sexual activity.

Null Hypothesis (H0): Population density of a familys living area does not determine adolescents initiation into early sexual activity.

Table 31:

Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and Population Density of Living area Virginity Status
Virgin 39 27 51 117 Column Total Total x 61 = 35.685 Not-Virgin 22 23 38 83 x Row Total Row Total 61 50 89 200

Population Density
Sparsely Populated Densely Populated Average Population

Column Total
To get our expected frequency (ef) = e.g. To get the (ef) of 39 = 117 200

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O 39 27 51 22 23 38

E 35.685 29.25 52.065 25.315 20.75 36.935 =

o-e 3.315 -2.25 -1.065 -3.315 2.25 1.065 1.2117

(o-e) 10.989225 5.0625 1.134225 10.989225 5.0625 1.134225

(o-e)/ e 0.3080 0.1731 0.0218 0.4341 0.2440 0.0307 1.2117

Calculated Chi-square Xc

Table value at 0.05 alpha level of significance at degree of freedom df = = (r 1)(c 1) (2 1)(3 1) (1) x (2) = Table Chi-square Xt = 2 5.99

To test for the strength of relationship between variables, we need to calculate correlation co-efficient. 1.2117 1.2117 + 200 201.2117 1.2117

0.0060 Interpretation and Decision Since the calculated Chi-square of Xc = 1.2117 is lesser than the Chi-square value of Xt = 5.99 at 0.05 alpha level of significance at 2 degree of freedom, we hereby reject the research study hypothesis. Therefore, we would conclude that there is no association between the population density of a familys living area and the initiation of adolescents

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into early sexual activity at correlation coefficient of 0.0060 or 0.6%. In other words, we would conclude that the population density of a familys habitation does not determine the initiation of adolescents into early sexual union. Thus, our research hypothesis does not agree with the previous Chicago school, which argue that, while applying concentric zone theory and mapping system, delinquency rates were highest in zones closest to the center of the city Chicago. The reason for the rejection of the hypothesis could be as a result of the differences in societies, because societies have different peculiarities. Moreover, we would conclude that what applies in one society may not necessarily apply in another society, thus, we would imply that adolescents initiation into early sexual intercourse is not determined by the how sparsely or densely populated an habitation is. So, from the research study hypothesis, we can infer that there is no relationship between adolescents early sexual intercourse and the population density of an area.

HYPOTHESIS IV Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The higher the disruption of the family structure, either by divorce or separation, the higher the probability of the adolescents involvement in early sexual activity. Null Hypothesis (H0): The disruption of the family structure either by divorce or separation does not determine adolescent initiation into early sexual activity.

Table 34: Distribution of Respondents by Virginity and Reasons for staying with either mum or Dad
Reasons for staying with either mum or Dad Row

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Separated

Divorce

Death

Travel

Virginity Status
Virgin Not Virgin Column Total 12 21 33 3 12 15 4 10 14 9 9 18

Job Transfer

Not Applicable

Total

8 12 20 x

81 19 100 Row Total

117 83 200

To get our expected frequency (ef) = e.g. To get the (ef) of 12 = 33 200

Column Total Total x 117 = 19.305

O 12 21 3 12 4 10 9 9 8 12 81 19

e 19.305 13.695 8.775 6.225 8.19 5.81 10.53 7.47 11.7 8.3 58.5 41.5 = 45.1919

o-e -7.305 7.305 -5.775 5.775 -4.19 4.19 -1.53 1.53 -3.7 3.7 22.5 -22.5

(o-e) 53.363025 53.363025 33.350625 33.350625 17.5561 17.5561 2.3409 2.3409 13.69 13.69 506.25 506.25

(o-e)/ e 2.7642 3.8965 3.8006 5.3575 2.1436 3.0217 0.2223 0.3134 1.1701 1.6494 8.6538 12.1988 45.1919

Calculated Chi-square Xc

Table value at 0.05 alpha level of significance at degree of freedom df = = (r 1)(c 1) (6 1)(2 1) ( 5) Table Chi-square Xt x (1) = = 11.1 5

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To test for the strength of relationship between variables, we need to calculate correlation co-efficient. 45.1919 45.1919 + 200 245.1919 0.1843 45.1919

Interpretation and Decision Since the calculated Chi-square of Xc = 45.1919 is greater than the Chi-square value of Xt = 11.1 at 0.05 alpha level of significance at 5 degree of freedom. From the calculated chi-square, we can interpret that the disruption of family structure plays a strong role in determining the initiation of an adolescent into early sexual activity. From this study, adolescents from single parent families engage in early sexual activity earlier compared with adolescents living with both parents. This agrees with the works of Forste & Heaton (1988), Miller & Moore (1990), Day (1992), Miller & Bingham (1989): indicating that adolescents in single-parent families tend to become sexually active earlier than those in two-parent families. We hereby accept the research study hypothesis that states that the higher the disruption of the family structure, either by divorce or separation, the higher the probability of the adolescents involvement in early sexual activity.

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION 5.0: Introduction


The study has considered adolescent sexuality beginning from the primordial era when sex and matters of sexuality was considered sacred and virginity was a thing of pride, to the

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modern time when civilization brought with it enlightenment. Civilization and education brought about massive exposure to sexuality and modern contraceptives through channels as the media, television etc. The study has also considered the influence of family background, socio-economic status and other factors as it affects adolescent sexuality.

5.1: Summary
The studys review of relevant local and foreign journals revealed the psychological influence of family background on adolescent sexuality. From the study, it was discovered that in most societies of the world adolescents are influenced by their family background irrespective of the society. Adolescents deprived of love, care and affection, and raised by single parents tends to exhibit different traits and behaviour from those who had the opportunity of receiving care, affection and support from parents and was also trained under the watchful eyes of both parents. From generation to generation the latter tends to exhibit balanced behavioral characteristics compared to the former who has lots of character defects.

From the theories employed by the research study, it was revealed that adolescents behaviour towards their sexuality had its roots from their early childhood experiences and their family background plays a strong role in determining the later personality of the adolescents. In other words, Freuds theory and the psychological theory of deviance argues that deficiency in the upbringing of the child by the parents during his early childhood could bring about a development of a psychopathic personality and psychopaths tends to act impulsively with little regard for the consequences of their actions. It is

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therefore, of utmost concern that early childhood has a lasting effect upon adolescent and adult behaviour.

Nigeria, and Lagos in particular where the research study was conducted, have one of the highest rates of juvenile delinquency records in the country. This is because from the evidences shown from the everyday life in the city, there is increased rate of juvenile delinquency activities. A look at the boys at Oshodi, one of the most populous cities in Lagos reveals that majority of the people who commit atrocious crimes are juveniles, that is, adolescents aged between 10-19years, and studies have shown that majority of them come from separated homes, polygamous homes, parents with non-challant attitude towards the up-brining of their children, homes deficient of love, care, affection and support. Thus, there is a great influence of family background and early childhood experience greatly on adult personality or behaviour.

From the studys research objectives, it aimed at discovering whether family background and some other environmental factors influence adolescents sexuality, of which to achieve the purpose the Kosofe local government area was used as a case study. The study adopted the probability and non-probability sampling techniques. For the non-probability, the purposive sampling method was used, while the multi-stage sampling, simple random sampling and the stratified random sampling were adopted for the probability sampling techniques. In the data collection stage, the questionnaire and interview method was used to obtain the necessary information from the respondents.

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The research findings revealed that adolescents family background and some environmental factors have increased the initiation of adolescents into early sexual activity. Amongst the family background forces and environmental forces identified includes: Single parenting owing from separation and divorced, as well as single parenting resulting from teenage pregnancy Densely populated environments Lack of parent-child communication in the home Economic hardship, resulting in monetary rewards for sex

Also, from the research findings, it was discovered that adolescents who have early exposure and have been in relationship for more than twelve months tends to be sexually active. Moreover, findings also revealed that adolescents from high-income families tend to delay sex compared to their counterpart from low-income background.

5.2: Recommendation
There is need to find a probable solution to some negative impact of family background and other influences on adolescent sexuality and initiation into early sexual activities. However, majority of the adolescents proffered some possible solutions that could help ameliorate the social problem, as the adolescents are the ones involved in the social problem and would most likely think of ways they can be empowered to delay early sexual debut. Thus, some of the remedies adopted to help alleviate the influence of family background and other vices include:

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Introduction of sex education as extra-curricula at all levels for all primary and secondary school students.

Adequate sensitization by non-governmental organizations, health sectors and other relevant bodies to adolescents through mediums as seminar, workshops and trainings on the implications and perils of early sexual activities and its great possibilities of ruining ones bright future.

Sensitization of parents on the importance of monitoring their children at home and the need to improve on their parent-child communication with their children, as most adolescents complained that for lack of the closeness between them and their parents they are not able to confide in their parents on certain issues.

Sensitization of TV, media and film censor boards on the need to regulate and restrict or rather prohibit offensive and sexually provocative programs, adverts and films. it is very obvious that the media today promotes and sell sex, because most bill board and TV adverts speak the sex language. As such, there is an abuse of the female sexuality. For instance, while advertising refrigerator, there is a naked girl standing close to the refrigerator, the question is are we advertising the naked girl or the fridge?

Sensitization of the religious groups and religious leaders on their roles as gate keepers, to emphasize the importance of purity before marriage, as it is very obvious today that most churches and mosques are becoming tolerative of pregnancy before marriage (premarital sex), because despite the bulging tummy of the couples the procession and

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solemnization rites are still being performed, thus not discouraging such acts as being ungodly and not morally disapproving.

Provision of counseling centers that could provide adequate services for adolescents who want advise on pertinent issues disturbing them.

Provision of vacation jobs for students who are out of school, as most adolescents complained that for lack of what to do after school, and due to economic hardship in the country, they are forced to succumb to sexual pressures for monetary gains by older and wealthy men.

Sensitization of parents especially parents by non-governmental organizations and other relevant organizations on the negative consequences and perils of broken home on the children.

Sensitization of governments, non-governmental organizations, and other relevant organizations on the importance of recreational centers that would allow for friendly and clean interactions among adolescents. Such forums will bring about empowerment that would help them share common problems and also proffer possible solutions to them.

5.3: Conclusion
It has always been contended that human beings are social animals who interact with others. People are influenced by the attitudes and behaviours of others. Having an understanding of a childs background, the social, cultural, environmental factors and

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particularly the relationships that influence the child would enable a better understanding of reasons for their sexual behaviours and attitudes.

Thus, the study findings revealed that family background affects adolescent sexuality and their exposure and initiation to early sexual activities. This is because from the research study majority of the adolescents who engage in premarital sexual intercourse were from low socio-economic background, single parents home, and they also lacked parental monitoring and parent-child communication. Which brings us to the problem of the effects of broken homes or single parents homes (owing to divorce or separation) on adolescents. On the other hand, from the research study, we discovered that adolescents who lived with both parents, adolescents whose parents are educated, adolescents who are from high socioeconomic background, adolescents who have good parent-child communication and proper parental monitoring and also adolescents who get their first information on sex from their parents are more likely to delay early sexual activity.

Moreover, from the research study, we discovered that adolescents who are students and are still in school tend to delay sexual activity compared to their adolescents counterparts who are not in school or who are school drop-outs, because from various studies, research has shown that adolescents who have aspiration to further their education tends to delay early sexual initiation. Also, from the research study we observed that majority of the respondents do not discuss sex with their parents, and who rarely or never discuss with their parents indulge more in premarital sexual intercourse.

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Conclusively, from the research study, we observed that the research study had more female to male respondents and the modal age bracket were the 15years age group, while the mean age at first sexual intercourse is 14years. Thus, we would surmise that most of the adolescents engage in premarital sexual intercourse during the middle adolescent stage and that peer group exerts a lot of pressure on adolescents sexuality, because from the research study, according to one of the respondents on reasons for engaging in premarital sexual intercourse, the reason given is that she could no longer wait till her wedding night, another disclosed that he is pressurized to have sex because of the magazines he reads, the films he watches and the things he is exposed to within his community. In conclusion, we would like to suggest that there would be fewer cases of early premarital sexual intercourse if adolescents were exposed to good and proper family background.

Lastly, the research study would like to suggest an area for future research purposes, as it stands as one of the foundational problems of adolescents early sexual initiation. In the cause of the research findings, the researcher noticed that not much work has been done on reasons why parents do not discuss sex with their children, also from the interviews conducted with adolescents parents, we discovered that parents cannot freely discuss sex with their children, and this brings us back to the importance of parent-child communication, in the sense that if parents do not have parent-child communication that would cause the parents to give adolescents their first basic lessons on sex, chances are that adolescents would get their information of sex from outside, and they could get wrong information that could cause them to engage in early sexual activity. Therefore, it is recommended that there is need for relevant bodies and organizations to research on why parents cannot freely discuss sex with their children. Moreover, aside from finding out on 102

the problems, the need to be able to proffer possible solutions is of utmost importance as well. Thus, we expect that parents would be educated and sensitized on the dangers and consequences involved in not discussing issues of sex freely with their children before their children are exposed to the larger society.

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APPENDIX
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA LAGOS. INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Introduction Good Day Sir/Madam, I am a Post Graduate Student of the Department of Sociology, University of Lagos carrying out a research on Adolescents and Early Sexual Activity. The purpose of the study is an attempt to understand factors that spurs Adolescents into early sexual initiations. You have been randomly selected for this study and I will appreciate 111

your co-operation by giving me some minutes to answer the questions. I assure you that your answers will be treated in strict confidence. However, your honest response will assist me in knowing more about conditions affecting adolescents and their sexuality. Thank you. Section A: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Q/no QUESTIONS 1 Sex 2 How old are you? 3 4 5 6 7 What is your ethnic group? What is your Religion? Are you a Virgin? At what age did you have your first sexual intercourse What was responsible for your first sexual intercourse? RESPONSE OPTIONS Male Female. Years (Please) Yoruba Igbo Hausa.. Christianity Islam.. Others Yes.. No Years (Please) Poverty Bad Gang. Peer Pressure Sexual assault Curiosity Early Exposure Culture. Others. Student Out-of-School.. School Drop out.. Apprenticeship Others.

What do you do currently?

SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF RESPONDENTS 9 What type of house do you live in? Mansion Duplex/Bungalow . Flats One Room Apartment.. Others . In your home, what facilities do you TV..Video enjoy? DSTV/Cable.Computer

10

112

11

How many people occupy a room in your house? How would you classify the population of your living area? What does your Father do for a living?

12 13

14

What does your mother do for a living?

15

What is your Fathers highest educational qualification?

16

What is your Mothers educational qualification?

highest

17

Where did you get your first information or knowledge about sex?

18

Do you discuss issues of sex with your parents? Do you stay with both parents (mum and

19

Telephone Generator.. Air Conditioner. Gas Cooker.Car.. VCD Player.Gardner.. MaidsCooks... Drivers Others (Please Specify) (Please tick the ones available in your home) 1 2persons per room.. 3 4 persons per room. 5 persons and above per room (Please tick only one) Sparsely Populated (Lightly).. Densely Populated (Heavily) Average Population (Medium). Self-employed. Civil Servant... Retiree/Pensioner. Unemployed Others Self-employed Civil Servant.. Retiree/Pensioner Unemployed.. Others Primary School School Certificate NCE / OND University Degree. Others Primary School School Certificate NCE / OND University Degree Others Parents Brothers / Sisters Neighbours Peer Group.. School Others Yes No If Yes why.. If No why Yes

113

Dad) 20

21

No... (Dad or Mum only) None Why are you staying with only one of Separation. .... your parents? Divorce Death Travel Job transfer. Others How often do your parents have time to Always chat and discuss with you on your daily Sometimes activities? Once a while... Rarely Never

GENERAL QUESTIONS (Answer Yes or No)


22) 23) Do you have a Boyfriend / Girlfriend. Yes. No

How long have you been in the relationship with your girlfriend or boyfriend? .. (Months / Years)

24)

Do you have sex with your boy/girl friend? Yes. No..

25) 26)

Do you think teenagers should engage in sexual activity? Yes No... Do you protect yourself when you want to have sex with your boyfriend/girlfriend? Yes. No.

27)

If yes, then what do you use to protect yourself? .. . .

28)

Do you discuss your relationship or love affair with your Mum or Dad?

Yes
29)

No.

What do you think can be done to prevent Adolescents from Early sexual activities?

114

.. ..

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