MB0050: Research Methodology ASSIGNMENT- Set 1 Q1. a. Distinguish between Double sampling and multiphase sampling.

Answer: DOUBLE SAMPLING: A standard form of sample design for industrial inspection purp oses. In accordance with the characteristics of a particular plan, two samples a re drawn, n1 and n2, and the first sample inspected. The batch can then be accep ted or rejected upon the results of this inspection or the second sample be insp ected and the decision made upon the combined result. Context: The term has also been used somewhat loosely for what is called multi-phase samp ling and the two-stage version of multi-stage sampling. There is a further usage whereby a first sample provides a preliminary estimate of design parameters whi ch govern the size of the second sample to achieve a desired overall result. MULTI-PHASE SAMPLING: It is sometimes convenient and economical to collect certa in items of information from the whole of the units of a sample and other items of usually more detailed information from a sub-sample of the units constituting the original sample. This may be termed two-phase sampling, e.g. if the collect ion of information concerning variate, y, is relatively expensive, and there exi sts some other variate, x, correlated with it, which is relatively cheap to inve stigate, it may be profitable to carry out sampling in two phases. At the first phase, x is investigated, and the information thus obtained is used either (a) to stratify the population at the second phase, when y is investigat ed, or (b) as supplementary information at the second phase, a ratio or regressi on estimate being used. Two-phase sampling is sometimes called "double sampling". Context: Further phases may be added if desired. It may be noted, however, that multiphas e sampling does not necessarily imply the use of any relationships between varia tes x and y. The expression is not to be confused with multi-stage sampling.

b. Replicated or interpenetrating sampling: Interpenetrating Sampling: interpene trating sampling (IPS), also known as interpenetrating sub sampling and replicat ed sampling. IPS was introduced in the pioneering contribution of P.C. Mahalanob is. It was originally proposed in assessing the non sampling errors as the so-ca lled interviewer errors. IPS provides a quick, simple, and effective way of estima ting the variance of an estimator even in a complex survey. In fact, IPS is the foundation of modern re-sampling methods like Jackknife, bootstrap, and replicat ion methods. In IPS, three basic principles of experimental designs, namely, ran domization, replication, and local control, are used. IPS is used extensively no t only in agriculture, but also in social sciences, demography, epidemiology, pu blic health, and many other fields. Q2. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observati on or interviewing would be more. Answer: Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a sys tematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation is classical metho

d of scientific study. Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. 1. It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eye catches many t hings that are present. But attention is focused on data that are pertinent to t he given study. 2. Observation is selective: A researcher does not observe anything and everythi ng, but selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, s cope and objectives of his study. For example, suppose a researcher desires to s tudy the causes of city road accidents and also formulated a tentative hypothesi s that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules and over speeding. Whe n he observed the movements of vehicles on the road, many things are before his eyes; the type, make, size and colour of the vehicles, the persons sitting in th em, their hair style, etc. All such things which are not relevant to his study a re ignored and only over speeding and traffic violations are keenly observed by him. 3. Observation is purposive and not casual: It is made for the specific purpose of noting things relevant to the study. It captures the natural social context i n which persons behaviour occur. It grasps the significant events and occurrence s that affect social relations of the participants. 4. Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of research an d such as observation schedule, social metric scale etc., and precision instrume nts, if any. Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may be defin ed as a two way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant , initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondents gesture, facial exp ressions and pauses, and his environment. Interviewing requires face to face con tact or contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured schedule or an unstructured guide. Interviewing may be used e ither as a main method or as a supplementary one in studies of persons. Intervie wing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or le ss educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from f actual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a persons opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs past experience and future intenti ons. When qualitative information is required or probing is necessary to draw ou t fully, and then interviewing is required. Where the area covered for the surve y is a compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are availa ble, personal interview is feasible. Interview is often superior to other data-g athering methods. People are usually more willing to talk than to write. Once re port is established, even confidential information may be obtained. It permits p robing into the context and reasons for answers to questions. Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp the behav ioral context of the data furnished by the respondents. Observation is suitable for a variety of research purposes. It may be used for s tudying (a) The behavior of human beings in purchasing goods and services.: life style, customs, and manner, interpersonal relations, group dynamics, crowd behavior, le adership styles, managerial style, other behaviors and actions; (b) The behavior of other living creatures like birds, animals etc. (c) Physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores, factories, residen ces etc. (d) Flow of traffic and parking problems (e) movement of materials and products through a plant. Q3. How case study method is useful to Business Research?

Answer: Case Study as a Method of Business Research In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results an d intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities. For instance, an in-dep th study of a firms top sales people and comparison with the worst sales people m ight reveal characteristics common to stellar performers. The exploratory invest igator is best served by the active curiosity and willingness to deviate from th e initial plan, when the finding suggests new courses of enquiry, might prove mo re productive. Advantages of Case Study Method Case study of particular value when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the comple xities. For example, an in-depth study of a firms top sales people and comparison with worst salespeople might reveal characteristics common to stellar performer s. Here again, the exploratory investigation is best served by an active curiosi ty and willingness to deviate from the initial plan when findings suggest new co urses of inquiry might prove more productive. It is easy to see how the explorat ory research objectives of generating insights and hypothesis would be well serv ed by use of this technique. Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit or e ntity, be it a person, a family, an institution or a community. The aim of case study method is to locate or identify the factors that account for the behaviour patterns of a given unit, and its relationship with the environment. The case d ata are always gathered with a view to attracting the natural history of the soc ial unit, and its relationship with the social factors and forces operative and involved in this surrounding milieu. In short, the social researcher tries, by m eans of the case study method, to understand the complex of factors that are wor king within a social unit as an integrated totality. Looked at from another angl e, the case study serves the purpose similar to the clue-providing function of e xpert opinion. It is most appropriate when one is trying to find clues and ideas for further research.

4. Would case studies be considered as scientific research? Why or why not?

5. What are the contents of research reports? Answer: It is a means of communicating research experience to others It is a fo rmal statement of research process and its results It narrates the problem studi ed, methods used for studying it and the findings and conclusions of the study Contents of Research Report Prefatory Items Body of the Report Reference Materials

6. Write short notes on the following: a. Median Answer:

b.

Standard Deviation

ASSIGNMENT- Set 2 1. What is the significance of research in social and business sciences?

Answer: Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences According to a famous Hudson Maxim, All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is oft en better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to inv ention. It brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which ma kes progress possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, be sides promoting the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or busine ss is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of gov ernment and business has raised the use of research in solving operational probl ems. Research assumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for bo th the government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depe nds particularly on the analysis of needs and desires of the people, and the ava ilability of revenues, which requires research. Research helps to formulate alte rnative policies, in addition to examining the consequences of these alternative s. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making of policy-makers, althoug h in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper allocation of a countrys scare resources. Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statis tical information though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the gov ernment these days to undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of governmen t economic policy formulation involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows: Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underly ing them; and The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and plan ning problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research, and motivational research are vital and their result s assist in taking business decisions. Market research is refers to the investig ation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of effici ent policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research r elates to the application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as cost minimization or profit maximiza tion, or the optimization problems. Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very useful for business and indus try, which are responsible for business decision making. Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relations hips and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses prac tical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. This, research in social science s is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge for what it c an contribute to solve practical problems.

2.

What is the meaning of hypothesis? Discuss the types of hypothesis.

Answer: Theodorson and Theodorson Definition of Hypothesis A hypothesis is a tentative statement asserting a relationship betw een certain facts Black and Champion a tentative statement about something, the validity of which i s usually unknown Standards to be met in formulating a hypothesis It should be empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong. It should be s pecific and precise. The statements in the hypothesis should not be contradictor y. It should specify variables between which the relationship is to be establish ed. It should describe one issue only A scientifically justified hypothesis must meet the following criteria It must accurately reflect the relevant sociological fact It must not be in contradiction with approved relevant statements or other scie ntific disciplines It must consider the experience of other researchers Characteristics of Good Hypothesis Conceptual Clarity Specificity Testability Availability of Techniques Theoretical relevance Consistency Objectivity Simplicity Types of Hypothesis Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis 3. What is frequency Distribution? What are the types and general rules for graphical representation of data? Answer: b) Types and General rules for graphical representation of data: Graphical representation is done of the data available. This is very important s tep of statistical analysis. We will be discussing the organization of data. The word Data is plural for datum; datum means facts. Statistically the term is used fo r numerical facts such as measures of height, weight and scores on achievement a nd intelligence tests. Graphs and diagram leave a lasting impression on the mind and make intelligible and easily understandable the salient features of the dat a. Forecasting also becomes easier with the help of graph. Thus it is of interes t to study the graphical representation of data. The graphical representation of data is categorized as basic five types: 1) Bar graph 2) Pie graph 3) Line graph 4) Scatter plot 5) Histogram 4. List down various measures of central tendency and explain the difference bet ween them? Answer: The three most commonly-used measures of central tendency and difference between them are as following. Mean The sum of the values divided by the number of valuesoften called the average. Add all of the values together. Divide by the number of values to obtain the mean. Example: The mean of 7, 12, 24, 20, 19 is (7 + 12 + 24 + 20 + 19) / 5 = 16.4.

Median The value which divides the values into two equal halves, with half of the value s being lower than the median and half higher than the median. Sort the values into ascending order. If you have an odd number of values, the median is the middle value. If you have an even number of values, the median is the arithmetic mean (see abo ve) of the two middle values. Example: The median of the same five numbers (7, 12, 24, 20, 19) is 19. Mode The most frequently-occurring value (or values). Calculate the frequencies for all of the values in the data. The mode is the value (or values) with the highest frequency. Example: For individuals having the following ages 18, 18, 19, 20, 20, 20, 21, a nd 23, the mode is 20. 5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and primary sources to gather the required information. Answer: For performing research on the literacy levels among families, the prima ry and secondary sources of data can be used very effectively. More specifically the primary sources of data collection is suggested in this regard. Because per sonal data or data related to human beings consist of:1. Demographic and socio-e conomic characteristics of individuals: Age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation income, family size, location of the house hold lifestyle etc.2. Behavioral variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness, know ledge, practice, intentions, etc.3. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organizations origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, perfor mance and growth.4. Territorial data are related to geo-physical characteristics , resource endowment, population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, talks, districts, state and the nation. The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based on imagination or guess work cannot pro vide correct answers to research questions. The relevance, adequacy and reliabil ity of data determine the quality of the findings of a study. Data form the basi s for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are a nalyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical an alysis and tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus , the scientific process of measurements, analysis, testing and inferences depen ds on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Hence, the importanc e of data for any research studies The sources of data may be classified into: a. Primary sources b. Secondary sources. Primary Sources of Data Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior from a sample of consumers by interviewing them,. Primary data are first-hand information collected through various methods such a s observation, interviewing, mailing etc. Advantage of Primary Data: It is original source of data it is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time. It flexible to the advantage of researcher. Extensive resea rch study is based on primary data Disadvantage of Primary Data: Primary data is expensive to obtain It is time consuming It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled. It is difficult to administer

Methods of Collecting Primary Data: Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original source s. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely accordin g to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not availabl e from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources. In such cases where the available data are in appropriate, inadequate o r obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include: socioeconomic survey s, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, s ociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing resear ch, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio li stening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, fa rm managements studies, business management studies etc. There are various metho ds of data collection. A Method is different from a Tool while a method refers to th e way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. F or example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) Observation, (b) Interviewing, (c) Mail survey, (d) Experimentation, (e) Simulation and (f) Projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections in the l ater chapters. Secondary Sources of Data: These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for ano ther purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already co mpiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statisti cal statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional Banks, published by the NA BARD, Reports of the National sample survey Organization, Reports of trade assoc iations, publications of international organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Ban k, ILO,WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc. Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records . The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the f irms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel record s, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.