Chapter 12 Soils and Soil Development

Major Soil Components

Inorganic Materials Most minerals found in soils are combinations of the common elements of Earths surface rocks: silicon, aluminum, oxygen and iron. Soil Water Capillary water migrates upward and moves minerals from the subsoil toward the surface. If this capillary water evaporates away, the formerly dissolved minerals remain, generally as alkaline or saline deposits in the topsoil. High concentrations of certain mineral deposits, like these, can be detrimental to plants and animals exiting in the soil. Lime (calcium carbonate) deposited by evaporating soil water can build up to produce a cementlike layer, called caliche, which like a clay hardpan prevents the downward percolation of water. Soil Air For most microorganisms and plants that live in the ground, soil air supplies oxygen and carbon dioxide necessary for life processes. Organic Matter Humus is an important catalyst on chemical reactions that help plants to extract soil nutrients. Humus also supplies nutrients and minerals to soil. Soils that contain humus are quite workable and have a good capacity to retain water. Humus also provides an abundant food source for microscopic soil organisms.

Characteristics of Soil
Color Decomposed organic matter is black or brown, so soil with high humus contents tend to be dark. Soils that are red or yellow typically indicate the presence of iron.

Chapter 13 Earth Structure, Earth Material, and Plate Tectonics

Earths Planetary Structure Thus far, the most important evidence that scientists have used to gain indirect knowledge of Earths interior is behavior of various shock waves, called seismic waves, as they travel through the planet. Earths Core Scientists have deduced that the core is composed primarily of iron and nickel, and consists of two distinct sections, the inner core and the outer core. Earths Mantle

The interface between the mantle and the overlying crust is marked by a significant change of density, called a discontinuity, which is indicated by an abrupt increase in the velocity of seismic waves as they travel down through this internal boundary. Scientist call this zone the Mohorovici discontinuity, or Moho for short, after the Croatian geophysicist who first detected it in 1909.

Rocks
Igneous Rocks Granite, a felsic, coarse-grained, intrusive rock, has the same chemical and mineral composition as rhyolite, a fine-grained, extrusive rock.

Tectonic Plate Movement

Plate Divergence The pulling apart of plates, tectonic plate divergence, is directly related to seafloor spreading. Most plate divergence occurs along oceanic ridges.

Transform Movement Lateral sliding along plate boundaries, called transform movement, occurs where plates neither pull apart nor converge but instead slide past each other as they moves in opposite direction. Such a boundary exist along the San Andreas Fault zone in California.

Chapter 14 Volcanic and Tectonic Processes and Landforms

Landforms and Geomorphology Figure 14.4. (a)Mount Vesuvius overlooks the ancient city center of Pompeii, near Naples, Italy. The eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79, which destroyed Pompeii, is an example of an episodic process. It is often difficult for humans to fully comprehend the potential danger from earth processes that operate with bursts of intense activity, separated by years, decades, centuries, or even millennia of relative quiescence. (b) A plaster cast shows a victim who attempted to cover his face from hot gases and the volcanic ash that buried Pompeii.

Volcanic Landsforms
Shield Volcanoes When numerous successive basaltic lava flows occur in given region they can eventually pile up into the shape of a large mountain, called a shield volcano, which resembles a giant knights shield resting on Earths surface. The gently sloping, dome-shaped cones of Hawaii best illustrate this largest type of volcano. Plutonism and Intrusions

Bodies of magma that exist beneath the surface of Earth or masses of intrusive igneous rock that cooled and solidified beneath the surface are called igneous intrusions, or plutons. When exposed at earths surface, a relatively small, irregularly shaped intrusion is called a stock. The largest intrusions, called batholiths. A laccolith develops when molten magma flows horizontally between rock layers. Solidifying into a horizontal sheet of intrusive igneous rock called a sill. As it solidifies, the magma forms a wall- -like structure of igneous rock known as a dike.

Compressional Tectonic Forces Much of the Appalachian Mountain system is an example of folding on a large scale. Faulting is the slippage or displacement of rocks along a fracture surface, and the fracture along which movement has occurred is a fault. Measuring Earthquake Size Although most major earthquakes are related to known faults and have epicenters in or near mountains regions, the one most widely felt in North America was not. It was one of a series of tremors that occurred during 1811 and 1812, e near New Madrid, Missouri.

Chapter 15 Weathering and Mass Wasting

Nature of Exogenic Processes Gravity- induced downslope movement rock material that occurs without the assistance of a geomorphic agent, as in case of a rock falling from a cliff, is known as mass wasting. Chemical Weathering The most important catalysts and reactive agents performing chemical weathering are water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, all of which are common in soil, precipitation, surface water, groundwater, and air. Oxidation* (pg416-417) carbonation and solution* (pg417-418)

Variability in Weathering
Climate In tropical rainforest, savanna, and monsoon climates, chemical weathering is more significant than physical weathering.

Slow Mass Wasting

Creep

As a result, telephone poles, fence post, other human structures, and even trees- all of which are anchored at a level below the surface-exhibit a downslope tilt when affected by the downward movement of creep.

Fast Mass Wasting

Avanlanches Avalanches of pulverized bedrock, called rock avalanches, and those of a very poorly sorted mixture of gravel, sand, silts, and clays, called debris avalanches, are also common and have caused considerable loss of life and destruction to mountain communities.

Chapter 16 Underground Water and Karst Landforms

Figure 16.1. Most of Earths fresh water (almost 70%) is stored as glacier ice mainly in remote polar regions.

The Nature of Underground Water

Subsurface Water Zones and the Water Table Organized by their depth and water content, three distinct subsurface water zones exist in humid regions (figure 16.2). Underconditions of moderate precipitation and good drainage, water infiltrating into the ground first passes through a layer called the zone of aeration in which pore spaces in the soil and rocks almost always contain both air and water. This uppermost zone only rarely becomes satured. The Distribution and Availability of Groundwater An aquifer (from Latin: aqua, water; ferre, to carry) is a sequence of porous and permeable layers of sediments or rock that acts as a storage medium and transmitter of water (figure 16.5). Groundwater Utilization Water bodies and wetlands, fed by groundwater, are critical habitats for thousands of resident and migratory birds.

Landform Development by Subsurface Water

Karst Landscapes and Landforms Landforms developed by solution are therefore called karst landforms after this classic locality. If the water table falls leaving these passageways above the zone of saturation, they are called caverns or caves. After intense and long-term karst development, especially in wet tropical conditions, only limestone remnants are left standing above insoluble rock below. These remnants usually take the form of small, steep-sided, and caveriddled karst hills called haystack hills, conical hills or hums. Limestone Caverns and Cave Features

As these travertine deposits grow downward, they form icicle-like spikes called stalactites that hang from the ceiling (figure 16.19). Water saturated with calcium carbonate dripping onto the floor of a cavern builds up similar but more massive structure called stalagmites. Stalactites and stalagmites often meet and continue growing to form columns or pillars (figure 16.20).

Chapter 17 Fluvial Processes and Landforms

Surface Runoff Slow-moving groundwater seeps directly into the stream through the channel bottom and sides at and below the level of the water surface as base flow. Stream Discharge Among the major rivers of the world, the Amazon has by far the largest drainage basin and the greatest discharge; the Mississippi River system is ranked fourth in term of discharge.

Land Sculpture by Streams

Features of the Upper Course These multiple channels flowing out from the main stream are called distributaries, are typical features of the delta plain, and help direct flow and sediment toward the lake or ocean.

The Important of Surface Waters

Lakes The majority of the worlds lake basins, such as those of North Americans five Great Lakes and Minnesotas 10,000 lakes, are products of glaciations.