Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Notes On Criminal Law

    Uploaded by

    shitanda
    131 views88 pages
    Some commentators would argue that offences of Strict Liability and those that require a mental element of negligence should not figure in a discussion of mens rea at all. It is open to question whether the offences that we consider are'mens rea' offences at all but we shall consider them here.

    Original Description:

    Original Title

    Notes on Criminal Law

    Copyright

    © Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)

    Available Formats

    PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    Some commentators would argue that offences of Strict Liability and those that require a mental element of negligence should not figure in a discussion of mens rea at all. It is open to question whether the offences that we consider are'mens rea' offences at all but we shall consider them here.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    131 views88 pages

    Notes On Criminal Law

    Uploaded by

    shitanda
    Some commentators would argue that offences of Strict Liability and those that require a mental element of negligence should not figure in a discussion of mens rea at all. It is open to question whether the offences that we consider are'mens rea' offences at all but we shall consider them here.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 88

    NEGLIGENCE&STRICTLIABILITY OUTLINE

    9.1.Introduction 9.2. Negligence 9.2.1Themeaningofnegligence 9.2.2Distinguishingbetweencriminalnegligenceandcivil(tortious)negligence 9.2.3Approachestonegligenceasabasisforcriminalresponsibility 9.3.StrictLiability 9.3.1UtilitarianArguments 9.3.2TheMoralJustifiabilityofStrictLiability? 9.3.2.1StrictLiabilityoffencesarenot`realcrimes 9.3.2.2StrictLiabilityoffencesfocusontheharmdone 9.3.3DefencestoStrictLiability 9.3.4EnforcementofStrictLiabilityoffences SUGGESTEDFURTHERREADING TODO NOTESONTOPIC 9.1.Introduction Somecommentatorswouldarguethatoffencesofstrictliabilityandthosethatrequirea mentalelementofnegligenceshouldnotfigureinadiscussionofmensreaatallbutweshall considerthemhere.Duringthisconsideration,weneedtobearinmindthatitisopento questionwhethertheoffencesthatweconsideraremensreaoffencesatall. Ifthesestatesofmindaretobeincludedinahierarchyofmensreaatallthentheyshould comeatthebottom. 9.2.Negligence 9.2.1Themeaningofnegligence Negligenceisusuallydeterminedtobeanobjectivestateofmindand,assuch,itisoften difficulttodeterminewhat,ifany,istherelevantdifferencebetweenobjectiverecklessness thatweconsideredinthelasttopicandcriminalnegligence Negligencetakesasitsstandardtheactionsofthereasonableman.So,ifthereasonable

    manwouldhaverecognisedthattherewasariskofharmoccurringinthecircumstancesin whichtheaccusedpersonactedoromittedtoact,thentheaccusedpersonwillbeliableeven intheeventthatshegavenothoughttothepossibilityofthatrisk. Itshouldbeobviousfromthisthatthereisadegreeofoverlapbetweentheconceptof negligenceandtheconceptofCaldwellrecklessnessunderwhichitispossibleforan accusedpersontobeliablewhereshefailedtogivethoughttoanobviousrisk. However,negligenceextendsbeyondobjectiverecklessnesstocoverthepersonwho recognisestherelevantriskandtakesstepsinthebeliefthatdoingsowilleliminatetherisk butthestepstakenfallbelowthestandardofconducttobeexpectedfromareasonable person 9.2.2Distinguishingbetweencriminalnegligenceandcivil(tortious) negligence Asastartingpointforadiscussionofnegligenceweneedtodeterminehownegligencewithin thecriminalspherediffersfromnegligenceinthetortioussense. ThisdistinctionwasexploredintheNaurucaseofGairoev.DPP[1987]SPLR171: Facts:Theappellantworkedadoublenightshiftataphosphateworks.Going homeat7am(goinginthewrongdirectionaroundtheisland),hefellasleepatthe wheelandthecarcrossedthecentrallineoftheroad.Itcrashedintoanother vehicle.Atleastoneoftheoccupantsofthisothervehiclewasseriouslyinjured. Theappellantwasconvictedunders.328oftheCriminalCodeofnegligentdrivingcausing bodilyharm.HewasalsochargedwithnegligentdrivingundertheMotorTrafficActbutno convictionwasentered. Section328readsasfollows: (328)NegligentActscausingHarm.Anypersonwhounlawfullydoesanyact,oromitsto doanyactwhichitishisdutytodo,bywhichanactoromissionbodilyharmiscausedto anypersonisguiltyofamisdemeanour,andisliabletoimprisonmentwithhardlabourfor twoyears. Appeal:againstbothconvictionandsentenceof2monthsimprisonment. Held:Appealgranted.Thedegreeofguiltneededtoestablishcriminalguiltunder theCriminalCodeisgrossorculpablenegligenceandthereisadistinction betweenthatstandardandthelesserstandardofcompletelyobjectivenegligence thatpertainsundertheMotorTrafficAct. Theappealjudgefoundthattheevidencewasnotsufficienttosatisfythetestthatthe magistratehadapplied;i.e.thatthenegligencethathadtobeestablishedwassubjectivein natureratherthanpurelyobjectiveaswouldbethecaseifitwascivilnegligencethathadto beestablished. ThejudgmentalsoreferstothecaseofRex.v.Bateman(1925)94L.J.K.B.791inwhichLord

    Hewartdrewthedistinctionbetweencriminalnegligenceandcivilnegligencealongthe followinglines: Inexplainingtojuriesthetestwhichtheyshouldapplytodeterminewhetherthenegligence, intheparticularcase,amountedordidnotamounttoacrime,theJudgeshaveusedmany epithetssuchasculpable,criminal,gross,wicked,clear,complete.But,whatever epithetcanbeusedandwhetheranepithetbeusedornot,inordertoestablishcriminal liabilitythefactsmustbesuchthat,intheopinionofthejury,thenegligenceoftheaccused wentbeyondamerematterofcompensationbetweensubjectsandshowedsuchdisregard forthelifeandsafetyofothersastoamounttoacrimeagainsttheStateandconduct deservingpunishment. So,criminalnegligenceisnegligencethatistosuchadegreeastoremovetheactionsor omissionsoftheoffenderfromthewhollyprivatesphereintothepublicremitofthecriminal law. 9.2.3Approachestonegligenceasabasisforcriminalresponsibility Shouldnegligencebesufficienttoactasafaultelementintermsofleadingtoafindingof criminalculpability?Whilstitispossibletoseethatnegligenceisafaultelement,itis undeniablethatitisafaultelementofasignificantlylesserdegreethanthosefaultelements thatcomeatthetopofourhierarchyofmensrea:namelyintentionandsubjective recklessness. WithintheUKjurisdictionthereareveryfewcrimesthatrecognisenegligenceasthesole basisforfoundingcriminalliability(Wewillnotconsiderthelawrelatingtogrossnegligence manslaughterherebutwilllookatitlaterinthecoursewhenweexaminehomicideoffences). However,insomecircumstances,inrelationtoparticularoffences,negligenceisdeemedto bethesolebasisforimposingcriminalliability So,forexample,s.3oftheRoadTrafficAct1988(assubstitutedbys.2ofthe RoadTrafficAct 1991)makesitanoffencetodriveamotorvehicleonaroadwithoutduecareandattentionor withoutreasonableconsiderationforotherpersonsusingtheroad(carelessdriving). SeeMcCronev.Riding[1938]1AllERinwhichLordHewartCJdefinedthestandardof drivingthatshouldapplyinthefollowingterms: Thatstandardisanobjectivestandard,impersonalanduniversal,fixedinrelationtothe safetyofotherusersofthehighway.Itisinnowayrelatedtothedegreeofproficiencyor degreeofexperiencetobeattainedbytheindividualdriver.(Atp.158). WeconsideredwhenwelookedatCaldwelltyperecklessnessthatitdidnotreallysatisfythe criteriaofbeingastateofmindbecauseit,infact,ledtotheattachmentofcriminalliability wheretherewasanabsenceofastateofmind. Itwouldappeartobeevidentthatnegligencefailstofitintotheclassicaldefinitionofmens reaforexactlythesamereasons...itisconcernedwithafailuretoexerciseduecareor consideration,afailuretoappreciatetherisksattendantonagivenaction,omissionor courseofconduct.

    However,Harthascounteredthiscriticismbyidentifyingthatfailingtothinkorgivedue considerationtotheriskofharmarisingoutofagivenactorcourseofconductisnotand, indeed,shouldnotbedeemedtobeanylessculpableorcriminallyresponsiblethanany other`stateofmind: ...ahundredtimesadaypersonsareblamedoutsidethelawcourtsfornotbeingmore careful,forbeinginattentiveandnotstoppingtothink...[I]fanyoneiseverresponsiblefor anything,thereisnogeneralreasonwhymenshouldnotberesponsibleforomissionsto think,ortoconsiderthesituationanditsdangersbeforeacting.("Negligence,MensRea andCriminalResponsibility"inHart:PunishmentandResponsibility;pp.1512as citedinClarkson&Keating). Asimilarproblemorcriticismexistsinrelationtonegligenceasdoesinrelationtoobjective recklessness.Itisthatitisdifficulttoacceptthatnegligenceshouldbeacceptedasa recognisablefaultelementsolongasthereisnorecognitionofthefactthatsomedefendants areimpairedinsuchawayastomakeitimpossibleforthemtoavoidbeingnegligentand, therefore,thatsuchpersonsshouldnotbedeemedtobeasequallymorallyculpableasthose personswhoarecapableofavoidingbeingnegligentbutneglecttodoso,forwhatever reason. Oneexceptiontothelawsreluctancetoattachcriminalliabilitytonegligenceisinrelationto grossnegligencemanslaughterwhichwewillexamineinmoredetailwhenwelookat homicideoffences 9.3.StrictLiability Astrictliabilityoffenceisoneinwhichthereisnorequirementofmensreainrelationtoone ormoreelementsoftheactusreus.Sometimestheseoffencesaredescribedasabsolute butthisismisleadingasitimpliesthattherearenodefencesavailabletosomeonewhohas beenchargedwithsuchanoffence. WithintheUKjurisdiction,moststrictliabilityoffencesarestatutoryinoriginandareoften describedasregulatoryinnature.So,forexample,therearestrictliabilityoffenceswithinthe realmofthelawrelatingtovarioussortsoflicensingandalsoinrelationtothesellingof foodstuffswhetherinconnectionwithfoodhygieneorinrelationtoweightsandmeasures. Strictliabilityoffencesalsoexistinrelationtoissuesofpollution. SeeAlphacellv.Woodward[1972]A.C.824 Inthiscase,thedefendantswereconvictedunders.2(1)(a)oftheRivers(Preventionof Pollution)Act1951forcausingpollutedwatertoenterariver.Itwasheldthatthefactthatthey hadnoknowledgethatthepollutionwastakingplaceandthattheymistakenlythoughtthat theirfilteringsystemwasoperatingeffectivelydidnotconstituteadefence. Theexistenceofsuchoffencesandthefactthatpersonscanbecriminallyliablewithoutthe prosecutionbeingunderanyobligationtoaddresstheissueofmensreainrelationtooneor moreelementsoftheactusreusofanoffencewouldseemtobeindirectconflictwith

    everythingthatwehaveconsideredabouthowthelawdoesand,indeed,shouldconstruct criminalliability Ifweconsideragainthepurposesofpunishment(whichisunderlyingtoallotherconcerns whenconsideringthedevelopmentandoperationofthecriminallaw)wecanidentifytwo centralconcernsthatneedtobeaddressedinrelationtostrictliability: 1.Canstrictliabilitybejustifiedintermsofdeterrenceorsomeotherutilitarian ground? 2.Isitadoctrinethatcanbejustifiedmorally? Packerhasattackedtheconceptofstrictliabilityonthebasisthatitfailsbothofthesetests: Topunishconductwithoutreferencetotheactorsstateofmindisbothinefficaciousand unjust.Itisinefficaciousbecauseconductunaccompaniedbyanawarenessofthefactors makingitcriminaldoesnotmarktheactorasonewhoneedstobesubjectedtopunishment inordertodeterhim(sic)orothersfrombehavingsimilarlyinthefuture,nordoesitsingle himoutasasociallydangerousindividualwhoneedstobeincapacitatedorreformed.Itis unjustbecausetheactorissubjectedtothestigmaofacriminalconvictionwithoutbeing morallyblameworthy.(AscitedinClarkson&Keating). 9.3.1UtilitarianArguments Onejustificationforthecreationofstrictliabilityoffencesmightbethatitisintheinterestsof societythatpersonsengagedincertainsortsofconductberequiredtoperformtothehighest standardsofcare.Theharmthatmightarisefromthemfailingtodosoissoseriousinnature astojustifynotallowingthemanydefencesuchas`reasonablemistake Inaddition,itmightbearguedthatintheinterestsoftheadministrationofjustice,itisjustified thattheprosecutionisnotrequiredtoadduceproofofthementalelementinquestioninorder tosaveonthetimeandotherresourcesofthecourts. Thisissometimesreferredtoastheexpediencyjustificationorargument.Ofcourse,itisnot averyeffectivejustificationforthecreationofstatutoryoffencesinwhichitisnotnecessary fortheprosecutiontoprovemensreainrelationtooneelementoftheactusreusbuttheneed toprovemensreainrelationtoalltheotherelementsremains. 9.3.2TheMoralJustifiabilityofStrictLiability? Thecentralityofmensreatothedevelopmentofandthinkingaboutcriminallawmeansthat somecommentatorshavearguedthatstrictliabilityoffencesareunacceptablebecause personswhotakeallpossiblecaretoavoidharmbutfailtodosoarenotmorally blameworthyandshouldnotbesubjecttothesanctionofthecriminallaw. Thiscriticismhasbeenaddressedontwolevels: 9.3.2.1StrictLiabilityoffencesarenot`realcrimes SuchapositionseemstobereinforcedintheUKwherestrictliabilityoffencesare

    predominantlytriedinthemagistratescourtandwheretheyattractthemostlenient sentences,intheeventofaconviction,suchasfines. Butitisnotaverystrongargumentandhasbeencriticisedonmorethanoneoccasion.It seemslessthansatisfactorytoresorttoanargumentsuchasthiswithinadiscussionthathas atitsheartissuesofculpability,responsibilityandpunishment.Ifstrictliabilityoffencesare notrealcrimes,thensurelythecriminallawisaninappropriatemeansofpunishingthe conductinvolvedwhethersuchconducttakestheformofcommissionoromission. Inaddition,ifsuchanargumentisaccepted,thentheoffencesconcernedmaybecome marginalisedsothattheyarenottakenseriouslybyanyoneincludingthepeoplewhoare committingthemandthis,inturn,mustonlyundermineanydeterrenteffectthatthecreation ofsuchoffencesandenforcementofthelawinrelationtothemmighthave. 9.3.2.2StrictLiabilityoffencesfocusontheharmdone Woottonarguesthatitisjustifiabletoexpandthescopeofstrictliabilityoffencesonthebasis thattocreatesuchoffencesandsubsequentlytoprosecutethosewhocommitthemisinthe interestsofprotectingsocietyfromharm.Shemaintainsthatthemoralculpabilityofan individualoffenderisirrelevantinsuchanexercise: If,however,theprimaryfunctionofthecourtsconceivedasthepreventionofforbidden acts,thereislittlecausetobedisturbedbythemultiplicationofoffencesofstrictliability.If thelawsaysthatcertainthingsarenottobedone,itisillogicaltoconfinethisprohibition tooccasionsonwhichtheyaredonefrommaliceaforethought;foratleastthematerial consequencesofanaction,andthereasonsforprohibitingit,arethesamewhetheritisthe resultofsinistermaliciousplotting,ofnegligenceorofsheeraccident.Amanisequally deadandhisrelativesequallybereavedwhetherhewasstabbedorrunoverbyadrunken motoristorbyanincompetentone...(AscitedinClarkson&Keating). Whilstthereareelementsofsuchanargumentthatseembothpersuasiveandappealing,itis flawedintwoways.First,itpresumesthattheprimaryfunctionofthecourtsistopreventharm butitisnotnecessarilythecasethatallcommentatorswouldagreethatthisisindeedthe case.Neitherisitcertainthatthecourtsperceivetheirroleinsuchterms. Second,ifoneweretotakeWoottonsargumentfurtheritisevidentthatthelawwouldbe requiredtocriminalisepersonssuchasdoctorsforundertakingactssuchasexperimental surgeryintheeventthatapatientdiedregardlessofsuchotherissuesasthesocialutilityof theactivityinquestion. Itiscertainlythecasethatapreoccupationwiththecomplexitiesofmensreacanleadthe criminallawtobeoverlyconcernedwithanindividualoffendertotheexclusionofother relevantconcernssuchastheresultingharm. Butitisnotevidentthatreferringtosuchharmasthecentralifnotthesolefactorfor determiningcriminalresponsibilitynecessarilysolvesmoreproblemsthanitcreates. 9.3.3DefencestoStrictLiability Ashasalreadybeenmentioned,itwouldbeincorrecttodescribestrictliabilityoffencesas

    absoluteassuchterminologywouldprecludethepossibilityofanaccusedpersonbeingable torelyonanydefencetosuchacharge. InthecaseofHillandBaxter[1958]1QB277,thedefendantsuccessfullypleadedadefence ofautomatismtoachargeofdangerousdrivingwhichisastrictliabilityoffence. Thereisnoreasontosupposethatanyofthegeneraldefencesthatwewillconsiderinlater topicswouldbeunavailabletoadefendantchargedwithanoffenceofstrictliability. Inaddition,itmaybethecasethatthestatutethatcreatesastrictliabilityoffenceactually providesadefencewithinthelegislationitself.Suchdefencesareoftenreferredtoasdue diligencedefencesandarebasedonademonstrationofanabsenceoffault. So,forexample,s.21oftheFoodSafetyAct1990(UK)createsadefenceofduediligenceto theoffence(createdins.14)ofsellingfoodwhichisnotofthenatureorsubstanceorquality demanded. Thedefenceiswordedinthefollowingterms: InanyproceedingsforanoffenceunderanyoftheprecedingprovisionsofthisPart...it shall...beadefenceforthepersonchargedtoprovethathetookallreasonableprecautions andexercisedallduediligencetoavoidthecommissionoftheoffencebyhimselforbya personunderhiscontrol. 9.3.4EnforcementofStrictLiabilityoffences Evenleavingasidethetheoreticalorprincipledobjectionstostrictliabilityoffencesthathave alreadybeenoutlined,inpracticaltermsfurthercriticismhasbeenlevelledatwhatappearsto beselectiveenforcementofsuchoffences.Thisisparticularlythecaseinrelationto regulatoryagencieswhopolicesuchcrimes(addingtotheperceptionthatsuchoffences arenotreallycrimesatallbecausetheydonotcomeundertheremitofnormalpolicing carriedoutbythepoliceservice).Anexampleofsucharegulatoryagencythatisoften criticisedinthisregardistheHealth&SafetyExecutive. Suchagencieshavejustifiedtheirpoliciesofselectiveenforcementbyreferencetothefact thatitwouldnotbepracticableorevenproductivetoprosecuteeveryinfringementofthe legislationthatcametotheirattention,andthiswouldseemtobeincontrovertiblytrue.In identifyingthosesituationsinwhichtheprosecutionrouteistakenbytheHSEreferencehas beenmadetodeliberatefloutingofthelaworrecklessnessasto(non)compliancewiththe relevantrules. So,eveniffaultisnotapartofthedefinitionoftheoffence,itcertainlyseemsthecasethat issuesoffaulthaveaparttoplayinthedecisionastowhetherornotaparticularoffencewill beprosecuted. Ofcourse,otheragenciesmayadoptdifferentapproachestoenforcementleadingtoeven moreselectivity. Suchselectiveenforcementisproblematic,notleastbecauseitreinforcestheperceptionthat strictliabilityoffencesarenotrealcrimesatallandarenottakenseriouslyevenbythose peoplewhosejobitistopolicethem.

    SUGGESTEDFURTHERREADING Gairoev.DPP[1987]SPLR171. PublicProsecutorv.AndreMontaigne(19801988)1VanLR209. Allen;chapter4. Clarkson&Keating;pp.197216. HungerfordWelch,P.&Taylor,A.(1997)SourcebookonCriminalLaw;Cavendish: London;chapter14. Wasik,M.(1982)"ShiftingtheBurdenofStrictLiability"inCriminalLawReview; pp.567574. Peiris,G.L.(1983)"StrictliabilityinCommonwealthcriminallaw"inLegalStudies3: 117145. Richardson,G.(1987)"StrictLiabilityforRegulatoryCrime:TheEmpirical Research"inCriminalLawReview:pp.295306.

    TODO
    Readoverthenotesagainandmakesurethatyou understandeverythingthatiswritten.Inparticular,make surethatyouknowthemeaningsofthewordsand phrasesthatarewritteninboldtypeandunderlined. Makeanoteofanythingthatyoudonotunderstandand bringitwithyoutotheworkshopsothatyoucanASK thelecturertoexplainittoyou. SelectoneortwooftheSuggestedFurtherReadingsto readandthinkabout.Thiswillgiveyoumore informationaboutthistopic. PrepareoutlineanswerstotheReviewQuestionsto assistwithyourrevisionofthistopic. LookattherelevantlegislationinaSouthPacific jurisdictionandseeifyoucanidentifyanexampleofa

    strictliabilityoffence.

    CriminallawnotesPresentationTranscript
    1.CriminalLawNotes 2.I.2MainFormsofLawA.CivilLawgovernsrelationshipbetweenindividualsor corporationsinasociety1.malpracticesuits,ownershipdisputes,breachofcontract,etc.2.The plaintiffusuallyseeksmonetarydamages 3.B.CriminalLaw1.Felonyseriouscriminaloffense,maybepunishablewithprisonfora yearormoreorbydeatha.1st,2nd,3rd,and4thdegreeb.DegreesofMurderi.1st premeditated(somedegreeofplanning),anddeliberated(doneonpurpose)ii.2ndonlymalice aforethought(intenttoinflictseriousbodilyharm,ortoactwithwantondisregardfor consequencesofactions). 4.iii.VoluntaryManslaughterhomicidewithoutmalice(maybeduringasuddenquarrel)iv. InvoluntaryManslaughterKillingsthatresultfromnegligencedidn'tmeanto,butshould haveknownbetter.(Mainlymotorvehicledeaths.) 5.2.Misdemeanoranycrimethatisnotafelony.Lessserious.a.Grossmisdemeanor punishablebyincarceration,usuallyinalocaljail,for30daysto1year.b.Pettymisdemeanor minoroffense,lessthan30daysinjailc.Violationticketableoffense,doesn'tgooncriminal record. 6.II.SourcesofCriminalLawA.Constitutionallaw1.SupremelawofthelandB.Statutory law1.Enactedbylegislativebodies2.Canbeoverturnedby(A)C.AdministrativeLaw1.rules andregulationsfromgovernmentagencies.a.pricefixing,healthcodeviolations,EPA violationsD.CaseLaw1.lawmadebycourtdecisionsbasedontheirinterpretationsofthe otherlaws 7.III.FinalNote:Lawsaresubjecttointerpretationandmaybemodifiedassocialnorms change.a.YouprobablynoticedinHelterSkelterthathomosexualactswereconsideredcriminal. TheUSSupremeCourtstruckdownremainingantisodomylawsin2003.Suchlawshad alreadybeenrepealedin37states. new

    LECTURE NOTES FOR CRIMINAL LAW 1. FundamentalsofCriminalLaw 2.LimitsofCriminalLaw 3.PrinciplesofCriminalLiability 4.AccomplicesandPartiestoCrime 5.InchoateOffenses 6.DefensestoCrime 7.HomicideLaw 8.AdvancedHomicideLaw 9.AssaultandBattery 10.CrimesAgainstHabitation 11.TheftLaw 12.ForgeryandFraudOffenses 13.CrimesAgainstPublicOrder 14.CrimesAgainsttheGovernment 15.CrimesBytheGovernment 2.

    FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL LAW: An Overview of Basic Ideas "Lawsweremadetobebroken"(JohnWilson) There'smoretruthtotheabovephrasethanyoumightthink.Criminallawisonlyasmallpartof theentirefieldoflaw,andoneofthemostrecent,inconsistent,andundevelopedareasoflaw.A longtimeago,tribalsocietieshandledtheirdifferencesinprivate.Somemodernsocietiesstilldo, likethecivillawsystemsofFranceorGermany.Thedecisionsoverwhatwaswrongandwhat wasrightwereleftinthehandsofthepeople.Thingslikefolkways,mores,customs,andnorms tookcareofmostproblems. Bycontrast,everythingaboutcriminallawinAmericatoday(defining,classifying,grading, prohibiting,andpunishing)isinthehandsofthelegislatureorlawmakingbodyforeach jurisdiction.Crimesare"owned"bythestate,prosecutedbythestateinitsownname,andthe onlythingseparatingaCivilWrongfromaCriminalWrongisafinelinethatexistsonlybecause thelegislaturesaysitexists. Tobefair,thegovernmentsaysit'sdoingitbecauseofadutyorobligationtoprotectcertain basic,underlying"societalinterests"thatcannotbetakencareofbycitizensthemselves,who shouldbefreetoenjoyother,moresublimepursuits.Thispaternalisticstanceisarather rudimentaryformoftheideaofSocialContract,arelativelyweakphilosophicalpositionthat doesn'tbenefitminoritiesverywell(majorityrule:minorityright).It'sindirectoppositiontothe ideaofNaturalLaw,amongotherthings,whichholdthattherearecertainuniversalelementsto moralityandindividualconsciencethatdon'tnecessarilyrequirethecoercivepowerofthestate norgovernmentinterventioninhumanaffairs.NaturalLaw,unfortunately,doesn'tprovidemuch specificguidanceforrulemakinganditdoesn'tbenefitwomenverywell(womanascaretakerto man).TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesislargelywrittenintermsofNaturalLawwhichacts asacheckonSocialContractorientedjudgemadelawwhichbyitspaternalisticnatureis designedforthebettermentofsociety,sometimescalledPositiveLaw. NaturalLaw PositiveLaw Congressshallmakenolaw...prohibitingthefreedomofspeechor otherformsofpersonalexpression. Thejudgeruledthatthedefendanthadviolatedparagraph101bof theCriminalCodeformakingobsceneremarksviaemailandwas sentencedtoaprecedentsetting2yearsinprison.

    Thebestwaytounderstandthe"societalinterests"thatlawservesistolookattheClassification ofStatutoryLawsystem.Thisremarkablyconsistentschemevarieslittlefromjurisdictionto jurisdiction,and(withtheexceptionofEnvironmentalCrime)hasbeenaroundsincethe16th Century.

    Crimesagainstthe Treason,Sedition,Espionage state Crimesagainst persons Crimesagainst habitation Crimesagainst property Crimesagainst publicorder Murder,Manslaughter,Rape, Kidnapping,Assault,Battery Burglary,Arson,HomeInvasion

    ProtectionofNationalSecurity ProtectionofPersonsagainstViolence ProtectionofSafetyandSecurityin One'sHome

    Theft,Larceny,Robbery,Vandalism, Forgery,Extortion,Fraud, ProtectionofPrivateProperty Embezzlement DisorderlyConduct,Vagrancy, IncitementtoRiot,MotorVehicle Offenses,Alcohol&Drugs ProtectionofthePublicPeace,Order, andSafety

    Crimesagainst ResistingArrest,Obstructionof PreservingHonestandEfficient administrationof Justice,Bribery,Escape,Contemptof PublicAdministration justice Court Crimesagainst publicmorals Crimesagainst nature Crimesagainst environment Prostitution,Sodomy,Obscenity, Incest,IndecentExposure,Gambling, MaintainingTraditionalMorality Alcohol&Drugs Bestiality,AnimalAbuse Pollution,Fishing&Hunting, Smoking,ToxicWasteDumping MaintainingSeparationofSpecies, PublicHealth PreservingPublicHealthandNatural Environment

    ItshouldbeapparentbynowthatALLCRIMEISANINJURYAGAINSTSOCIETY.Indeed, theredoesn'tevenhavetobeavictim(victimlesscrimes)orsomeonetocomplainaboutit (consensualsexacts).Societyasawhole,viaitslegislatures,haspresumablymadeacollective judgmentthatcertainbehaviorsareharmfultocertain"societalinterests".Thisbringustothe MOSTimportantcharacteristicofCriminalLaw: CRIMINALLAWISDISTINGUISHEDFROMALLOTHERKINDSOFLAW BECAUSEITCARRIESWITHITTHEMORALCONDEMNATIONOFALLOF SOCIETY. TheessenceofCriminalLawisitscommonpunishment(Hart1958).Nomatterwhattheoffense, fromfelonytomisdemeanortoinfraction(orviolation),thereactionexpressesthemoral contemptofsociety.Evenforaminortrafficviolation,there'salwaystheslightesthintofhaving injuredsocietyandbrokenthecollective,agreeduponrules.Nomatterhowmanytimesaparent scoldsachildbysaying"whatwouldsocietythink",itdoesn'tcarrythesameforceaswhenit's impliedbyofficialreaction. TheconceptofCrimeiscloselytiedtotheideaofCriminalLaw,butnotinanysimpleway.The

    connectionsareexpressedintwoancientprinciples. nullumcrimensinepoena nullapoenasinelege nocrimewithoutpunishment nopunishmentwithoutlaw

    Itwouldbeanimmenseoversimplificationtosaysomethinglike"CrimeiswhattheCriminal Lawisallabout."Thereasonsaretwofold.Firstofall,theCriminalLawisnotjustaboutCrime. Itdefinescrimeanditselements,tobesure,butitalsoprovidestheimpetusforvoluntary, positive,moralaction,andasSamaha(1999)putsit,"alastresortasamethodofsocialcontrol." It'susefultothinkofCriminalLawasasetofbothProscriptive(prohibited)ANDPrescriptive (preferred)rulesforconduct.Thisisbestunderstoodbytheoxymoron"crimesofomission"and here'ssomeexamplesoftheseprescriptiverules: Failuretoremainatthesceneofanaccident Failuretoaidapoliceofficerwhenrequestedtodoso Failuretoreportadeathorlocationofacorpse Failurebyaparentorguardiantoprovideadequatefood,clothing,shelter,medicalcare, supervision,etc.,forachild Failuretocometotheassistance,ortosummonpolice,foracrimevictim(Good Samaritanlaws) Failuretoleavetheareawhentoldbyapublicofficialtodoso Failuretoproperlyidentifyyourselfwhenlawfullyaskedtodoso Failuretosubmittoabreathanalyzer(orother)testwhenlawfullyrequired Failuretoobeyanorderofacourt

    It'sbestnottothinkofthesethingsasCrimes.Theyaremoralorethicalcommitmentsknownas thelawbehindthelaw(Gardner&Anderson1996).Theyaresupposedtocompelpeopleto conformtoahigherstandardofconductwhichisprescribed,notproscribedbytheCriminalLaw. TheyareOmissions. ThesecondreasonwhyCrimeandCriminalLawarenotthesameisbecauseCrimeisallabout blameworthiness,culpability,andawholebunchofotherconceptstobeexplainedlater. "Breakingthelaw"mayinvolveamorallapse,accident,ormistake."Crime"ordinarilyinvolves somethingdeeperwhichisunjustifiableandinexcusable.Sometimesthedistinctionismadeby sayingthattheCriminalLawisamoral(asetofimpersonal,rationalrules)andthatCrime alwaysinvolvesmorality.AnotherwayofsayingthisisthatapersonaccusedofCrimeisbeing triedforbeingacertainkindofperson.SocalledStatusOffenses,likevagrancyandcurfew violation,makeitclearthatcertainstationsorconditionsinlifearecriminalinthemselves.The statusof"criminal"issupposedtobereservedfortheworstoutcastsfromsociety. TheoldestwayofClassifyingCrimeistomakethree(3)distinctions: 1. Crimes"malainse"Actswhicharewronginthemselves.Anythingwrongunder NaturalLawandvirtuallyeveryactproscribedunderCommonLawismalainse.The

    conductisunlawfulbecausethetransactionorcontactbetweenpeopleisunnaturalor immoral.Examplesincludemurder,rape,burglary,andsoforth. 2. Crimes"malaprohibita"Actswhicharewrongbecauseprohibited.Anythingthat interfereswithPositiveLawandmuchofStatutoryLawismalaprohibita.Theconductis unlawfulbecauseitinfringesonother'srightsorjustbecauseitisprohibited.Examples includedrunkdriving,gambling,andsoforth. 3. Crimes"distinguishedfromtorts"Mostcrimesarealsotorts,thetechnicaltermfor civilwrongswhichareredressedbydamages.Victimscansuecriminalsintortaction,and doublejeopardydoesnotprohibittortandcriminalactionforthesameconduct.TortLaw grewoutofCriminalLaw,andinvolvestheconceptsoffaultandliabilitybutdoesnot carrythesocialcondemnationofCriminalLaw.That'swhyadifferentstandardofproof (preponderanceoftheevidence)existsfortorts,whereascrimerequiresprovingmoral certaintyorbeyondareasonabledoubt.Examplesincludelibel,slander,trespass, wrongfuldeath,andsoforth. AnotherwayofClassifyingCrimeistofocusonthepotentialpenaltiesimposed: 1. CapitalFeloniesCrimeswhicharepunishablebydeath,orinstateswithoutthedeath penalty,lifeimprisonmentwithoutparole.Anexamplewouldbeaggravatedmurder. 2. FeloniesBroadlydefined,crimeswhicharepunishablebyayearormoreinaprison. Historically,aseriouscrimeinvolvingforfeitureofallworldlypossessions,imprisonment, and/ordeath.Anotherdefinitionisaninfamouscrime,onewhichbyitsnatureor characterindicatesadepravityinperpetrationorintenttopervertjusticeandpropagate falsehoodthatforeverdestroystheaccused'scredibility.Examplesincludemurder, manslaughter,rape,larceny,robbery,arson,sodomy,mayhem,andinthecaseofinfamous crime,anythinginvolvingfalsehood,liketreason,forgery,perjury,orbribery. 3. GrossMisdemeanorsBroadlydefined,misdemeanorsarecrimespunishablebyjail sentences,fines,orboth.Agrossmisdemeanorisaverygreat,orhigh,misdemeanor, typicallycarryingasentenceofclosetoayearinjail.Theyofteninvolvemoralturpitude, whichbytheircommissionimplyabase,vile,ordepravednatureregardingtheprivate andsocialdutieswhichapersonowestoothersortosocietyingeneral.Itimplies somethingisimmoralinitself.Examplesincludeobscenity,profanity,andsolicitation.The doctrineofmergerrequiresthatifamisdemeanorispartofafelony,thelessimportant crimeceasestohaveanindependentexistenceandismergedintothefelony,butthisdoes notapplytolesserincludedoffensescommoninpleabargainingnorprosecutorial overchargingcommonincreatingtheimpressionofmultiplecountswhicharereally multipledegreesofthesameoffense. 4. OrdinaryMisdemeanorsMisdemeanorsthattypicallycarrysentencesinthe90to180 dayrange.Anexamplewouldincludedrunkdriving,butvariesbyjurisdiction.The higherthemisdemeanor,themoresubstantialtherighttoajurytrial. 5. PettyMisdemeanorsRelativelyminormisdemeanorsthattypicallycarrysentencesin the30dayrange.Anexamplewouldincludepublicdrunkenness,butvariesby jurisdiction.Ithasonlybeensince1972thatpeopleaccusedofminormisdemeanorshave hadtherighttorepresentationbycounsel.

    6. Infractions(orviolations)Typicallythesearetrafficoffensesorthebreakingof municipalordinanceswhicharepunishableonlybysuspensionofprivileges (AdministrativeLaw)orfines(QuasiCriminalLaw).Technically,theyarenoteven Crimessincetheydonotresultinarecordofcriminalconvictioninmostjurisdictions. However,itispossibletobejailedonaviolationifthecityinquestionhasamunicipal court.Suchacourtcanimposeafine,buttheycannotimprisonforfailuretopaythefine, onlyforfailuretocomplywithacourtorder.Amunicipalityisalsonotalegitimatelaw makingbody.Onlystatelegislaturesare.Municipalitiesarecorporationsapprovedby statelegislatures,andtheyserveatthewhimofthestatelegislatureunlesstheyhave establishedhomerule.Municipalitiesaretheonlycorporationsallowedtochartertheir municipalordinancesastheirbylaws.Mostordinancesdonotstatethepenalties,butsome do(Chamelin&Evans1991). ThebestwayofClassifyingCrimeistouseajurisprudentialapproach.Jurisprudencehasmany meanings(seelist)butgenerallyreferstothescienceorphilosophyoflawasawhole.This methodelucidatesmanyofthemoreadvancedconceptsinCriminalLaw.Accordingtoatleast onelegalscholar(Hall,1949),anyCrimehas7elements,whichIwillfirstlist,andthengointo detailbynumber.Bydefinition,acrimeisany: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. legallyproscribed(theconceptofLegality) humanconduct(theconceptofActusReus) causative(theconceptofCausation) ofagivenharm(theconceptofSocialHarm) whichcoincideswith(theconceptofConcurrence) ablameworthyframeofmind(theconceptofMensRea) forwhichpunishmentisprovided.(theconceptofPunishment)

    (#1)TheconceptofLegalitycombinesthetwoprincipleswelearnedearlier,andsaystherecanbe nocrimewithoutlaw.Theremustbepublicrespectforthelaw,fortheofficeifnottheoffice holders(whichistheconceptoflegitimacy).Lawsnotbasedonsocietalnormsareunlikelytogain generalcompliance.America'sexperimentwithProhibitionfrom19201933isanexample.Ifthe principleofLegalityismaintained,governmentscaninflictpainonitscitizensbecauseitwillbe seenthatthosewhoarepunishedarethosewhodeservedtobepunishedfromasocietal standpoint.SohowdoesagovernmentgoaboutcreatingLegality?(Classdiscussion) Theansweristhatthereareatleast3ways,2ofwhicharederivedfromthewritingsofclassical thinkerslikeJeremyBenthamandMaxWeber,andanotherderivedfromanunknown, mysterioussource. 1. Cognoscibility(Bentham)Thistermdescribesacognitivestatewhenthelawisso preciseandeasytounderstandthatcitizenscaneasilyadvisethemselvesonwhattheycan andcannotdo.Now,BenthambelievedinUtilitybeingmoreofanultimatevaluethan Justice(trulyaPositiveLawtheorist),butthebasicideaissimilartothethemeoftheold TVshow,Beretta,"Don'tdotheCrimeifyouCan'tdotheTime".Ifthelawsare selectivelyfewinnumberandthepunishmentsarecarefullycalculated,standardized,and wellknown,thenpeoplewill"know"thatthelawisfairandjustacrosstheland.That's

    legality.Noloopholes,noexceptions,notravestiesofjustice.Everyonegetsafairdeal. 2. RationalLegalAuthority(Weber)Thisistheoppositeofkadijustice,whereabunchof judges,jurors,pundits,orotherexpertsmakeupthelawonacasebycasebasis.The essenceofrationallegalauthorityisthatthereisasystemofabstractrulesappliedto concretecases.There'sareasonorlogicbehindeverylegaldecision.Nopersonalities involved.Noappealstotradition.Juststonecoldprofessionals(kindofliketheoldTV show,Dragnet,"JusttheFacts")workingdiligentlytowardeverincreasingrationalization ofthemachineryofjustice. 3. RuleofLaw(unknownorigin)WelcometothefuzziestconceptofallinCriminalLaw. Lawyersclaimtohaveaninstinctforit,andit'ssaidthatonlypeoplewhogotolawschool caneverunderstandit(Fletcher1996).There'snotmuchtogoonwithdictionariesor encyclopedias(Classassignment:LibraryandInternetsearchfordefinition),exceptfor somethingextremelybrieflike"aprinciple,guideornormthatdecisionsshouldbemade bytheapplicationofknownprinciples,sometimescalledthesupremacyoflaw"(West 1984).Thatdefinitionisasham,andthisloftyconceptdeservesbetter;soheregoes.Rule ofLawconnotesLawwithacapitalL.There'snowordforthemeaningoflawwitha capitalLintheEnglishlanguage.OthercultureshavewordslikeRecht(German),Droit (French),Pravo(Russian),Derecho(Spanish),andMishpat(Hebrew).TheclosestEnglish equivalentwouldbe"Right",atermthatappearsinthetranslationofsomeimportant philosophicalworks,likeHegel'sPhilosophyofRight.Itdenotesavisionofgovernment basedonidealLaw,andwas,ironically,referredtoquiteextensivelyduringNaziGermany inthenotionofaRechtsstaat. (#2)TheconceptofActusReus(aphrasemeaningevilorbaddeed)isderivedfromanoldLatin phrase,andinmanyways,iswhatseparatesCriminologyfromTheologybecauseasmuchaswe mightliketo,thoseofuswhoworkwithcriminalsallthetimecannotbeconcernedwith,nor inclinedtopunish,badthoughts.Governmentisnotconcernedwithevilunlessitismanifestedin behavior.Religionisconcernedwithevilasmanifestedinthought. actusnonfacitreumnisimenssitrea: anactdoesnotmakeapersonguiltyunless themindisguilty

    Itisimportanttounderstandthelegaldefinitionof"behavior".Aninvoluntaryjerkoftheknee whilehavingyourreflexescheckedisbehavior,butnotlegalbehavior.Psychologistsalsotalk aboutbeingabletoconditionsomeonetodosomething,likemakethembrushtheirhairback whilespeaking,withouttheirknowingaboutit.Thisisalsonotbehaviorinthelegalsense.The wordinsocialsciencethatcomesclosesttothelegaldefinitionofbehavioris"action".Actionis alwaysconscious,voluntary,andpurposivebehavior.There'salineinShakespeare'sHamlet wherethegravediggerpondersOphelia'sdrowning,andasks"DidthewatercometoOpheliaor didOpheliacometothewater."Thedifferenceisoneofaccidentaldeathvs.suicide.Ortake guns,forinstance,"Doesthefingerpullthetriggerordoesthetriggerpullthefinger."Totake anotherexample,lawyerswouldclaimthere'sagooddealofdifferencebetweensomeone thrustingtheirswordintosomeonewhoisstandingstill,andsomeoneholdingtheirsword outstretchedwhilethevictimcomesrunningintoit.The"action",yousee,isdifferentineach

    caseandforeachpartytothecrime,andalthoughyouandImaythinkitseemslikesplitting hairs,it'squiteanimportantpartoflegalreasoning. Therearecertaincriminaloffenseswheretheactaloneisallthat'snecessarytoconvictsomeone. ThesearecalledStrictLiabilitycrimes(asopposedtoTruecrimeswhichrequirebothbodyand mind).Examplesofstrictliabilityincludeweaponoffenses,trafficoffenses,drug&alcohol offenses,publichealthlaws,corporatecrime,andlittering.There'snoneedtoprovean accompanyingmentalstatebecausetheCriminalLawimposesliabilitywithoutfault.Suchlaws cameaboutduringthe1930stobetterprotectthepublicandworkersfromunsafeproductsand unsafeworkingconditions.Thetradeoffinthisarrangementisthatstrictliabilityoffensesare usuallyonlypunishablebyafine.They'reacontroversialareaofCriminalLaw(casereview: Peoplev.Hager). There'smore.Fromalegalpointofview,"communication"isaformofaction.Awholesetof lawsexistforwhatarecalledInchoatecrimes(incompletecrimes),suchasconspiracy,attempt, possession,solicitation,terroristthreats,assault,sexualharassment,incitingtoriot,aidingand abetting,andbeinganaccompliceoraccessory.Onceagain,mentalstateisirrelevantbecausethe criminalstatuteshaveusuallydescribedthebehaviorsowellthattheprincipleofVicarious Liabilityapplies.Anybodywhoparticipatesintheplanning,design,orcoverupofacrimeis subjecttothesamepenaltiesasapersonwhoactuallycarriesitout.Thisisacontroversialarea, andinallfairness,somestatutuesrequireacombinationofcommunication(words)andconduct (deeds),butthenagain,onceyouopenthedoortocombinations,evidenceofbadthoughtsmay evenbeadmissible.Theclosesttermwehaveforwhenwickedthoughtsareassumedtoapplyto theact(andtheintent)isMalice. (#3)TheconceptofCausationisoneofthemoreadvancedconceptsinCriminalLaw.Anactby itselfisnotpunishableinitselfbecauseit'sassumedtobethecauseofsomethingelse,theeffect, orsocialharmthattheCriminalLawispresumablymoreconcernedwith,andallcrimesare causeandeffectrelationships.Establishingacauseandeffectrelationshipisnosimplematter withlegalreasoning,orforthatmatterinanysocialscience.Suppose,forexample,youbeatup somebody,knockedthemunconscious,andthrewtheminadumpster.Youwalkoff,andafew minuteslater,agarbagetruckcomesdownthealley,emptiesthedumpster,andcrushesthepoor fellowtodeath.Whokilledhim?Youorthegarbagetruckdriver?(Otherexamplesfor discussion:hospitalinfections,surgerycomplications,beingrunover,bittenbyadog,exposureto elements,struckbylightening)

    ThemostimportanttypesofcausesinCriminalLaware"causesinfact"(alsocalleddirect causes),proximatecauses(alsocalledlegalcauses),interveningcauses,andsupercedingcauses. Eachofthesehavespecialrulesortestsdesignedforthem: Directcause Proximatecause The"butfor"testTheaccused'sactwillbethecauseinfactofaresultif, butfortheaccused'sact,theresultwouldnothaveoccured. The"foreseeability"testIfitisforeseeablethattheresultingharmmight occur,thenthepersondoingtheoriginalcriminalactisresponsibleforthe consequences.

    Thegeneralruleisthattheaccusedwillremainresponsiblefortheoriginal Interveningcause criminalactevenifthereareinterveningcausesbetweentheactusreusand actualinjury. Thegeneralruleisthatthechainofcausationisbroken,andtheaccusedis Supercedingcause notresponsible,ifthereisasupercedingcausesounforeseenand unpredictablethatitwouldnotbefairtoholdtheoriginalactortoblame. (#4)TheconceptofSocialHarmisafairlyundevelopedconceptinCriminalLaw,andit'swhat separatesCriminologyfromVictimology.TheCriminalLawexistsforapublicpurpose,not privatepurposes.TheCriminalLawisnotconcernedwiththeprotectionorvindicationof individualvictims,butrathersocietyasawhole.Thegeneralrulehasalwaysbeenifavictim wantscompensation,theyshouldsuetheoffenderafterthestategetsdonewiththem.The problem,ofcourse,isthatmostoffendersarebroke.Therehasbeenatrendinrecentyearsto incorporatemorevictimassistance,compensation,andrestitutioninthepleabargainingstageof criminaljustice.TheadditionalproblemisthatthereareawholesetoflawscalledVictimless crimes,suchassodomy,fornication,adultery,cohabitation,obscenity,fortunetelling,dueling, loansharking,gambling,drunkenness,anddruguse,whereonlysomeoftheAmericanpeople believesocietyisthevictim.TheLawisnotsupposedtocaveintopublicopinion,buttakethe examplesofabortionordruglegalization,andyoubegintoseewhattheproblemsarefromnot clearlyarticulatingsocialharm.Progressonthevictimologyfrontisfine,buttherearemore serious"lawandorder"problemsthatcanonlybeaddressedbydevelopmentofthisconcept. It'sconceivablethatdevelopmentoftheconceptisstiffledbecauseofaonesidedfocusonStreet crimeattheexpenseofSuitecrime.Whiletheaveragetakeofastreetrobbermaybe$25, Americancitizenswon'trecoverfromtheeffectsofwhitecollarcrimesliketheSavings&Loan bailoutuntilSocialSecurityrunsout.(ClassdiscussionwithpossiblesidetripstoRadical Criminology) (#5)TheconceptofConcurrencerequiresthatanyact(actusreus)causingsocialharmmust coincide,orbeaccompanied,withacriminalstateofmind(mensrea).Bothactandintentmust concurinpointoftime.It'spartofaformulainCriminalLaw: ACT+INTENT+RESULT=CRIMEDEFENSES Theremustexistafusion,acomingtogetherofactandintent.Normally,theintentcomesfirstin

    time,leadingtothecarryingoutoftheact.Forexample,itisnotmurdertoaccidentlyshoot someoneandrejoiceafterwardsbecausemensreafollowsactusreus.Anotherexample:suppose yourfriendtellsyoutomeetheratherhouse,andifshe'slate,togoaheadandbreakthelockon thedoor.OK,youdothat,andonceinside,youdecidetostealherVCR.Youhavenotcommitted burglarybecauseyourintenttostealcameafterbreakingandentering.Thereisnospecific lengthoftimethattheintentmustexistpriortotheact,onlythattheycometogether concurrently. ThelegalrequirementofconcurrenceisusuallytakencareofbyprovingMotive.Intentand motivearenotthesamething.InCriminalLaw,motiveisthatwhichleadsortemptsthemindto indulgeinacriminalact,suchasanimpulse,incentive,orreasonforcommitingthecrime.Intent isthemindbeingfullyawareoftheconsequences.Manycriminalstatutesrequireintentasan elementofthecrime,butmotiveisneverstatedasanessentialelementofacrimeinanycriminal statute.Motivecanbeusedtoassistinestablishingintent,butmorelikely,motiveisintroducedas apieceofevidence,oftencircumstantial,admittedalongwithevidenceofopportunity,toimpress thejudgeorjury.Thepresenceofmotiveisevidencetendingtopresumeguilt,andtheabsenceof motiveisevidencetendingtopresumeinnocence. (#6)TheconceptofMensRea(aphrasemeaningevilorbadmind)isawelldevelopedconcept, andperhapsthemostcomplexandconfusingconceptinCriminalLaw.Severalproblems contributetothiscomplexity.All50statesarefreetoestablishtheirownPrecedentwhichresults indisparaterequirementsofintentforsimilarcrimes,therearedistinctlydifferentcommonlaw andModelPenalCode(MPC)definitionsofmensrea,thenotionofBlameworthinessisnot preciselyattachedtocertaintypesofmensreaandindeedmaybemoreusefulindefensesto crime,andfinally,tosuccessfullyprosecuteacase,adifferenttypeofmensreamaybeneededto helpestablishtheactusreus,concurrence,orothercircumstanceelementstatedinthecriminal statute. Thebestwaytounderstandmensrea(oftenmislabeledIntent)istorealizethatitisalways invisible.Youcan'treallyproveintentlikeyoucanwithmotive.Youalsocan'treallyblame someonefortheirmotive(it'sunderstandable),onlyfortheirintent.Intentisdifferentforevery personandforeverycase,andit'simpossibleaswellasfutiletogetinsidethe"mind"ofeachand everycriminaloffender.Confessionsaretheclosestthingtodirectevidenceofmensrea,andeven then,theymustbecorroborated.Therefore,theCriminalLawhasestablishedcertainobjective testsforinferringthesubjectivementalstate(intent)ofcriminaloffenders.Todothisrequires certainassumptionsaboutResponsibility,andbyaddingintherulesforinferringintent,called determiningCulpability,wearriveatawaytoattachBlameworthiness. BLAMEWORTHINESS=RESPONSIBILITY+CULPABILITY Let'staketheassumptionsaboutresponsibilityfirst.It'seasy.ThisisagiveninCriminalLaw. TheentirecriminaljusticesystemoperatesontheassumptionofFreeWill.Muchtothechagrin ofpsychologists,sociologists,andsociobiologistswhohavearguedforyearsthathumanbehavior isdeterminedbyforcesbeyondindividualcontrol,thecriminaljusticesystemassumesthatevery humanbeingpossessesfreewillandmakeschoicesthattheymustberesponsiblefor.NoticeI

    didn'tsay"accountablefor"becausewehaven'tyetreachedthepointwherewecanattach blame.ThefreewillassumptionhasbeencalledthetheoreticalunderpinningofCriminalLaw. It'simportanttounderstandthetheorybeforemakinganyassessmentofit. WithoutgettingintophilosophicalnotionsofJustice,therearetwodowntoearthreasonsforthe freewillassumption.Oneisthatthesystemcouldnotoperateefficientlyifwetookthetimeto closelyexaminethepsychologicalmakeupofeachandeveryindividual.Thesecondreasonisthat thereisawholeothersidetothejusticesystem,calledDefenses,whichoffermorethanenough safeguards,alongwiththingslikethePresumptionofInnocenceuntilProvenGuilty,tojustifyan assumptionthatcrimeisalwaysabehaviorthatisfreelychosen.(Classdiscussion:Arethese enoughsafeguards?)Nowallthisdoesn'tmeanthatjudgesandlawyersdon'tbelieveinthe influenceofgenetic,psychological,orenvironmentalinfluencesonhumanbehavior.Itjustmeans that,forpurposesofhavingaworkableoperatingassumption,wehavecarvedoutcriminal behaviorfromthedimensionofallhumanbehavioranddecreedthatthisthingwecallcrime shallbeconsideredasfreelychosenfromnowon. Traditionally,thisstancehasbeensoftenedsomewhatbymutuallyagreeduponrecognitions. NoticeIdidn'tsay"exceptions".Therearenoexceptionstothefreewillassumption.However, therearethe"ThreeI's":Insanity,Infancy,andInvoluntary.TheCriminalLaw"recognizes"to varyingdegreesthatinsanepeople,extremelyyoungpeople,andthosewithcertaininvoluntary "medical"conditionsshouldNOTbeassumedtoberesponsiblefortheiractions.Thesearebest understoodasSpecialDefensesthatgettotheideaofVoluntarinessofActs,orVolition(the abilitytoexercisefreewill).Insanityandinfancyarefairlyselfexplanatory,butthefollowingisa listofinvoluntary"medical"conditions:reflexivebehavior,unconsciousbehavior,behaviorwhile asleep(sleepwalking),convulsivebehavior(epilepsy),andinvoluntaryintoxication(drugged againstyourwill). Nowwe'rereadytotakeupthenotionofCulpability(faultingorblamingsomeonefortheway their"mind"works).ThatdefinitionI'veprovidedinparenthesesshouldstopandgiveyoupause astowhatprecariousgroundwe'reonwithconceptslikeMentalFault.Let'sstartwiththe commonlawapproachesandthenlookattheMPCapproach,bothintabularform.Mostlawyers aretrainedinthecommonlawapproachbecausetheMPCmethodisfairlyrecentandhasn't caughtonasmuchasitshould.

    Atcommonlaw,basicdistinctionsaremadebetweenatleast6differenttypesofIntent:General Intent,SpecificIntent,StrictLiability,TransferredLiability,ConstructiveLiability,andScienter. Allcrimescontaingeneralintent,butsomecrimesonlycontainspecificintentorinvolveother formsofintent. Thekindofintentwhichajudgeorjurycaneasilyinferorpresumefromthe actitself.Theintendedresultdoesn'tmatter.Theprosecutionneednot establishwhythecrimeoccured.Itmustbeshown,however,thatthe defendanthadan"awareness"ofacriminalactbeingcommitted.Batteryis agoodexamplebecausetheextentofinjuriesorwhythefightstarteddoesn't matter. Thekindofintentthatlegislatureshaveputinthelanguageofthecriminal statute.Usuallyrequiresaparticularresultbeyondtheactitself,suchas "withpurposetodefraudaninsurancecompany"inthecrimeofarsonfor profit.Requiresprosecutiontoproveadditionalelementsandcannotbe presumedbyajudgeorjury. Involvesregulatorycrimeswhereintentdoesn'tmatteratall.Intentisnotan elementofthecrime.Itisimmaterialwhethertheaccusedactedingoodfaith orknewtheywereviolatingthelaw.Theprosecutiondoesn'thavetoprove thedefendantknewtheirmailorderpackagecontaineddrugsorchild pornography,forexample. Involvescaseswheretheaccusedintendedtoharmonevictimbutinstead harmedanother.Relievesprosecutionoftheneedtoprovechainofevents leadingtoharm.Basisoffelonymurderrule. Involvescaseswheretheaccusedshouldhaveknowntheirbehaviorcreateda highorunreasonableriskofinjury.Alsocalledcriminalnegligence,and replacesanyspecificintentcontainedinstatute,therebyconstructingor convertinganinnocentacttoacrime. Arequirementinsomestatutesthattheaccusedhadsomeadditionaldegree ofknowledgebeyondknowingapossiblecriminalactwasbeingcommiting. Examplesincludeknowingthatthevictimisalawenforcementofficer, knowingthatthematerialswerestolenproperty,orknowingthatthe hitchhikerwasanescapedfugitive.

    Generalintent

    Specificintent

    StrictLiability intent

    Transferred Liabilityintent Constructive intent

    Scienter

    SomewhatsimplerandeasiertounderstandistheMPCapproach.Notallstatesusethesewords, andwhereknown,I'veworkedthesynonymouswordintothedefinitionandindicateditby quotationmarks.Theyarearrangedfromthehighestdegreeofmentalfaulttothelowest.

    Purposely

    Whenaperson'sconsciousobjectiveistoengageinaparticularactor accomplishaparticularresult.Theyarebehaving"intentionally"with respecttotheattendantcircumstancestheyareawareoforbelievetoexistat thetime.Requiresprosecutiontoshowwhatwasgoingthrutheaccused's mindatthetime. Whenapersonknowsthenatureoftheirconductwillnecessarilyleadtoa particularresult.Itmeans"willfully"carryingoutadesignorplanasa consciousexerciseoftheirwill.Requiresprosecutiontoshowwhatwasgoing thrutheaccused'smindatthetime. Whenapersonconsciouslydisregardsasubstantialandunjustifiablerisk thatgrosslydeviatesfromastandardofcarethatareasonablepersonwould followunderthecircumstances.Requiresprosecutiontoshowwhatwasgoing thrutheaccused'smindatthetimeANDshowwhatareasonableperson woulddounderthecircumstances. Whenapersonfailstobeawareofasubstantialandunjustifiableriskthat dangerouscircumstancesexistoraprohibitedresultwillfollow.Suchfailure isalsoasubstantialdeviationfromthestandardofcarethatareasonable personwouldfollowunderthecircumstances.Requiresprosecutiontoshow whatareasonablepersonwoulddounderthecircumstances.

    Knowingly

    Recklessly

    Negligently

    (#7)TheconceptofPunishmentinCriminalLawmustsatisfyatleast4criteria.Anypenalty imposedmustbe: 1. painfulandunpleasant 2. prescribedbythelaw 3. administeredintentionally 4. administeredbythestate(Classbrainstormingbegins) Inaddition,itwouldbeniceifpunishmenthadaRationale,likeRetribution,Incapacitation, Deterrence,orRehabilitation(whichdoesn'tagreewith#1above).Thesearesometimesreferred toasthegoalsofCriminalLaw,anditwouldbeanamazingfeatofcivilizationifwecouldfinally settleononeortheother.Here'sabriefsynopsisoftheleadingcontenders:

    Retribution

    Assumesthatcriminalsdeservetobepunished,mostlybylong prisonterms,aslegalrevengefortheirharmtosociety.The modern"justdeserts"approachconsidersitpropertopunish becausetheydeserveitandthestatehasgonetothetroubleof prescribingapunishmentforthem. Attemptstomakeittheoreticallyimpossible,eitherthru incarceration,execution,castration,mutilation,banishment,or othermeans,forcriminalstopreyanyfurtheruponsociety. Assumesthatfearfulpenalties,mostlyinvolvingswiftrestraint, harshconditions,andcertainguilt,willpreventpeoplefrom choosingtoengageincrime.Specificdeterrencefocuseson individualcriminals,andgeneraldeterrencefocusesonpotential criminals. Emphasizesthepossibilityofchange,mostlyinvolvingtreatment programs,thathasasanendresulttheidealofbeingableto convertcriminalsintononcriminals.

    Incapacitation

    Deterrence

    Rehabilitation

    ItwouldalsobeusefultohaveaRangeofPenalties,andasystematicwayofsentencingsimilar casestosimilarpenaltiesinthatrange.Here'stherangeasitnowexists: DeathPenalty Incarceration Probation SplitSentence Restitution CommunityService Fines Lethalinjection,electrocution,exposuretolethal gas,hanging,orothermethod. Physicalconfinementinaprison,jail,orother lockedupfacility. Asetofspecificrulesofconductwhileinthe community,andsupervisionofcompliancewith thoserules. Abriefperiodofshockingconfinementfollowedby aperiodofprobation. Makingtheoffenderprovidefinancialrepayment orotherservicesforlossesincurredbythevictim. Makingtheoffenderperformpublicservicework, likepickinguptrash. Economicpenaltiesrequiringthepaymentoffixed sumsofmoney.

    PRINTEDRESOURCES: Chamelin,N.&K.Evans(1991)CriminalLawforPoliceOfficers.5thed.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ: PrenticeHall. Fletcher,G.(1996)BasicConceptsofLegalThought.NY:OxfordUniv.Press. Gardner,T.&T.Anderson(1996)CriminalLaw:PrinciplesandCases.6thed.Minneapolis:West Publishing Hall,Jerome(1949)CasesandReadingsonCriminalLawandProcedure.Indianapolis:Bobbs Merrill. Hart,H.(1958)"TheAimsoftheCriminalLaw"LawandContemporaryProblems23:403405. Samaha,J.(1999)CriminalLaw.6thed.Belmont,CA:West/Wadsworth. WestPublishingCompany(1984)TheGuidetoAmericanLaw:Everyone'sLegalEncyclopedia.St. Paul:WestPublishing. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    THE LIMITS OF CRIMINAL LAW:


    a focus on the void-for-vagueness doctrine "Althoughitisunlikelyacriminalwillconsiderthetextofthelawbeforehemurdersorsteals,itis reasonablethatafairwarningbegiventheworld,inlanguagethecommonworldwillunderstand, ofwhatthelawintendstodoifacertainlineispassed"(O.W.Holmes) AswesawinLecture#1,theCriminalLawhasmuchpower.Infact,it'stoopowerful.Weneedto havechecksorlimitsonthispower,whichiswhatthislectureisabout.Butfirst,let'sreviewthe powersthattheCriminalLawhas: Defining(whatcrimeis,aswellasquasicrimesofOmission) Classifying(crimesbystatutoryscheme,evil,penalty,orjurisprudence) Grading(crimesbyseriousness,oramountofsocialharm) Prohibiting(socialcontrolforthebettermentofsociety) Punishing(allowsagovernmenttoinflictpainonitsowncitizens)

    ThefollowinglimitsonCriminalLawareinalphabeticalorder: AdversarySystemAlimitationonCriminalLawthatcontrolstheestablishmentof guilt.Itguaranteestheaveragecitizentherighttohaveaprosecutorandadefensecounsel opposeeachotherinatrialiftheyareunwillingorunabletodisposeofthecasepriorto trial.Theprosecutionalsohastheburdenofproof,initially. BillofAttainderThisreferstoanylegislativeactwhichinflictspunishmentwithouta criminaltrial.Ithasbeenprohibitedsince1867anditsoriginalpurposewastoeliminate lynching.It'smodernuseismostcloselyrelatedtogovernmentregulationofcertain professionsandtheprivilegesofexecutiveimmunity.Forexample,itprohibitsloyalty oathstopracticelaw,andallowsPresidentstorefusetoturnoverprivatedocumentsto specialprosecutors. BillofRightsThefirsttenamendmentstotheConstitutionlimittheabilityof governmenttodefinecertainactsascriminal,andalsohaveimportantthingstosayabout theenforcementofCriminalLaw. CorpusDelictiThisLatinphrasemeaning"bodyofthecrime"meansthatthe prosecutionmustproveALLelementsofacrime.Todothis,theprosecutionmustconsult thespecificstatuteofthestatethathasjurisdiction.Althoughtherearepresumptionsthat theprosecutionwillalsoprovetheidentityoftheaccusedandbeabletoproduceavictim, thosefactorsareNOTtechnicallypartoftheconceptofCorpusDelicti.Forexample,the corpusdelictiofburglaryconsistsofsixelements:(1)breaking(2)andentering(3)the dwelling(4)ofanother(5)atnighttime(6)withtheintenttocommitafelonytherein.In thelawofhomicide,however,oneoftheelementsis(1)thedeath,andinthiscase,the abilitytofindoraccountforthebodyispartofthecorpusdelictiofhomicide. CorroborationofConfessionThegeneralruleisthataconvictioncannotrestalone uponanaccused'soutofcourtconfession.Admissionoftheconfessionisonlypermittedif proofofCorpusDelictiwillbepresentedlater. CruelandUnusualPunishmentThisisan8thAmendmentprotectionwherethe

    words"cruel"and"unusual"haveneverreallybeenadequatelydefined.Apiecemeal approachhasbeenfollowedinwhichthedistinctionismadebetween"ancient"and "modern"formsofpunishmentwiththeassumptionbeingthatancientmethodsare unconstitutionalandmostmodernmethodsareupheld.Recentissueshaveinvolvedthe questionofproportionality,wherehabitualoffenderswithpriorrecordsreceivestiffer sentencesforthesamecrimeasthosecommittedwithoutpriorrecords. DoubleJeopardyThesamesovereignentitycannotprosecutethesameindividual twiceforthesameactorthesamecrime.ThisgetsatthematterofJurisdiction,andwhat istheoreticallypossibleandwhatisdoneinpractice.Asapracticalmatter,bothfederal andstategovernmentsdoNOTprosecutethesameperson,althoughtheytheoretically could,unlesstherearesomedissimilaritiestobefoundinthenatureofthecrimeORthe firstjurisdictiontoprosecutedoessounsuccessfully. DueProcessofLawAphrasefoundinthe5th&14thAmendmentaswellasevery stateconstitutionwhichforbidsthegovernmentfromtakinglife,liberty,orproperty withoutdueprocessoflaw.Atthefundamentallevel,dueprocessensuresataminimum therighttofairnoticeandafairhearing.Onotherlevels,itguaranteescertaininalienable rightsandfreedoms.Onapracticallevel,itisusuallydeterminedbyvariousbalancing teststhatpittheneedsoftheindividualagainsttheneedsofthegovernment.Theimplied righttoprivacyalsoprohibitsmakingcrimesoutofbehaviorprotectedbytherightof privacy. EqualProtectionofLawThegovernmentcannotmakealawapplicabletoonlyone sex,race,orreligionortreatonegroupofcitizensdifferentlyfromothergroupswithouta rationalreason.ThisideaisrelatedtothenotionofDueProcessatthelevelof fundamentalfreedom,tyingtogetherfairnessandinalienableright.Theprincipleisthat allpersonsmustbetreatedalike,notonlyinlawenactmentbutinlawenforcement. Historically,itwasusedtostrikedownmiscegenationlaws,andcontemporaryexamples wouldincludethe"powderrock"cocainecontroversyforblacksand"sexualharassment" statutesforwomen.(Classdiscussion?) ExPostFactoLawsBoththefederalandstategovernmentsareprohibitedfrom alteringthelawinanywaysoastobedetrimentaltoanaccusedpersonretroactively.This canoccurinmanyways:(1)thelegislaturepassesanewlaw,andsomeoneisprosecuted forcommittingtheactbeforethelawwasenacted(unlessthereisa"savings"clauseinthe statute);(2)thelegislatureincreasesthepenaltiesforanexistinglaw,andsomeoneis punishedunderthenewpenaltywhentheycommittedtheactwhiletheoldpenaltywasin effect;(3)thelegislaturedecreasestheburdenofproof,orinanywaymakesiteasierfor theprosecutiontoconvict,personswhocommittedcrimeundertheoldsystemmustbe triedundertheoldrules.(Note:thisdoesnotapplytoevidentiaryrulechanges.);and(4) thelegislatureadjuststheamountofgoodtimecreditoreligibilityforparoletoalleviate prisonovercrowding,andthenrestorestheoldformulaoncetheovercrowdingproblem hasbeensolved. JurisdictionThecourtsystemisorganizedbythis,andtherearethreedifferenttypes ofjurisdiction:person,place,andtypeofcrime.Differentcourtsarelimitedby

    jurisdictioninwhatcasescanbebroughtbeforethem. PresumptionofInnocenceAllthepresumptionsoflawindependentofevidenceare infavoroftheaccused,andeverypersonispresumedinnocentuntilprovenguilty.This conceptiscloselyrelatedtothereasonabledoubtstandardandthenotionofmoral certainty.Reasonabledoubtisthelastpresumptionofinnocenceincriminalprocedure, andactuallyit'san"entitlement"tothebenefitofacquittal.Moralcertaintyisatermfor thejudgmentcallthatremainstobemadeafterreasonabledoubthasbeeneliminated. StatusOffensesThelawcannotmakebeingacertainkindofpersonacrime.This determinationismadethroughanalogywithachronicmedicalcondition:thelawcannot criminalizehavinga"commoncold".Mostcasesofchronicalcoholismdon'tqualify,but druglawscriminalizingthestatusofbeingan"addict"do.Inpractice,thelawhasmany kindsofstatusoffenses.(Discussiononmedicalanalogy) StatuteofLimitationsThisplacesatimelimitontheperiodfromcommissionofthe offensetofilingofthecriminalcharges.TheSupremeCourthasdecidedthatitonly applieswhenthesuspectisincustody.Statesarefreetodevisetheirownstatutesof limitations,andthereiswidespreadvariation,butingeneral,misdemeanorsusuallyhave oneyear,andfelonieslonger.Therearetwowaystoextendthestatuteoflimitations:(1)an arrestwarrantextendsitindefinitelyorforaspecifiedperiodoftime;or(2)tollingthe statuteoflimitationsbynotcountingtheperiodoftimeequaltotheaccused'sabsence fromthejurisdiction. VoidforOverbreadthDoctrineThismakesastatuteorordinanceunconstitutional ifthemannerinwhichitiswrittenhasanunnecessarilybroadsweepandinvadesthearea ofprotectedfreedoms.Overbroadnessoccurswhenaprohibitionoverlapsona prescription,thatis,citizenssteerclearofgoodbehaviorbecausetheyareafraidof accidentallycommittingcriminalbehavior.When1stAmendmentissuesareatstake(an areaguardedcloselytopreventanycrimesbeingmadeoutoffreespeech),thecourtsmust considerthisdoctrineinconjunctionwiththevoidforvaguenessdoctrine,butinmany cases,thetwodoctrinesareappliedseparately.Ordinancesthatprohibitpanhandling,for example,areoverbroadiftheydescribetheoffenseas"annoying"passerbysbecausewhat isannoyingtosomepeopledoesnotannoyothers.(Discussion) VoidforVaguenessDoctrineThisrequiresthatlegislaturesuseclearandprecise languagesothatpeopleofcommonintelligencedonothavetoguessatthemeaningofa laworitsapplication.Ifthelanguageofastatuteorordinanceisvague,itis unconstitutional,andthelawmustbestruckdown.Sometimes,thedoctrineisappliedjust tothewords,like"illrepute"or"lewd",andatothertimes,whetherthelawentraps citizensorisdifficultforpolicetoenforceisconsidered.Amodernexamplewouldbethe "racialprofiling"controversy.

    THEVOIDFORVAGUENESSDOCTRINE Thisdoctrine,soeloquentlyputbyJusticeHolmes(inMcBoylev.U.S.1931)intheopeningquote atthestartofthislecture,hasancientorigins.Themaximofuncertainlaw,thennolawcomes downtousfromtheRomans,andtherearenumerouscasesinAmericanjurisprudencethatlay claimtoestablishingthedoctrine.Frequentlycitedformulationsinclude: "Anystatutewhicheitherforbidsorrequiresthedoingofanactintermssovaguethat menofcommonintelligencemustnecessarilyguessatitsmeaninganddifferastoits application"(Connallyv.GeneralConstructionCo.1926) "Anystatute,onitsface,whichisrepugnanttothedueprocessclause,[where] specificationofdetailsoftheoffensewouldnotservetovalidateit...Noonemaybe requiredatperiloflife,libertyorpropertytospeculateastothemeaningofpenal statutes.AllareentitledtobeinformedastowhattheStatecommandsorforbids" (Lanzettav.NewJersey1939) "Tohaveavailable,throughasufficientlyprecisestatute,informationregardingthe standardofcriminalitybeforebeingchargedwiththeallegedcommissionofacrime" (Watkinsv.U.S.1957) "Astatemaynotissuecommandstoitscitizensinlanguagesovagueandundefinedas toaffordnofairwarningofwhatconductmighttransgressthem"(Raleyv.Ohio1959) Itisnotenoughtochallengealawonthebasisofimprecisewordsalone.Anumberoftestshave beendevelopedtotellwhensuchattackswillbesuccessfulornot: Shouldalayman,orcommonperson,knowthattheconductinquestionissowrongthatit islikelytocarryacriminalpenalty?Thisisthemostcommontest,andoneinwhich judgesmustresorttoanunderstandingofpublicopinion,culture,andcustoms. Isthestatutecapableofmorepreciselanguage,withoutaskingthelegislaturetodothe impossible?Thisissometimesknownastheconjecturetest,whichlooksatwhether lawmakersseemedtoleavethingstotheimagination. Isthestatutemoreuncertainthanotherstatutes,orispartofawholegroupofrelated unclearstatutes?Thistestgetsatthebulkofcriminallawinacertainarea. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    PRINCIPLESOFCRIMINALLIABILITY
    CriminalLiabilityiswhatunlocksthelogicalstructureoftheCriminalLaw.Eachelementofa crimethattheprosecutorneedstoprove(beyondareasonabledoubt)isaprincipleofcriminal liability.Therearesomecrimesthatonlyinvolveasubsetofalltheprinciplesofliability,and thesearecalled"crimesofcriminalconduct".Burglary,forexample,issuchacrimebecauseall youneedtoprovebeyondareasonabledoubtisanactusreusconcurringwithamensrea.Onthe otherhand,therearecrimesthatinvolvealltheprinciplesofliability,andthesearecalled"true

    crimes".Homicide,forexample,issuchacrimebecauseyouneedtoproveactusreus,mensrea,

    concurrence,causation,andharm.Therequirementthattheprosecutormustproveeachelement ofcriminalliabilitybeyondareasonabledoubtiscalledthe"corpusdelictirule". Liabilityneedstobedistinguishedfromthefollowingconcepts: culpability(purposely,knowingly,recklessly,negligently)infersintent capacity(infancy,intoxication,insanity)capacitydefenses responsibility(volition,freewill,competency)presumptions

    TherearefiveprinciplesofliabilityinCriminalLaw:
    PrincipleofActusReus PrincipleofMensRea PrincipleofConcurrence PrincipleofCausation PrincipleofResultingHarm THEPRINCIPLEOFACTUSREUS:ISSUES involuntarinesssleepwalking,hypnoticbehavior,etc.areseenasexamplesofacting uponforcesbeyondindividualcontrol,andarethereforenotnormallyincludedinthe principleofactusreus.However,certain"voluntarilyinducedinvoluntaryacts"suchas drowsydrivingmightarguablybeincludedifthepriorvoluntaryactcreatedtheriskofa futureinvoluntaryact. manifestcriminalitycaughtredhanded,clearcutcaseofactusreusprovenbeyonda reasonabledoubt possessionthelawrecognizesvariousdegreesofthis.Actualpossessionmeans physicallyonyourperson.Constructivepossessionmeansphysicallyunderyourcontrol. Knowingpossessionmeansyouknowwhatyouarepossessing.Merepossessionmeansyou don'tknowwhatyouarepossessing.Unwittingpossessioniswhensomethinghasbeen plantedonyou.Theonlypunishabletypesofpossessionaretheonesthatareconscious andknowable. procuringobtainingthingswiththeintentofusingthemforcriminalpurposes;e.g., precursorchemicalsformakingnarcotics,"pimping"foraprostitute,andprocuring anothertocommitacrime("accessorybeforethefact")

    statusorconditionsometimesachronicconditionqualifiesasaction,e.g.,drug addiction,alcoholism,ontheassumptionthatfirstuseisvoluntary.Sometimesthe condition,e.g.chronicalcoholism,istreatedasadiseasewhichexculpatesanindividual. Mostoften,it'sthepunishmentaspectofcriminallawinthesekindsofcasesthattriggers an8thAmendmentissue.EqualProtectionandotherconstitutionalissuesmaybe triggered. thoughtssometimes,notoften,theexpressionofangrythoughts,e.g.,"I'llkillyoufor that"istakenasexpressingtheresolutionandwilltocommitacrime,butingeneral, thoughtsarenotpartoftheprincipleofactusreus.Daydreamingandfantasyarealsonot easilyincludedintheprincipleofmensrea. wordstheseareconsidered"verbalacts";e.g.sexualharassment,solicitation, terroristicthreats,assault,incitingtoriot.

    THEPRINCIPLEOFMENSREA:ISSUES circumstantialdeterminationofmensreathroughindirectevidence confessionsclearcutdirectevidenceofmensreabeyondareasonabledoubt constructiveintentonehastheconstructiveintenttokilliftheyaredrivingathigh speedsonanicyroadwithlotsofpedestriansaround,e.g. generalintenttheintenttocommittheactusreusofthecrimeoneischargedwith; e.g.,rapeandintenttopenetrate specificintenttheintenttodosomethingbeyondtheactusreusofthecrimeoneis chargedwith;e.g.,breakingandenteringwithintenttoburglarize strictliabilitycrimesrequiringnomensrea;liabilitywithoutfault;corporatecrime, environmentalcrime transferredintenttheintenttoharmonevictimbutinsteadharmanother

    THEPRINCIPLEOFCONCURRENCE:ISSUES attendantcircumstancessomecrimeshaveadditionalelementsthatmust accompanythecriminalactandthecriminalmind;e.g.,rape,butnotwithyourwife enterpriseliabilityincorporatelaw,thisistheideathatboththeactandtheagency (mensrea)foritcanbeimputedtothecorporation;e.g.,productsafety yearandadayrulecommonlawrulethatthefinalresultofanactmustoccurno laterthanayearandadayafterthecriminalstateofmind.Forexample,ifyoustruck someoneontheheadwithintenttokill,buttheydidn'tdieuntilayearandtwodayslater, youcouldnotbeprosecutedformurder.Manystateshaveabolishedthisruleorextended thetimelimit.InCalifornia,it'sthreeyears. vicariousliabilitysometimes,undersomerules,theguiltypartywouldnotbethe personwhocommittedtheactbutthepersonwhointendedtheact;e.g.,supervisorsof employees THEPRINCIPLEOFCAUSATION:ISSUES actualcauseanecessarybutnotsufficientconditiontoprovecausationbeyonda reasonabledoubt;prosecutormustalsoproveproximatecause butfororsinequanoncausationsettinginmotionachainofeventsthatsooneror laterleadtotheharmfulresult;butfortheactor'sconduct,theresultwouldnothave occurred interveningcauseunforeseeneventsthatstillholdthedefendantaccountable legalcausationaprosecutor'slogicofbothactualandproximatecause proximatecausethefairnessofhowfarbacktheprosecutorgoesinthechainof eventstoholdaparticulardefendantaccountable;literallymeansthenextorclosestcause supercedingcauseunforeseeneventsthatexculpateadefendant

    PRINCIPLESOFRESULTINGHARM:ISSUES Theseareissuesinvolvingthelawofaccessoriesandattempts(laterlecture). RESPONSIBILITYFORCRIME:PRESUMPTIONS Presumptionsarecourtorderedassumptionsthatthejurymusttakeastrueunlessrebuttedby evidence.Theirpurposeistosimplifyandexpeditethetrialprocess.Thejudge,forexampleat somepointintestimony,mayremindthejurythatitisOKtoassumethatallpeopleformsome kindofintentbeforeorduringtheirbehavior.Itiswrong,however,forthejudgetoorderthe jurytoassumeintentoraspecifickindofintentinacase.Presumptionsarenotasubstitutefor evidence.Presumptionsaresupposedtobefriendlyremindersaboutsafe,scientificassumptions abouthumannatureorhumanbehavioringeneral.Themostcommonpresumptionsare: remindersthattheaccusedisconsideredinnocentuntilprovenguilty remindersthattheaccusedistobeconsideredsane,normal,andcompetent Itisimportanttounderstandthatpresumptionsarenotinferences.Presumptionsmustbe acceptedastruebythejury.Inferencesmaybeacceptedastruebythejury,butthetrickistoget thejurytobelievetheythoughtofitfirst.Lawyersarenotallowedtoengageinthepracticeof "stackingofinferences",orbasinganinferencesolelyuponanotherinference.Lawyersarealso prohibitedbylogicfrommakingcertain"impermissibleinferences"andhere'sanexampleof howthelogicgoes: Evidenceadmitted: Inferencesthatcanbedrawn:

    WitnessestestifythatXrepeatedlyhit Intenttokillorseriouslyinjure; Yontheheadwithaclubuntil PurposelyorKnowinglyusingclubas stoppedbypasserbys deadlyweapon. WitnessestestifythatXrepeatedlyhit Intenttokillcannotbeinferred; Yontheheadwitharolledup newspapercannotbeconstruedasa newspaper deadlyweapon Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    ACCOMPLICE LAW
    Anaccompliceissomeonewhoknowingly,voluntarily,andwithcommoninterest,participates inthecommissionofacrime,andcanbechargedwiththesamecrime(s)forwhichtheaccused willbetried;complicitymeansassociationinawrongfulact;principalmeansanyoneinvolved incommittingacrime;anaccessorybeforethefactaids,incites,orabetsbutisnotphysically present;anaccessoryafterthefactreceives,comforts,relieves,orassistsafelontoavoid apprehensionandconviction.

    Inaccomplicelaw(complicity),thestatutorylawhasevolvedmuchbeyondthecommonlaw,and thecaselawisextensiveandconfusingaboutexactlywherethelinesaredrawn.Complicityisa conceptthatcanbeabusedbyprosecutors.Onlyafewbasicrestrictionsexist:(1)thelawdoesnot recognizeaccomplicestoanymisdemeanororthecrimeoftreason;(2)anaccomplicemust normallybephysicallypresentduringcommissionofthecrime,butadviceorwordsof encouragementbeforehandaswellasprovidingmaterialassistanceafterwardswillcreatea liability;(3)noonecanbeconvictedontheuncorroboratedtestimonyofanaccomplicealone; and(4)personsgivingpostcrimeaidarepunishedlessseverelythanthosefurnishingprecrime aid. Moststateshaveabolishedtheoldcommonlawdistinctionbetweenprinciples(inthefirstdegree, intheseconddegree)andaccessories(beforethefact,afterthefact),preferringinsteadtheword accomplicesforthelattergroupwhichtreatseveryoneasprincipalsbaseduponthedoctrine ofcomplicity(participationtransfersliability). BeinganaccompliceisNOTthesameas: accessoryafterthefactthisremains,insomejurisdictions,aseparateandless seriousoffenseforgivingaidandcomfort(harboring)toafugitive.Thelawseesitasa separateoffensebecauseit'sreallyhelpingsomeoneavoidarrestorescapepunishment morethanhelpingsomeonecommitacrime.Accessoriesalwayshaveaclaimtoless punishment. conspiracyconspiracyisacompletelydifferentcrime;accordingtothePinkertonrule, apersoncanbechargedwithbothconspiracytocommitacrimeandthecrimeitself underthelawofaccomplices(Example:twopeopleagreetocommitmurder,andoneacts asalookoutwhiletheotherkillssomebody;bothcanbechargedwithconspiracyto commitmurderandmurderitself). facilitationorsolicitationtheseareseparateoffenses,relatedtotheideas, respectively,ofmakingiteasierforsomeonetocommitacrimeandenticingsomeoneto commitacrimethatneveroccurs(Examples:aidingajuvenilewhoisusedincrimeto limitsomeone'sexposuretoprosecution;solicitingaprostitute;ofthetwo,facilitationis closesttoaccomplicelaw). Therearetwo(2)doctrinesinthisareatoremember: (1)thedoctrineofcomplicitythisestablishesthenotionof"accompliceliability"whichfor anyoneaiding,abetting,orgivingcounseltoaknownfelonhasthatfelon'sactusreusandmens reaattributedtothem.Theirparticipationiswhatcreatestheliabilityasiftheyhadcommitted thecrimealone. (2)thedoctrineofrespondeatsuperiorthisestablishesthenotionof"vicariousliability" whereamasterisresponsiblefortheillegalconductoftheirservant.Therelationshipiswhat createstheliability.Itdispenseswiththeelementofactusreusinthesamewaystrictliability dispenseswiththeelementofmensrea.Itoftencomesupinbusiness,whereacorporation(asan entity,notaperson)cannotcommitacrime(cannotformcriminalintent)butitcanbeheld

    "criminallyliable"iftheonlypunishmentsoughtisafineorseizureofproperty.Officersofa corporationcanbepunishedbyimprisonmentonlyifthecorporationhasbeenheld"criminally liable"first,theofficerhasbeenfoundguiltyofmalfeasance,misfeasance,ornonfeasanceby theircorporation,and(unlessstatedotherwiseinstatute)theofficercauses,requests,commands, orinanywayauthorizestheillegalacttobecommitted.

    ELEMENTSOFTHEOFFENSE
    Therearethree(3)elementstoaccompliceliability: (1)proofthatsomeonecommittedtheunderlyingcrimeitisnotnecessary,however,forthe governmenttohavetriedandconvictedsomebody,oreventhattheprincipalisidentified;proof inthissensemeansprobablecausethatacrimewascommitted. (2)actusreusaccomplicelaweasestherequirementofprovingactusreus,butitdoessowith hardtodefinewords.Wordssuchas"aid","abet","assist","counsel","induce"or"incite" mayhavedifferentmeaningsdependinguponwhatjurisdictionyou'rein.Normally,youcan'tbe consideredasanaccomplicesimplyforbeingthereyoumustbeconstructivelypresentthisis knownastheMerePresencerule,butthereareexceptionsinplaceswithGoodSamaritanlaws whereyoucanbetriedasanaccompliceforjuststandingthereandwatchingsomeonegetbeaten, e.g. Caselawhasruledthefollowingareexamplesofaccompliceactusreus: actingasalookout providingguns,supplies,orinstrumentsofcrime(evenundercoloroffinancial transactionifsellerisawareofpurpose) drivingagetawayvehicle sendingthevictimtotheprincipal preventingwarningsfromreachingthevictim(butnotmerelyfailingtodisclosethe occurrenceofacrimetoauthorities) (3)mensreathisistheelementthatitallboilsdowntoinobtainingaconvictionforbeingan accomplice.Allthewordsusedinaccomplicelaw("abet"forexample)carryanimplicationof purposiveattitudetowardthecrime.Othercourtshaveheldtoalessstrictstandardthan "purposively"(eventhoughttheMPCrecommendsthisonly)suchas"knowingly"butstillother courtshaveallowed"recklessly". Caselawhasruledthefollowingareexamplesofaccomplicemensrea: anintentthatthecrimebecommitted;anaffirmativedesiretoseeitdone knowledgethattheyarecontributingtothecommissionofacrime,knowingthatthe outcomewouldhaveadangerousresultorcriminalconsequences recklessnessandnegligenceundersuchcircumstancesastoindirectlybenefitorsharein

    thefinancialproceedsofthecrime;a"stake"intheoutcome

    DEFENSES
    Therearethree(3)waystoofferadefensetothecrimeofbeinganaccomplice: (1)Mistakeoffactthisisnotthesameas"Ididn'tknowitwasacrime"(mistakeoflaw)buta mistakeoffactgoodfaithclaimbecauseofthewayapersonperceivestheworldandmakes reasonedjudgments (2)Abandonmentthecomplicitywasabandonedinatimelymanner;theaccomplice terminatedtheirparticipationeithercompletelyorinpartsuchastodeprivetheprincipalof effectivenessatcommittingthecrime;"Ididn'thelpsotheycouldgetcaughtandlearntheir lesson" (3)Withdrawalthecomplicitywasrepudiatedvoluntarily(notmerelybecauseofafearof gettingcaught);"Ididn'thelpbecauseitwaswrong";someattemptsaremadetoneutralizeor thwartthecrimesuchasbynotifyingauthorities

    Examples/CaseStudies/Exercises/Scenarios
    (1)Davidhadbeentellingeveryoneintown,includinghisliveinmother,thathewasgoingtokill hiswife,thatshewasgoingtohaveanaccidentsomeday.Onenightaftergoingtobed,David chokedhiswifetodeathforrefusingtomakelovetohim.Hedraggedthebodydowntothefirst floortodismemberitinthebathtub.Hecalleddowntothebasement,wherehismotherslept, wokeherup,andaskedhertocomeupandlieonthefirstfloorcouch.Themothercame upstairs,halfasleep,anddozedonthecouch.Underoath,themotherclaimedtoseeherson dismemberingthebodyinthebathroombutturnedherheadawaysoshewouldnotsee.Dave cleanedupthebathroomabit,anddisposedofthebagsinalocallake.Onthewayout,heasked hismothertocleanupthebathroomtoiletandtub,andshedid.Thenextday,themotheralso agreedtocorroborateDavid'sstorythathiswiferanaway.Underoath,Davidsaidhetoldhis motherhekilledhiswifeandwasdisposingofthebodywherenoonewouldfindit.Hismother reportedlysobbedabitandsaid"itwillbeforthebest,son" ThiscasedoesNOTqualifythemotherasanaccomplice,thereasonbeingthatthemotherwas asleepwhenthecrimewascommitted.Nopresence,companionship,orcounselwasprovidedby themotherbeforeorduringtheoffense.Shecooperatedbycleaningupthebathroom,butis insulated(bystatestatute)fromaccompliceafterthefactbecauseofherrelationshipasaparent. Atmost,shepassivelyacquiescedorpassivelyapproved.Thestatement"itwillbeforthebest, son"doesnotqualifyasactiveencouragementorinstigation.Further,sincethere'snoGood Samaritanlaw(inthisstate),themotheraswellasDavid'scoworkersandpeopleabouttown cannotbeheldliablefornotpreventingthemurder. (2)Yourwifeoffortyyearsisdyingfromahorrible,incurabledisease.Becauseshecannotdoit herself,sheasksyoutogethersomepoisonsoshecankillherself.Youcomply,placingthepoison

    inaglassbyherbed. YESyouareaidingandabettingasuicide,andtherealcriminalactisplacingthepoisonwithin reachofyourwife. (3)Oneofthepassengersinacaryou'redrivingrobsahitchhikeryou'vepickedupandareabout todropoff. NOnothingwassaidordonetoindicateyourapprovalordisapprovaloftherobberybysimply beingdriveroftheautomobile. (4)Youaretoodrunktodriveyourowncaranymore,soyouletyourbestfrienddrivetherestof thewayhome.He'sdrivingprettycarelessly,butstillbetterthanyoucoulddo.Unfortunately, yourcarcollidesheadonwitholdladywhodiesfromtheinjuries. YESyouareanaccomplicetovehicularmanslaughterandcanbechargedandpenalizedthe sameasthedriverbecause(a)youputyourvehicle(aninstrumentality)inthehandsofa criminal,(b)yousatsidebysidewiththecriminal,and(c)youpermittedthecriminalto continuedriving(committingcrime)withoutprotest. (5)Youaretheownerofarentalcarcompany,andtwoofyourcarshavebeenmissingforabout2 months.Theguysthatrentedthemwerekindashadybuttheypaidyouinadvancefora1month rental.Itturnsouttheyskippedtownandrackedup$50,000inunpaidparkingticketswithyour cars,andthecityissuingyouforthatmoney. YES,undertheprincipleofvicariousliability,you,theregisteredowner(master)oftheproperty areresponsibleforthefine. (6)Shouldparentsbeheldcriminallyliableforoffensescommittedbytheirchildren? DEPENDS,onwhetherstateconstitutionisinterpretedtodefineparenthoodasaninsulated (immunized)classorsoessentialtosocietythattheycannotbeexempted. (7)Shouldstoresthatsell"rollingpapers"(drugparaphernalia)beconsideredaccompliceswhen theybustpeopleandcanprovethatthepapers(instrumentalities)wereusedincommissionofa crime? DEPENDS,onwhichMPC(mensrea)standardisused.Afewjurisdictionsmayuselessthan "purposely". (8)PRACTICUM:Foreachofthefollowingcastofcharacters,indicatewhetherthecriminal justicesystemshouldprosecutethemasaccomplicesunderthecircumstancesandwhy;ifnot, whatadditionalcircumstanceswouldbenecessaryforprosecution?

    Scenario#8:Anestrangedhusbandfindsouthiswifeissleepingwithanotherman,sohebuys
    agunandtakesataxiovertothatman'sapartmentwherehewaitsoutsideandshootshiswife3 4timesinthebackwhileshecomesout.Shelaysthereandbleedstodeathwhilethehusband runsovertoafriend'shousetohidefrompolice.

    CastofCharacters: (1)themanufacturerofthemurderweapon (2)themerchantwhosoldthemurderweapontothehusband (3)thetaxidriverwhodrovethemantotheapartmentcomplex (4)thirdpartiesintheapartmentcomplexwhomayhaveseenthehusbandwaiting (5)theothermanthewifewasseeing (6)thirdpartiesintheapartmentcomplexwhofailedtocallthepoliceoranambulance (7)thepolicewhodidn'tprovideprotection (8)theambulanceservicethateventuallyshowedup (9)theapartmentcomplexwherethecrimetookplace (10)thefriendwhoconcealedthehusbandfromthepolice INTERNETRESOUCES: CatholicEncyclopedia:AccompliceComplicity Complicity,byGeorgeFletcher,IsraelLawReview TheStructureofComplicity,byMiriamGurArye,IsraelLawReview Keri'sCalBarReviewNotes:AccompliceLiability NoloPressEncyclopedia,WhenYouCanbeChargedforNotDoingAnything PRINTEDRESOURCES: Cohen,N.&J.Gobert(1976)ProblemsinCriminalLaw.St.Paul:West. Fletcher,G.(1978)RethinkingCriminalLaw.Boston:Little,Brown. Samaha,J.(1999)CriminalLaw.6thed.Belmont,CA:West/Wadsworth. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    INCOMPLETE (INCHOATE) CRIMES


    Anticipatory,incipient,incomplete,andpreliminarycrimesareallotherwordsforinchoate crimes,actsthatimplyaninclinationtocommitacrimeeventhoughthecrimeisnever completed.Theword"inchoate"meansunderdevelopedorunripened.Becauseofthesocialneed topreventcrimesbeforetheyoccur,thecommonlawlongagoestablishedthree(3)separateand distinctcategoriesofinchoatecrimesthecrimesofattempt,conspiracy,andsolicitation. Overtheyears,therehavenotbeenanynewcategoriesaddedwiththepossibleexceptionof possession(asinpossessionofburglartools,bombmaterials,gunarsenal,etc.)asaninchoate offensebasedonthenotionofpreparation,whichhasnotnormallybeenassociatedwith inchoatecrimes. Traditionally,inchoatecrimeshavealwaysbeenconsideredmisdemeanors,butovertheyears theyhavebeenmergedintofeloniesassocietyhasputmorepowerinthehandsoflaw enforcementandprosecutorstodealwithrecalcitrantproblemssuchasorganizedcrime,white collarcrime,anddrugcrime.Traditionalrulesthatexistare:(1)apersonshouldnotbecharged withboththeinchoateandchoateoffense,withtheexceptionofconspiracywhichcanbea separatecharge;(2)lesserpenaltiesshouldideallybeimposedforinchoatecrimes,butinmany cases,thepenaltyshouldbeexactlythesameasforthecompletedoffense;(3)inchoatecrimes shouldhavespecificintent,spellingoutclearlywhatthemensreaelementsare;and(4)some overtactionorsubstantialstepshouldberequiredinthedirectionofcompletingthecrime.This setofrulesissometimesreferredtoasthedoctrineofinchoatecrimes. It'sbesttodealwiththethreeinchoatecrimesinalphabeticalorder,ifonlyforthefollowing reasonattemptisconsideredtostandclosesttoacompletedcrime,conspiracyisconsideredto befurtherremoved,andsolicitationisconsideredthefurthestremoved.

    ATTEMPT
    Criminalattempt,inmanyways,isallaboutfailure(notbeingaverygoodcriminal),for example,shootingatsomebodyandmissing,holdingupacashregistertoonlyfind$5,stealinga CDbytakingitoutofitscase,stuffingitdownyourpants,andhavingitbreakinhalfbeforeyou getoutofthestore(thelawincludesstrokesofluckinitsconceptionoffailure).Thelawof attemptisalsoaboutnippingviolenceinthebud,soevencertainwords("threats","challenges") qualifyasattempts.There'snosuchthingasacrimecalled"attempt".Moststatesallowthe prosecutortopickwhatthecrimeisthat'sbeingattempted;thatis,moststatesdonottryto defineattemptedmurder,attemptedrobbery,attemptedrape,andsoforth.Moststatestypically haveageneralattemptstatutethatspecifiesapunishment(usuallythesameasforthecompleted offense)andallowstheword"attempted"tobeplacedbeforethetargetcrime. Theelementsofattemptinclude: (1)specificintentthismeansthat"purposely"istheonlymensreathatqualifies.Allinchoate crimesarespecificintentcrimes,andallspecificintentcrimesdonotallowsuchstatesofmindas

    reckless,negligent,orstrictliability. (2)anovertacttowardcommissionthisisintendedtoweedouttheplottersfromthe perpetrators,butthestandardsvarywidelybyjurisdiction.Actsofpreparationdonotcount. Someplacesusefairlylooselanguagelike"somesteps"whileotherplacesusethemorerigorous "allbutlastact"standard.Thereareatleastfourtestsusedinvariousplaces: physicalproximitydoctrinethisfocusesuponspaceandtime,establishesthe"lastact" standardwhichrequireslookingattheremainingsteps probabledesistanceapproachthisconsiderswhethertheattemptwouldnaturallylead tocommissionbutforsometimelyinterferencenotrelatedtobadluck equivocalityapproachthislooksatwhethertheattemptcanhavenootherpurposethan commissionofacrime substantialstepstestthisisaMPCrecommendedapproachwhichlooksfor corroboratingevidenceintheformofconductwhichtendstoconcurorverifyacriminal purpose (3)failuretoconsummatethecrimethelawlooksatthereasonswhythecrimefailed,andin somecases,thereasonmitigatesthepunishmentorremovestheliability,asin: legalimpossibilityadefensethatwhatwasattemptedisnotacrime(rapinga mannequin,forexample,becauseraperequiresahumanvictim)Prosecutorshavethe burdenofprovinglegalpossibilityaswellasapparentability factualimpossibilityadefensethatsomeextraneousfactororoutsideforcemadeit impossibletocompletethecrime;mostjurisdictionswillnotacceptthisonthe presumptionthat"luck"doesn'tcount(sameasnodefense) renunciationthisistheideaofabandonment,andtobeasuccessfuldefense,theactor musthavegivenupformoralreasons,notjustbecauseoftheriskofapprehension

    CONSPIRACY
    Theessenceofconspiracyisanagreement.Itdoesn'thavetobeawrittenone.Usually,it's inferredfromthefactsorcircumstances.Whattheagreementhastobeaboutdoesn'tevenhave tobecriminal,only"unlawful".Undersomestatutes,aconspiracycaninvolveanyactinjurious topublichealth,publicmorals,freecommerce,oranyactpervertingjustice.Becausea conspiracybyitselfisalmosttreatedasasubstantivecrimeinitself,thisistheonlyinchoate offensethatthelawpermitsapersontobechargedwithinadditiontothetargetcrime(thatis,a personcanbechargedwithbothmurderandconspiracytocommitmurder,e.g.). Conspiracyisthefavoritetoolofprosecutors.There'salotofpresumptionsandproceduralrules thatfavortheprosecution.It'seasytogetaconvictionforconspiracybecause,basically,allthe prosecutorhastodoispresentalltheevidenceandletthejudgetellthejurywhattestwillbe usedtodeterminewhetheranagreementexisted.Inmostjurisdictions,proofoftheagreementis

    sufficient;nofurther(overt)actisrequired.Injurisdictionsrequiringanovertact,thestandard isnotashighasthelawofattempt,andisbasicallyprovenbyshowingatleastoneofthe conspiratorshadatleasttheintenttocommitasubstantiveoffense.Conspiracyisstillaspecific intentcrime,so"purposively"mustbeused,notjustknowledge,althoughthere'sawholestring ofinconsistentcaselawthatindicateserosioninthisarea. Theelementsofconspiracyinclude: (1)mensreaaspecificintenttoattainaparticularcriminalobjectiveonthepartofatleastone personinthepartnership.Purposecanbeinferredfromcircumstancessurroundingthe combination,suchasfailuretokeeprecords,clandestinemeetings,quantitiesinvolved,continuity oftherelationship,etc.Therearedifferentrulesusedbydifferentjurisdictionsonthekindsof relationshipsthatqualify: unilateralruletheideathatamongagroupofconspirators,thereisatleastone individualwithcriminalintent bilateralruletheideathatonecannotconspirealone;atleasttwoguiltypersonsare required Wharton'sruletheideathatbecauseconspiracychargesimplyadangertosociety,there mustbemore(>2)partnersthantheminimumnumberrequiredtocommitthecrime(a thirdpartymustbeinvolved),sotherefore,conspiracytocommitadultery,bigamy,and incestwillrequire3people (2)actusreusproofofanagreementisproofoftheactusreusforconspiracy.Proofofan unwrittenunderstandingwillsuffice.Mostagreementsareoftwotypes,andthejudgeis obligatedtoinstructthejuryhowtodeterminethetypes: chainconspiracythisusuallyinvolvesthedistributionofsomething,likedrugs,where eachpersonintheconspiracyhandlesthecommodityatdifferentpointsintheprocess, likewiththestagesofmanufacture,distribution,andsale wheelconspiracythisiswhereahardcoregroupofparticipants("middlemen")handle mostofthetransactions,likeahub,protectingthoseatthetopandthoseatthebottom (thespokes)byonlyallowingthemtoparticipateissomeofthetransactions DefensesandOtherIssues:Policeofficerscannotinitiateaconspiracythatwouldautomatically beentrapment.Theycan,however,givesomebodyanopportunitytoenterintoanexisting conspiracywherethepoliceagentisafeignedaccomplice.Thedefensesofimpossibilityand abandonmentareofnouseinconspiracylawastheyareconsideredthesameasnodefense. However,somejurisdictionswillpermitabandonment,butthestandardishigh,thedefendant hastoshowtheircompleteandtotalwithdrawalbynotifyingtheauthoritiesabouttheirown involvementandtakingstepstothwarttheconspiracy.Conspiracydoesn'trecognizeanything sacrosanctaboutthehusbandwiferelationship,andacorporationcanalsobechargedasa personwithconspiracyifmorethanonecorporationisinvolved.

    SOLICITATION
    Solicitationisbestthoughtofasasubstantivecrimeinitself,remotefrombeingthoughtofasan attemptatasubstantivecrime.Solicitationoccurswhenthesolicitationismade.Anotherwayof sayingthisisthatthecrimeofsolicitationisoverwiththeasking.Thecrimeofsolicitationis inherentlyincomplete(inchoate)becausethelawdoesn'tevencareifthesolicitationwas influentialornot.Italsodoesn'tmatterifit'sacrowdoranindividualbeingsolicited,andit's evenpossibletoperpetratesolicitationthroughanintermediary.Whatdoesmatteristhething beingsolicitedthecrimeofsolicitationshouldberestrictedtocertainseriousfelonies.At commonlaw,thesewouldbecrimesthatbreachthepeaceorobstructjustice. Solicitation(specificallytheactusreusofit)consistsofwords;wordsthatcreateaninducement, definedasadvising,commanding,counseling,encouraging,enticing,entreating,importunes, incites,induces,instigates,orders,procures,requests,solicits,orurgesanothertocommita seriousfelonywiththespecificintentthatthepersonsolicitedcommitthecrime.Thislistis sometimescalledthelistofproperutterancesforthecrimeofsolicitation. Theelementsofsolicitationinclude: (1)mensreanotintenttocommitacrime,butspecificintenttopersuadesomeoneelseto commitacrime;alsonotjokingaroundormakingcasualcomments("Iwishthatpersonwould dropdead")but"purposely"wantingtopersuadesomeone. (2)actusreuswordsthatcontainsomesortofinducement;wordsthatareonthelistofproper utterancesforthecrimeofsolicitation;utteringthewordsistheactusreus,anditdoesn'tmatter ifthemeansofutteranceisoral,written,orelectronic. Defenses:Impossibilityofanytypeisthesameasnodefense.Somejurisdictionsallowwithdrawal orrenunciation. CONTROVERSIALISSUES/CASES/SCENARIOS: (1)ThespreadofAIDS:AttemptedMurder? Shouldcriminalliabilitybeimposedonthosewhoknowingly,recklessly,ornegligentlyengagein behaviorthatmightleadtounsafesex,exposingotherstopossibletransmissionoftheHIVvirus? (Rememberthattraditionally,"purposely"hasbeenthespecificintentofinchoatecrimes)Some cases: aTexascorrectionalofficerwasspitinthefacebyaninmatewithAIDSwhosaid"I'm takingasmanywithmeasIcan"(Weeksv.U.S.)Theinmate'sconvictiononattempted murderwasupheld. aFloridaHIVpositiveprostitutewasconvictedofattemptedmurderforbitingaman afteradisputeaboutmoney(Morrisonv.State)ThemantestedpositiveforHIVsix monthslater,buttheCDChadtobecalledintoverifythattheHIVstrainwasexactlythe sameastheprostitute's. aGeorgiacourtupheldaconvictionforattemptedmurderwhenanHIVpositivemanbit

    apoliceofficerwhowasadministeringachokehold(Scrogginsv.State).Thekeypieceof testimonywasthatthemansuckedupexcesssputumbeforebitingtheofficer,evidencinga deliberate,thinkingact. (2)Friendsthatletfriendsdodrugs:ConspiracyorJustGoodBuds? agroupofcollegestudentsalldodrugsexceptforJohnwhoabstainsandisthedesignated driverofthegroup(Statev.Smith).Onenightwhileoutpartyingoutdoors,Johnfinds himselfalonebehindthewheelofthecar.UndercoverofficerDickcomesoverandstrikes upaconversation,saying"Hey,you'rethefriendsofthoseguys,aren'tyou.Oneof'em's overtherenowofferingtosellsomeofhisstashandIwasgonnamaybescoopsomeup. Howisit?"Johnsays"Man,Idon'tdothatstuff,itreallymessesyouup.Thatguyselling itreallyflippedouttheotherdayonit".OfficerDickthenbuststhewholegroup, includingJohnforconspiracytodelivercontrolledsubstances,andtheconvictionstood becauseJohn(a)drovethegrouptothesiteofthesale,and(b)Johnprovidedwordsof encouragementforthesaleofthedrug. TomandJerrywerebothchargedwithpossessionofcocainewithintenttodistributeAND conspiracytodistributecocaine.Jerrygotoffonallchargesduetoalenientjury,butTom onlygotoffonthepossessioncharge.Inconsistentverdictsarecommonindrugcases,and Tom'sconspiracyconvictionstood. INTERNETRESOURCES: ALISOnline:RenunciationofAttempt,Conspiracy,Solicitation CriminalLawReviewQuestions:MarquetteUniv.SchoolofLaw HaejiHong'sLectureNotes:InchoateCrimes InternetResourceLinksforJUS293 KentLawSchool:ABriefHistoryofConspiracy QuidProQuo'sCriminalLawOutline PRINTEDRESOURCES: Cohen,N.&J.Gobert(1976)ProblemsinCriminalLaw.St.Paul:West. Fletcher,G.(1978)RethinkingCriminalLaw.Boston:Little,Brown. Samaha,J.(1999)CriminalLaw.6thed.Belmont,CA:West/Wadsworth. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    DEFENSESTOCRIME
    Bothstatutorylawandthecommonlawprovidemanydefensestocrime.Otherthanhavingan alibi(whichisnottechnicallyadefensebutadenial),therearetwomaintypesofdefenses:(1) Justificationsand(2)Excuses.Thesetermsarenoteasilydefined,andthedistinctionislessthan perfect.Justificationsrefertosituationsinwhichthedefendantdoesn'tdenytheydiditbutthat theydiditforalltherightreasons,anappealtohigherloyaltyorideals(asinselfdefense)or moreimportantreasons(asinnecessity),forinstance.Excusesrefertosituationsinwhichthe defendantalsodoesn'tdenytheydiditbutthattheyarenotresponsibleforit(asininsanityor diminishedcapacitydefenses),typicallyongroundsoflackingvolitionovertheirfreewill. Sometimes,it'ssaidthatJustificationsinvolvedenyingmensreaandExcusesinvolvedenying actusreus,butthemindbodyconnectioniscomplicatedinthisregard,andthissayingcan confuseyou.Takesleepwalking,forinstance,whichmightbetreatedastheinabilitytoform mentalintentalthoughit'sthebody(whichisasleep).Thelawalsotendstothinkof"mental" disorderasbraindisorder,toavoidmetaphysicaldebatesoverwhetherornotit'spossiblefor somethinginvisiblelikea"mind"togetsick. Althoughinthislecture,wewillsimplydividethedefensesintoJustificationsandExcuses, conceptually,onecanformulateatleastfivedifferentclassesofdefenses: defensesthatinvolveprotectingcompetinginterests;selfdefense,defenseofothers,etc. wheresocietyexcuseswhatwouldotherwisebeacrime defensesinvolvingavoidanceofagreaterevil;necessityorduress,e.g.,wheresocietyviews thesourceofthepredicamentascomingfromoutsidethedefendant defensesthatattempttodisproveornegatemensrea;infancy,intoxication,mistake,and consent,e.g. defensesinvolvingignorance,wheresocietyrecognizesthattheremightbesincere, genuine,andlegitimatecasesofnotknowingthelawor(naively)believinginsomething thatnegatesanelementofthecrime. defensesrelatedtoinsanity,whichmayormaynotberelatedtothevarietyofdiminished capacity,stressrelated,anddomesticrelateddefenses.

    JUSTIFICATIONS SELFDEFENSE
    Selfdefense,orselfhelp,hasalwaysbeenarecognizedjustification,andithasmany,many variations.Itdoesnotapplytopreemptivestrikesorpaybacks,butitdoescoverawiderangeof behaviorsthatmakethecrimeseemjustified,infact,sojustifiedthatselfdefenseiscalleda perfectdefense(thedefendant"walks").Otherjustificationsandexcusesmayonlybeimperfect defenseswhicharetreatedasmitigatingcircumstancesresultinginalesserpunishment.Manyof thevariousdomesticviolencedefensesareexamplesofthedefenseofselfdefense. Thelawofselfdefenserevolvesaroundthenotionofreasonableness.Thepersonclaimingitmust havehadareasonablebeliefinimminentdangerandusedareasonabledegreeofforce.Some stateshavespecificallymentionedselfdefensecanbeusedwhenthedangerisaspecificfelony, suchasrape,sodomy,kidnapping,androbbery.Reasonableforcemeansthatifsomeoneslaps yourfaceandyoushootthem,that'sunreasonablebecauseyouescalatedforceabittoofarwhen justreturningaslapinthefacemighthavebeenmorereasonable. Imminentisawordmeaninginprogressorabouttohappenrightnow.Youcan'tuseselfdefense forcontinuingandongoingdanger,althoughafewstateshaveallowedthis.Moststatesusean objectivetesttodeterminethesenseofbeingimminent,andtheirstatuteseitherspelloutthe groundsforareasonablebeliefortheyuseareasonablemanstandard.Otherstatesusea subjectivetest(honestbelief). Moststatesalsoadheretotheretreatdoctrine.Thisistherulethatdefendersmusthavetaken allmeanstoavoidorescapebeforeattackinginselfdefense,althoughinsomejurisdictions,the lawviewsthisascowardly,andastandardcalledthetruemandoctrineisapplied.Moststates, however,adheretothecastledoctrine,theideathatwhenattackedinone'shome,youshould holdyourgroundandnotberequiredtoretreat.Thisiscalleddefenseofproperty. Selfdefensecanincludeprotectingfamily,friends,andlovers;i.e.,indefenseofothers.Anti abortionactivistsoftenclaimthis,butit'smoretypicallyassociatedwiththingsliketheMother Lionsyndromeorthelike.

    PUBLICDUTY
    Anothertypeofjustificationisapublicdutydefense.It'sthebasisforalotofmilitaryjustice, diplomaticimmunity,andcoversanumberofthingsthatpolicedo,suchasshootinglootersafter adisaster.Theideahereisthatthere'sahigherloyalty,andit'slocatedinupholdingthelaw. Adilemmainlawariseswiththenotionofresistingunlawfularrest.Whycan'tcitizens,for example,appealtoahigherdutywhentheythinktheirarrestisunlawful?

    NECESSITY
    Theprincipleofnecessityisbestexplainedbytheprototypicalcaseofcannibalisminthe lifeboat.ThefamouscaseofTheQueenv.DudleyandStephansinvolvedtwomenwhoatea17 yearoldweaklyyouth,aftersayingaprayerforhim,becausetheywerestarvingtodeathoutina

    lifeboat.Thisisanexampleofthechoiceofevilsdefensetheessenceofwhichisinchoosing thelesseroftwoevilsoravoidingagreaterevil(inthecaseofcannibalism,choosingtoeatthe weeklyyoungmaninsteadoflettingthewholegroupstarve).TheMPCextendsthenecessity principletoincludethefollowing: destroyingpropertytopreventthespreadofafire violatingthespeedlimittogetadyingpersontoahospital throwingcargooverboardtosaveasinkingvesselanditscrew dispensingdrugswithoutaprescriptioninanemergency breaking&enteringamountaincabintoavoidfreezingtodeath

    Anothertypeofnecessitydefenseistheclaimtoeconomicnecessity.Thiswouldbestealingto avoidhunger,forexample,buttheclassicaldilemmaiswhetherornotitwouldberightfora fathertostealaloafofbreadtofeedhisstarvingchildren.Conflictingopinionscanbefoundin thelawandit'sapproachtothisproblem.TheextremelypowerfulandinfluentialCommentaries (bySirWilliamBlackstone)forexamplestateflatlythateconomicnecessityisnodefense.The AngloAmericanapproachhasthereforebeenthatthestate'spowerofpardonisenoughtodeal withpoorpeoplewhocommitcrimeoutofneed,soitwoulddependoncaselawandjudicial opinioninaspecificjurisdictionifthiskindofdefensewouldbesuccessful.

    CONSENT
    Courtstendtorecognizethedefenseofconsentwhenpeopleexercisetheirautonomyand choosetodieorinflictinjuriesonthemselves.Thedefensecannotbeusedifsomeonehassolicited orauthorizedsomeoneelsetoinflictinjuriesonthem.Thisdefensecanbeusedincaseswhere twopeopleareengagedinaconsensualattackwithoneanother(e.g.,"fighting"),casesof injuriesinsportingevents,andcasesinwhichemergencymedicalcarehadtobegivenwhich resultinginmoreharmthangood.Condonation(forgiveness)bythevictimandnegligencebythe victimarenotgenerallyconsideredasdefenses.

    EXCUSES DURESS
    Themaintypeofexcuseisthedefenseofduress.Theprincipleisthatwhenpeopleareforced todosomethingwrong,itoughtnottocountagainstthem.Thereiswidespreaddisagreement, however,overhowduressisdefinedandwhatkindsofcrimescanbeexcusedbyduress.States differ.Somepermitonlyhavingagunpointedtoyourhead;otherspermitthreatsofbodilyharm ("I'llhurtyouifyoudon'tdothat");andstillothersarefairlylenientispermittingsuchthingsas "Ifyoudon'tdothat,I'lltellotherpeoplesomethingnastyaboutyou".Whateverthethreat,it mustbeimmediate,notsomeongoingsituationofextortionorblackmail.And,whateverthe threat,thecrimemustbeminorandnotserious.Murder,forexample,canneverbeexcusedby duress. Somemodernformsofduressstatuteshaveincludedthespecificdefenseofbrainwashing,a typeofduressinvolvingbreakingdownsomebody'swill.Ifapersonisconfined,pressuredfor

    months,givenhypnoticdrugs,narcotics,orothersubstances,thelawlooksuponandcrime committedunderthesecircumstancesaslackingtheelementofactusreus.

    INTOXICATION
    Therearedifferentwaystogetintoxicated,andthelawrecognizestwoways:voluntaryand involuntary.Voluntaryintoxicationgoestotheelementofmensrea(abilitytoformthecapacity tounderstandpurposeorintent),andislogicallyajustification.Involuntaryintoxication,onthe otherhand,isanexcusebecausetheperson'sbodydidnotknowitwasundertheinfluence. There'salsoanassumptionofduresswithinvoluntaryintoxication.It'snotthatonewouldhave hadtobeenhelddownandhadtheliquorpoureddownthembyforce(it'salmostlikethatifsay someoneinsistsyoudrinkwiththem),butit'smorelikeafriendtellsyoutotryoutthesesugar pillsandtheyturnouttobeLSDsoyouthinksomeonelookslikearabiddogandyoushootthem. Theoretically,theprincipleofintoxicationgetsattheconceptofvolition.Sometimes,it's arguedthatwatchingtelevisiontoolongisaformofintoxication.

    MISTAKE
    Mistakeorignoranceoffacthasalwaysexcusedcriminalresponsibilityundersome circumstances,andinallcircumstances,it'salwaysacceptablethatanyoneholdingagenuineand sincerebeliefinsomethingwhich(iftrue)wouldnegatetheircriminalliabilityshouldbe somethingthatdoes.Theprincipleofmistakeoffactexcuseswhenitnegatesamaterial elementinthecrime.Forexample,takingthewrongumbrellawhenleavingtheroombecauseit resembledyourownumbrellanegatestheelementofmensrea(formingcriminalintenttosteal). Theprincipleofmistakeoflaw(ignoranceofthelaw)excusescriminalbehaviorifapersonhas madeareasonableefforttolearnthelaw.Inpractice,it'sdifficulttodistinguishbetween mistakesoffactandlaw,andthelawmustbecarefultonotopenthedoortoallowingeverybody toclaimignorance.

    INFANCY
    ThisisoneofthethreeI's(Intoxication,Infancy,andInsanity)thatmakeupthecapacity defensestocrime.Theprincipleisthatagealwaysaffectscriminalliability.Atcommonlaw, underage7,there'sanirrebuttablepresumptionthatsomeoneisincapableofcommittinga crime.Underage14,there'sarebuttablepresumptionthatsomeoneisincapableofcommittinga crime.Changesinjuvenilelawandtheincreasingpracticeofwaiverstoadultcourthave substantiallychangedthiscommonlaw,however,associetyseemsincreasinglyreadytorecognize thatyoungpeoplecan,anddo,commitseriouscrimes.

    ENTRAPMENT
    Entrapmentisaperfectdefense(thedefendant"walks"),butit'softenjustawaytoshiftthe burdenofpersuasiontotheprosecution.It'snotaconstitutionalright.It'sa20thCentury inventionthathasit'soriginsinsympathyfortheaccused.Theprinciple,ifthere'sone,of entrapmentisthatthere'slimitedsympathybecauseoftheneedtobalancetheneedsoflaw abidingcitizens.Italsodependsonthecrime.Thelawlooksnegativelyatpoliceentrapmentin

    casesofconsensual,victimlesscrimes.Inorderforentrapmenttooccur,policemustinitiatethe encouragementofcrime,specificallybyanyofthefollowing: pretendingtobevictims enticingsuspectstocommitcrimes communicatingtheenticementtosuspects influencingthedecisiontocommitcrimes makingrepeatedrequeststocommitacrime formingpersonalrelationshipswithsuspectsandappealingtothepersonal promisingbenefitsfromcommittingthecrime supplyingessentialmaterialsand/orcontrabandtocompletethecrime AvariationoftheentrapmentdefenseisOutrageousGovernmentConduct.Inthiscase,the focusisonthegovernmentratherthanthemindofthedefendant.Theprincipleisthatwhen governmentbehaviorissooffensiveandsooutrageous,itcannotbethebasisforcollecting evidencetoconvictasuspect.Examplesmightincludepoliceinfiltrationandinstancesof undercoverpolicinginvolvingromanticliaisons.Somestatesrecognizethedefensewhileothers don't.

    INSANITY
    Theinsanityprinciplebestowsuponthegovernmenttheauthoritytoincarceratewithout convictionpeoplewhoareabnormalandnotaverage,everydaycriminals.Thedefenseisusually onlyseenwhenthecrimesareveryseriousandthepunishmentquitesevere.Asuccessfulinsanity defenseisnotaboutgoingfree("walking")butquitetheopposite.Insanityimpairsmensreabut itoperatesbyaffectingthebrain(thebody)viaamentalillness.Thisissometimesexpressedas Insanitybeingalegalconceptandmentalillnessamedicalcondition.Thelawreservestheright tonothavetoconformitsdefinitionstothoseofthemedicalcommunity,andtotreatthewhole issueofcureabilityasirrelevant.Insanityisanaffirmativedefensethedefensehastoproveitif theyraiseit,butinpractice,whomeverbringsuptheissuefirstincourthastheburdenof persuasion.Overtheyears,varioustestshavebeenusedtodetermineinsanity,including: M'Naghtenrule,orrightwrongtestfocusisontheintellectualcapacitytoknowright fromwrong,pureintellectualawareness,cognition,beingabletograsptheact'strue significance,notjustafeelingoremotionalsensationthatsomething'swrong. IrresistibleImpulsetestarevisedtypeofM'Naghtenruleinwhichthefocusinon volition,whetherthedefendantexercisedanyfreewillinanattempttoinhibittheir criminalbehavior,oriftheysufferedfroma"diseaseofthemind"sostrongthatthey suddenlylostthepowertoavoiddoingtheact.Ifthecrimewastheproductofamental illnessitself,thisisconsideredsatisfactionoftheDurhamrule. SubstantialCapacitytestafocusonthelossof"substantial",not"total"mental

    capacity;themajoritytestinmostjurisdictionsbecauseitisrecommendedbytheMPC andconformstotheALI(AmericanLegalInstitute's)definitionas"ifatthetimeofsuch conductasaresultofmentaldiseaseordefect,helackssubstantialcapacityeitherto appreciatethewrongfulnessofhisconductortoconformhisconducttotherequirements oflaw".Itsubstitutestheword"appreciate"for"knowing",andallowsforthepossibility ofaffectiveoremotionalunderstanding.Thephrase"conformhisconduct"isintendedto replacetheideaof"suddenness"inothertests,andthecode'sdefinitionof"mental diseaseordefect"excludesantisocialpersonalitydisorders,psychopaths,andsociopaths.

    AUTOMATISM
    Thisisthepreferreddefense,insteadofinsanity,wheneveritisclaimedthedefendantacted unconsciouslyorsemiconsciouslyeitherduetoaphysicalproblem(epilepsy,concussion,or unexplainedblackout)ormentalproblem(childhoodtrauma,mentalthingsotherthaninsanity, intoxication,andbrainwashing).

    DIMINISHEDCAPACITY
    Thesearesyndromesthatarealwaysemerging,butingeneral,areperhapsbestexemplifiedby thevariousstressandstressrelateddisorders.Theprincipleofdiminishedcapacityisthat therearesomementaldiseasesanddefectsthatdonotaffectpeoplesufficientlyenoughtomake theminsane,butthelawrecognizesthemnonetheless.Thelawhasreallybackeditselfintoa cornerbecauseitreservedtherighttodepartfromdefinitionsofthemedicalcommunity,soall sortsof"legaldiseasesanddefects",sotospeak,arepossible.Somejurisdictions,however,are quitetough,andwillnotevenrecognizeanythingshortofinsanity.JurisdictionsinCalifornia,for example,areknownforhavinga"you'reeithersaneorinsane"policy,butmuchofthisiscaving intopublicopinion.TheMPC,ontheotherhand,recommendsadmittingevidenceofdiminished capacityand/oranyimpairedmentalabilitiesaffectingthemensreaelementinallcrimes.The diseaseordefectsupposedlypossessedbythepersonsufferingfromthedisorderistreatedthe sameasinsanity(affectingthebody,hencedenyingactusreus,andbeinganexcusetocrime).The standardsofproofarealmostalwayslowered,frombeyondareasonabledoubttopreponderance oftheevidence,butthisiscommonininsanitycasestoo.Theneteffectofasuccessfuldiminished capacitydefenseistypicallyalesserpunishmentorachargereduction(murdertomanslaughter, e.g.). Syndromesaremedicallysupportedcomplexesthatdiminishcapacityandreducetheperson's responsibility.Theyareattheheartofscientificevidenceandevidencelaw.Theexpertsmust testifytoboththescienceandthelaw.Theremightbescientificevidencethatsugar,forexample, candiminishcapacity,butanexpertormetaexpertneedstobefoundthatcanapplythat scientificevidencetothefactsinanyindividualcasetoaddressthematerialissueof responsibility.Manydifficultiesstandinthewayofgettingthiskindofevidenceadmitted,most recentlytheDaubertrule,thatthesyndrome'seffectsmusthavebeenstudiedsoscientifically thatit'spossibletocalculateTypeIandTypeIIerrors,forexample,ortoestimatethepoweror qualityofresearch.NotallstatesusetheDaubertrule.SomerelyupontheFryeTestorsome variationofit,whichiswhetherornotthesyndromeinquestionhasreceivedgeneralacceptance

    inascientificdiscipline,whichgetsathowmuchresearchhasbeenconductedanditsreviewor receiptinaprofessionalassociation,forexample,althoughsciencewhichtendstoattract controversycanbeassessedunderadifferent,butrelatedtest,theCoppolinoTest.Stillother jurisdictionsmayusetheMarxTest,whichsimplyallowstheexperttoeducatethejuryabout thescienceandletthemformtheirowninferences. INTERNETRESOURCES: TheDaubertRuleanditsApplications EmergingDefensestoCrime TheEvidenceSite PRINTEDRESOURCES: AmericanLawInstitute(1985)ModelPenalCodeandCommentaries.Philadelphia:ALI. Blackstone,W.(1978)CommentariesontheLawsofEngland.NY:Garland. Dershowitz,A.(1994)TheAbuseExcuse.Boston:Little,Brown&Co. Fletcher,G.(1978)RethinkingCriminalLaw.Boston:Little,Brown&Co. Fletcher,G.(1983)"Justification"pp.94146inS.Kadish(ed.)EncyclopediaofCrimeand Justice. Goldstein,A.(1983)"Insanity"pp.73542inS.KadishEncyclopediaofCrimeandJustice.NY: Free. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    THELAWOFHOMICIDE Homicideisaneutralterm.Itdescribesanactwithnomoraljudgment.Murderisthetermthat isnonneutral.Itdescribesanactwithmoraljudgment.Thelawofhomicidehasthemost complexdegree(grading)systemofanyareainCriminalLaw.Thisgradingsystemisreproduced below.Thefirsttwo(2)fallinacategorycalled"perfect"defenses.Thelastfour(4)fallina categorycalled"imperfect"defenses.Perfectdefensesalwaysinvolvejustificationsandexcuses. (1)JustifiableHomicidestheseare"nofault"homicides.Theyordinarilyinvolvethedeathof someoneundercircumstancesofnecessityorduty(commandedorauthorizedbylaw).Examples wouldbeselfdefense,capitalpunishment,andpoliceshootings. (2)ExcusableHomicidesthesearemisadventures,accidents,oractsofinsanity.Theyordinarily involveactsofcivilfault,error,oromission.There'snotenoughfaulttobecriminalnegligence. There'salegaldefensetothisact. (3)1stDegreeCriminalHomicide(Murder)Theseareactsinvolvingthedeathofsomeonein "coldblood"orby"lyinginwait".TheyaredistinguishablebytheMPCmentalstateof "purposely"whichisdefinedinHomicideLawashavingthree(3)elements:(a)premeditated meaningfixedorobsessed;(b)deliberatemeaning"cool";and(c)maliciousmeaning schemingorclever.Also,thecrimeoffelonymurder(someonediesduringcommissionofa felony)isautomatically1stdegreehomicide. (4)2ndDegreeCriminalHomicide(Murder)Theseareactsinvolvingthedeathofsomeonein the"heatofpassion".It'sbasicallyacatchallcategorytodayforactssuchasshootingbulletsup intheair,buthistorically,anumberofoldertermswereassociatedwiththisgrade;termssuchas the"yearandaday"rule(forwhenthedeathhadtooccur)andtheideaof"malice aforethought"(whichmeantwicked,evil,depraved,spiteful,orwithdepravedheart).Ofthese terms,onlythephrase"depravedheartmurder"isstillused.Heatofpassionmurderdoesn't requireprovocation,butitstillrequiresproofofintent. (5)VoluntaryManslaughterManslaughter,ingeneral,involvesactsinvolvingthedeathof someonewithoutthinking.Itinvolves"suddenpassion".There'snopremeditateddeliberation. Therequirementis"adequateprovocation"andthere'sthree(3)tests:(a)thepersonlosesthe abilitytoreflectcooly;(b)there'snosufficienttimetocooloff;or(c)theprovocationmusthave causedaction.Voluntarymanslaughterisoftenwhatthejurywillreturnasaverdictwhenthey aredeadlockedonthehomicidecharges.Historically,there'ssomeinterestingconceptsassociated withthisgrade,suchastheinflagranteorparamourrule(whichistheonlyexceptiontothemere wordsrule,whichrulesoutwordsasprovocation,ifthespousetaunts). (6)InvoluntaryManslaughterThisisthecrimeofCriminalNegligence,sometimescalled misdemeanormanslaughter.It'stheleastseriousoffenseinthelawofhomicide.Ittypically involvesactsrelatedtopublicsafety,suchasoperatingamotorvehicle,railroad,orbus. Specifically,itinvolvesthecarelessuseoffirearms,explosives,animals,medicine,trains,planes, ships,andautomobiles.ManystateshavesortedoutaseparatecategorycalledVehicular Manslaughterforcasesinvolvingautomobiles.It'salsointerestingtoknowthat,bytradition, mostprosecutorswilldrawthelineatthispoint(meaningit'sallthey'llprosecutefor)forcasesof

    corporatecrime. PremeditatedDeliberation: Thisistheideaofplannedinadvance,coolness.There'ssomeinconsistencyindefinition,butthe phrasegenerallyreferstoanything"coldblooded".It'sdefinedas"acarefulthoughtand weighingofconsequences,ajudgmentorplan,carriedoutcoolyandsteadily,accordingtoa preconceivedplan"."Planning"inthelongtermisNOTrequired.Afewsecondswillsufficeat law,aslongasthere'ssufficientmaturityandmentalhealth.There'salsosomethingcalledthe deadlyweapondoctrinewhichallowstheinferenceofintentifadeadlyweaponisused. AdequateProvocation: Thisistheideaofextenuatingcircumstances.Onlycertainkindsofcircumstanceswillreducethe crimeintermsofdegree.Thereasonablepersonstandardisusedtodetermineifthere'sa reasonablebeliefinbeingofdangeroflosingone'slifeorsufferinggreatbodilyharm.Thelawon thispointalsorecognizesthefrailtyofhumannature(reactingwithoutthinking).Thefollowing tablemightbeinstructivebygivingexamplesofadequateprovocation: Adequate: seriousfights scuffles Inadequate:

    suddenpassionwithnotime slappingorshoving tocooloff pistolwhipping,fistsinface, insultinggestures staggeringbodyblows waivingagunaround Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage abusivewords Thelastexampleofwaivingagunaroundmightbeinadequatealso.Itdepends.

    ADVANCEDTOPICSINTHELAWOFHOMICIDE:INTENTION
    Therearecertainkindsofcrimesthathaveharmfulconsequences,andthereareotherssortsof crimesthatconsistofharmfulactions.Withthesesecondsortsofcrimes,likerape,robbery, larceny,andfraud,it'sfairlyeasytotellthattheharmhappenedinthehereandnowthere'san immediateconnectionbetweenactionandharm;someonewasviolatedordispossessedofan object,andthesethingsdon'tnormallyhappenbynaturalcausesorbyaccident.Bycontrast, crimesofharmfulconsequences,likehomicide,arson,mayhem,andassault,usuallypresentus withthepossibilityofagapintimebetweenactionandharmdeath,destruction,andinjury mightoccurbynaturalcausesorbyaccident.Incasesofhomicide,then,wemustalwaysinferor attributethecauseofdeaththatis,wemustexaminetheelementsofcausationandintent.This lectureisaboutintent,withminorreferencestocausation. Tounderstandthecomplexityofhowintentandcausationintertwine,considerthefollowing scenarios: A.SusandecidestokillTom,soshedrivesovertoTom'shouse,andjustassheisabouttoknock onthedoor,Tomdropsdeadofaheartattackinside.DidSusankillTom?[Noshehadtheintent butnotthecausation] B.SusandecidestokillTom,soshedrivesovertoTom'shouse,andjustassheisabouttoknock onthedoor,Tomseesherthroughthewindowandbecomessofrightenedhedropsdeadofa heartattack.DidSusankillTom?[Itdepends;azealousprosecutorwouldsayYes.Shehadboth intentandcausation.AnygooddefenseattorneywouldsayNo.Tomcouldbeenreadytodrop deadatthatmoment] Inbothcases,aftertheactionensues(Susanabouttoknockonthedoor),there'snoguarantee thattheharmfulconsequencesareevenattributable(muchlessliable)totheactorwithoutthe elementofINTENT(SusanintendedtokillTom).There'sadifferencebetween"intendingtokill somebody"and"killingsomeoneintentionally".Susanmaynotbeguiltyofkillingsomeone intentionally(forlackofcausation),butshecertainlyhadtheintenttokill.The"butfor"testis mostcommonlyusedtodeterminecausation,buttherulesfordeterminingintentaremuchmore complicated. WhenwetalkaboutINTENTIONALCONDUCT,we'retalkingaboutsituationsinwhichpeople setouttoaccomplishsomethingandtheytrytorealizethataccomplishmentexactlyasplanned. Theyhaveamentalpictureintheirminds,sotospeak,ofpreciselyhowtheywantthingstoturn out.There'snoaccidents,nocomplications,nosideeffects,justtrueintent.Intentisalegal conceptthatgoesbeyondPurpose. ProbablythebestwaytounderstandIntentionistounderstandit'soppositeNegligence.The ironyisthattheconceptofIntentcomesintocriminallawfromtortlawandnotionsofliability. Butevenlongago,Romanlawyersdistinguishedbetweenthetermsdolus(intention)andculpa (fault,negligence).Thesetermshavebecomethebasisforcriminalandcivilresponsibility, respectively.It'swidelyassumedthatcommittingacrimeintentionallyismuchworse,more culpable,moreblameworthy,thancommittingacrimenegligently.Butwheredowedrawtheline betweenintentionandnegligence?Theansweristhatintentionisclosertomotive,theideathat

    therewasaspecialinducementtocommitthecrime.Motive,consideredalongwithIntent,help useasilydistinguishharmfulconsequencesfromblameworthyandnonblameworthyaccidents. Negligenceisablameworthyaccidentinwhichapersondidn'texerciseareasonabledegreeof care.Negligencelacksamotive,however,andtheonlydefensestoitaremistakeandjustification. Justificationisthemoreimportantconcept.Apersonisblameworthyfornegligence(criminal negligence)onlyifitcanbeshownthattheysizeduptherisks,andbalancedthecostsand benefitsoftherisktaking(justifiedtherisktaking).Thisbalancingofcostsandbenefitsiscalled theLearnedHandformula(namedafterJudgeLearnedHandwhodefinednegligenceastaking anunreasonablerisk).TheMPCmakesacleardistinctionbetweenrecklessness(onewho perceivesbutignoresarisk)andnegligence(onewhofailstobesufficientlyattentivetotherisks orcosts).SowearebacktoIntentaonesidedfocusonthebenefitsofacourseofaction. ThepresumptionofIntentisthatifapersondecidestodoharm,knowstherisks(and punishments),anddecidestodoitanyway,theiractionismoredeservingofcontemptbecause theydidn'tconsidertheinterestsofothers,onlythemselves.Intentisalwaysselfish,andit'snever sloppy.Thepersonknowswhatthey'redoing.Theyarecunningandtryingtobeclever.Thinkof itasthesinofarrogance,orexcessivepride,sotospeak.Orthinkofitintermsofcommunity expectations.That'swhatthe"reasonableman"standardisallabout. TheproblemwithIntentandtheLawofHomicideishowtoindividualizeit.Therearesomany infinitedegreesoftemperamentandintellectthatnogradingsystem,nomatterhowcomplex,is probablyevergoingtodojusticeforeachandeveryindividual.Theproblemwiththe "reasonableman"standardisnotthatit'ssexist.Ithasjustbeenstretchedtoothintobeuseful anymoreasawayofjudgingindividualbehavior.And,it'snotmuchbettertoknoweachand everylittlethingabouteachdefendant.Ifwecomprehendedthemperfectly,wewouldprobably excuseeverycriminalact,oratleastmitigatethecrime.Instead,whatweneedisasystemof gradingthelustforaccomplishments,thrills,sensations,outcomes,ambitions,adventure.It's propertoholdpeopleaccountableforcontrollingtheirlustforadventure.That'sthesocial controlfunctionoftheLawofHomicide. Intentionissomethingharboredinthemindbeforetheactisdone.Onecanalwaysreflecton theirintentions,andchangetheirintentionsbeforeharmisdone.Thedifferencebetweenriskand intentisthatriskexistsintherealworldwhileintentexistsinthemindsofactors.Intent, consideredasamentalconstruct,canalsoincludeunrealizedintentions.Thelawusuallyregards theseasaggravatingfactors,buttheyalsomakeupsubstantivelaw,asinoffenseswhereweadd theprefix"Intenttocommit..."infrontofacrime.Trespassbecomesburglary,forexample, whenthere'sintenttocommitafelonytherein. IntoxicationbearsaninterestingrelationshiptoIntent.Evenvoluntaryintoxicationmightbean excuseorjustification.Thegeneralrule,however,isthatintoxicationnegatesaspecificintent,but notthegeneralintent.Generalintentistheintentrequiredforthebasecrime,andspecificintent isthefactorthataggravatestheoffense.Anintoxicationdefensemightmitigateahomicidetoa manslaughter,butitcan'tgenerateanexcuseforthefelonyofmurder. Psychologicaltheorycomestobearonthesubjectwhenwestoptoconsiderthatthelawistrying tocontrolcognitions,notnecessaryattitudes.Thecognitiveapproach(whichinlegalpracticeis

    oftenreducedtoaprobabilisticapproach)requiresthatweknowwhattheactorreallywanted.In manycasesofhomicide,it'snotevenclearifthepersonsthemselvesknewwhattheywanted. Therefore,thelawassumesthatmotivesmatterandprovideabasisfordistinguishingbetween goodandbad.CriminalLawrecognizesdifferentmotivesforhomicidepremeditation, deliberation,andkillingforprofit.Motives,whenestablishedincourtasevidence,tendto aggravateintentionalcriminalactsandoverridedefenses.Theyputthedefendantinabadlight, atleast. Intheend,allwecandoispresumeliabilityforhomicide,andbecausewehavetoproveintent beforetheactoccurs,thatleavesopenallsortsofpossiblejustificationsandexcuses. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    ASSAULT,BATTERYANDRELATEDCRIMES
    Theideabehindthesecrimes,commonlycalled"offensesagainsttheperson",isthatevery personhasapersonalspacethatshouldnotbeviolatedwithoutconsent.Thereareoldcommon lawtraditionsprotectingpersonalsecurityandbodilyintegrity.ItgoesbacktotheMagnaCharta andinvolvesthepracticeoftouchingpeoplewithouttheirpermission.Itusedtobe(andstillis, accordingtosomenonverbalbehaviorexperts)thathigherstatuspeople(thewealthy)could touchlowerstatuspeople(thepoor)whenevertheywanted,butthepoorcouldnottouchthe wealthyforanyreasonwhatsoever.Allthathaschangedorischanging,andthecriminallaw exertsapositiveinfluenceinhelpingcreateamoreegalitarianandpeacefulsocietyinthisregard. Manyformsofviolencearepunishedatlawtopreserveorderinsociety,andthetrickisto determinethepunishmentproportionaltothecrime. Oneofthethingsthatthelawlooksatisthevictim.Itmattersagreatdealwhothevictimis. Traditionally,felonieshavebeenreservedforvictimswhowerepoliceofficers,paramedics,or otherpersonsactinginthelineofduty.Asmoststudentsofcriminaljusticeknow,thelawhas beenslowinhelpingthevictimsofspousalabuse,butitisnowafelonyismanystates.Childabuse isdifferentbecausetraditionally,ithasalwaysincludedneglectasaformofabuse.Elderlyabuse isanewareacopyingitselfonthechildabusemodel.Hatecrimeisalsoanewareaofconcern. ASSAULT Assaultiseither(1)anattemptedbatteryor(2)theplacingofthevictiminapprehensionof receivinganimmediatebattery.ENDANGERMENTisarelatedoffensetoassault(butusuallya misdemeanor)thatinvolvesrecklesslyendangeringthesafetyofothers.HAZINGisaformof endangermentinvolvinginitiationriteswhichposeathreattothehealthoftheapplicant. AGGRAVATEDASSAULTisagenerictermforthemostseriouskindsofassaults,andthiscrime existsinordertotailorthepunishmentmoreefficiently. BATTERY Batteryistheunlawful,unconsentedtouchingofonehumanbeingbyanotherhumanbeing.A fewstateshavetheoffenseofAGGRAVATEDBATTERY,butnotall.

    MAYHEM Mayhemistheintentionalpermanentdisfigurementofonehumanbeingbyanotherhuman being.Historically,itwastiedtotheimportanceofhavingablebodiedsoldierstoengagein defenseofthekingdom.Scarringandinvoluntarytattooingareincludedinmoststatestatutes. Consentisnotadefenseformayhem.NorthCarolinahasdifferentdegreesofmayhembasedon maliciousnessandtheextentofinjuries.SomestatesalsocallthisoffenseMAYHEMand TORTURE. RAPE Rapeistheunlawful,unconsented"carnalknowledge"ofawomanbyaman.Sexcrimesare treatedasespeciallyseriousmattersincriminallaw,onlyonestepbelowmurder.Criminalsexual conductdoesnothavetoinvolvephysicalinjurytothevictim.Historically,theonlysexcrimes wereRAPEandSODOMY.From1600to1970,thelawofrapeconcentratedontheelementof consent.Womenhadtoshowsomeresistance.Beforethe1950s,therewastheutmostresistance standard;inthe1950s,therewasthereasonableresistancestandard.In1970,moststates abolishedtherequirementthatthevictim'stestimonyofresistancehadtobecorroborated.In addition,moststatespassedrapeshieldlawsprohibitinganytestimonyaboutawomen'spast sexualhistory.Manystatesalsoabolishedtherequirementthatarapehadtobereported promptly.And,manystateshaveabolishedthemaritalexception.Allformsofsexualpenetration vaginal,anal,andoralfallundertoday'scriminalsexualassaultstatutes.Andthelawisnow genderneutral. TheelementsofRAPEare:(1)actusreusofpenetration;(2)actusreusofuseofforceorthreatof force;(3)thecircumstanceofnonconsent;and(4)mensreaofengaginginsexualactivitybyforce orthreatofforcewithoutconsent.Penetrationisdefinedas"howeverslight".Merelyputtinga fingerbetweenthefoldsofskinoveravaginaispenetration,andaccordingtotheintrinsicforce standard,theactofpenetrationsubsumes,orincludesbyinference,theactofforce.Threatsof forcemusthavecreatedanobjectivelyreasonablefearORarealfearofimminentbodilyharm. WordsdoNOThavetobeexchangedtoexpressathreat.Thelawlooksattheage,size,and mentalconditionofbothperpetratorandvictim.Thephysicallocationandrelationship(if positionofauthorityordomination)isalsolookedat.ProofofnonconsentdoesNOTrequirethe prosecutiontoproveordisprovethevictimannouncedanyconsent.Thelawlooksatthephysical actionsratherthanwords.STATUTORYRAPErequiresneitherforce,norintent,nor nonconsent.Immaturityinagesubstitutesforalltheseelements.CaliforniaandAlaskaarethe onlystatesthatpermitadefenseofmistakeofage. Toprovethemensreaelementofrape,theprosecutionlooksatthepriorbehaviorofthe perpetrator,iftheywereinthehabitof"scoringwithgirls",forexample.Thetypeofintent requiredbylawisaspecificintenttohaveintercoursebyforceandwithoutconsent.Thisoften requiresportrayingtheperpetratoras"kinky",into"roughsex",orifhe/shelikesitwhentheir sexpartner"struggles".Theurgetotwistnipplestoinflictpainsatisfiesthemensreaelement, forexample.

    CRIMINALSEXUALCONDUCT Thesearefairlynewcrimesthatattempttogradethedegreeofforce;e.g.: 1stdegreethedefendantwasarmedwithaweapon,aidedbyanotherperson(gang rape),orcausedphysicalinjury 2nddegree"sexualcontact"withan"intimatearea"whereatleastoneotherelementof 1stdegreeispresent. 3rddegreesexualpenetrationaccomplishedwithforce(roughsex) 4thdegreesexualcontactaccomplishedwithforce(roughtouching) ABORTION Abortionistheactofintentionallycausingamiscarriageinapregnantwoman. FALSEIMPRISONMENT Falseimprisonmentistheunlawful,unconsentedconfinementofahumanbeing. KIDNAPPING Kidnappingistheunlawful,unconsentedmovementofapersonofapersonfromoneplaceto anotherplace. THREATS ThecrimeofTHREATENING,sometimescalledMENACINGorTERRORIZINGisthemaking ofunequivocal,immediate,andspecificthreatswiththeintenttocreatefearinthevictim. Dependingonthestate,theintenttocreategreatbodilyharmisrequired,butthemainfocusis thevictim'sfear.Thethreatcanbeconveyedbyathirdpartyorinanyform.It'scommonlyused toprosecutebombthreatswhichcauseevacuationsofpublicplaces.COERCION,alsocalled INTIMIDATIONisarelatedoffenseinvolvinginducingapersontodosomethingagainsttheir will,suchasparticipateinacrimeorrefrainfromoperatingacompetingbusiness.Intimidation doesn'trequirethethreatofviolence,onlythedesiretocontrolthebehaviorofsomebody. EXTORTION,forexample,doesn'tnecessarilyrequiretheelementofviolencebuttheusual paymentofmoneyorblackmail.STALKINGisarelatedoffensethatrequiresproofofintentand repeatedattemptstofollowthevictimorengageinotherformsofHARASSMENTwherethereis nolegaljustificationtodoso.Somestates,likePennsylvania,haveacombinedstalkingand harassmentstatute. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    CRIMESAGAINSTHABITATION: BURGLARY,ARSON,ANDRELATEDCRIMES Crimesagainsthabitationarenotcrimesagainstproperty.Acrimeagainsta"house"wouldbea crimeagainstpropertybecauseahouseisworthmoney,ithassomematerialvalue.Instead, crimesagainsthabitationarecrimesagainsta"home",andthelawseekstoprotectinstancesof theconceptof"home"fromthesocialharmsofINVASION,INTRUSION,DAMAGE, DESTRUCTION,andINSECURITY."Ahouseisnotahome"astheoldsayinggoes. BURGLARYandARSONshareimportantcommonlaworigins.Bothwereseriouscrimes punishablebydeathinbothEnglandandcolonialAmerica.Thesentimentthat"aman'scastleis hishome"runsdeepinAngloAmericanculture.ManyoftheearlysettlerstoAmericaalsocame fromtheEnglishtownofColchester,wherein1575,armedtownspeoplefirstchallengedthe Queen'ssoldiersfromenteringhomeswithoutawarrant.Here'sanexcerptfromLordPitt's famousspeechintheHouseofCommonsaboutthattime: "Thepoorestmanmayinhiscottagebiddefiancetoalltheforcesofthe Crown.It[Hishome]maybefrail,itsroofmayshake,thewindmayblow throughit,thestormmayenter,buttheKingofEnglandhimselfcannot enter.AlltheKing'sforcesdarenotenter,norcrossthethresholdofthe tenement."(LordPitt) BURGLARYhasevolvedfromamedievalconceptofTRESPASS(abroadoffenseintendedto protectchurches,walledtowns,andplaceslikelytoattractpeople)toCOMMONLAW BURGLARY(limitedtodwellings,atnightime,andwithintenttocommitafelonytherein)to MODERNBURGLARYSTATUTES(breakingandentering,butalsoremaining,withintentto commitanycrime).It'snecessarytounderstandthesix(6)commonlawelementsof BURGLARYbecausesomeoftheseelementscontinuetofunctionascoreoraggravatingfactors todayeventhoughthecrimenolongercarriesthedeathpenalty.I'veincludedcommentsabout moderntrendsamongtheseelements.

    COMMONLAWELEMENTSOFBURGLARY 1.BreakingTheterm"breaking"referstoanyforcefulparting,separating,piercing,or
    disintegrationofasolidsubstance.Breakingisnotthesameascausingdamage.Breakingis closertotheconceptoftrespass.Allthat'srequiredisthatsomepartofthestructurewasmoved, adoorknobwasturned,adoorwasopened,orawindowwasraised.Itdoesn'tmatterifthe structurewaslocked,butitdoesmatteriftheopening(doororwindowleftajar)islargeenough forapersontosqueezethroughwithouttouchinganything.Openinganunlockeddooris breaking;squeezingthroughanopendoorisnotbreaking.Tosomedegree,thelawconsiders whetherthethinginvolvedisusedforsecuritypurposes,butthatisnotadefiningcharacteristic. Howmuchsomethingservesasanobstructionisamuchmoreimportantconsideration.For example,acaseinNebraska(Statev.McDowell1994)overturnedtheconvictionofadefendant whowasabletojumpoverafencetostealtransmissionpartsfromajunkyardbecauseno breakingoccurred.Consentbytheownerisaonlyvaliddefense,butiftheconsentwasforlimited purposesorforparticulartimes,andentryoccursforotherpurposesoratothertimes,a

    breakingissaidtohappen.Also,atcommonlaw,itisnotaburglaryifapersonremains concealedorhiddenwithinadwellingeventhoughtheymustcommitabreakingtogetout(thisis aburglaryundermodernlawandmoretypicalofcommercialburglaries).Breakingissometimes brokendownintotwotypes:actualinvolvingsomeminimaluseofforce;andconstructive involvingentrybymeansoffraud,conspiracyusinganaccomplice,orfalsepretenses.Entering structuresinanunusualmanner,suchasviaachimney,isalsoconsideredconstructivebreaking.

    2.EnteringThiselementinvolvestheplacingofanyportionofthebodyoritemconnectedto
    thebodyinsidetheslightestportionofthedwelling,evenmomentarily.Itisintendedtogetat variousitemscalled"burglarytools"(prybars,augers,picks,etc.),butoffensescanincludejust placingafingerorstickingthepointofaguninsideawindowsillordoorway.Theentryitemcan beconnectedtothebodyindirectly,forexample,asinabullet"entering"ahomeduringadrive byshooting,abrickthrownthroughajewelrystorewindow,oraremotecontrolusedtoopena dwelling'sgaragedoor.Theentryrequirementissatisfiedconstructivelyifsomeonesendsa traineddog,monkey,oranimal(notaninfant,insaneperson,orsomeoneincapableofcommiting acrime)intothehome.Entryitemscanbeinanimateoranimate,andthey'reconnectedtoa person'sbodyviathemensreas(orintent)ofburglary.Thepointofentryisdeterminedby "breakingtheclose",animaginarygeometricplanethatdefinesthephysicalconfinesofthe house.A"close"isdifferentfroma"curtilage".Eachstatehasslightlydifferentversionsofthe "entering"element,withsomestateslikeNorthCarolina,notevenrequiringentryitisenough thattheytried.Here'sabreakdownofdifferentstateversions: strictentryrequirementthisisthekinddescribedabove,e.g.,tipoffinger unprivilegedentryrequirementthislooksattherelationshipbetweentheownerandan intruder surreptitiousremainingrequirementthislooksatwhenit'slawfultobesomewhereand whenit'sunlawful(afterclosingtime,forexample) eliminatedentryrequirementthisisthekindthatincludesattempt(NC)

    3.DwellingAtcommonlaw,anystructureintendedforsleepisconsideredadwelling.
    Modernstatutestendtodefineitasanystructureorbuildingadaptedfortheaccommodationof personsorthecarryingonofbusiness,whetherornotoccupied,andsomestates,likeCalifornia, includevehicles.Abandonedpropertiesdonotordinarilyqualifyasdwellings,butit'snotthe presenceorabsenceofpeoplethatmatter,butratherthecharacteroruseofthebuilding(suchas ifit'ssomeone'ssummerhomeorvacationcabin).Statesnormallypunishtheburglaryofan inhabiteddwellingmoreseverelythanthatofanuninhabiteddwelling.Anyadjacentbuilding withinthe"curtilage"ofamainstructureisconsideredpartofthedwelling,suchasagarage, barn,stable,cellar,orshed.Vacantapartmentsareconsideredthesameashouses,butlike housesunderconstruction,thecommonlawruleisthatastructurebecomesadwellingwhenthe firstoccupantsmoveinandceasestobecomeadwellingwhenthelastoccupantsmoveout (becauseofthebuildingbeingcondemned,permanentlyvacated,orscheduledfordemolition). Fourwallsandaroofdon'tconstituteadwelling.Moststateshaveexpandedtheconceptto includemotorvehicles,boats,airplanes,tents,campingareas,andunenclosedspotsinayard.

    4.OfAnotherThestructuremustbeusedasadwellingbysomeoneotherthantheaccused.

    Ownershipdoesnotmatter,asanownercancommitburglaryoftheirownstructureifitis rentedandusedbyanother.Whetherornotadwellingbelongstoanotherdependsontherightof possession,iftheytakecareofit,fixitup,maintainit,orhavesome"sweatequity"init.Incases ofhusbandandwifedissolutionorseparation,animportantconsiderationistheunauthorized entryrequirement.Thespousekeepingthehousemustcontrolaccess(suchasbychangingthe locks)tothehomeinorderforthe"ofanother"elementtobesatisfied.Thefactofmarriageonly givesanestrangedhusbandaneconomicinterest,notapossessoryone.

    5.NighttimeTechnically,thisbeginsonehalfhouraftersunsetandendsonehalfhourbefore
    sunrise,butlegally,it'sdefinedaswheneverit'stoodarktodiscernaperson'sfaceortorecognize them.Thiselementisintendedtogetatthecharacteristicsofstealth,disguise,orcoverup commontoburglaries.Onlyabouthalfofallburglariesarecommittedatnight,however,andall statestodayrecognizedaytimeburglarieswithnighttimeintrusionsasanaggravating circumstance.Somestateshaveeliminatedthenighttimeelementcompletely.Burglarydoesnot requireonenightaction;apersoncancommita"breaking"ononenightandan"entering"on anothernight.Ascrimesofstealth,burglariestypicallylastnomorethanfourminutesandno morethan$1000worthofitemsaretaken. 6. IntenttoCommitaFelonyFeloniousintentmustbepresentatthetimeofentry,not atsomepointonceinsidethedwelling.Themostcommonreasonforcommittinga burglaryistoplaceoneselfinapositiontolookaroundandcommitatheft.It'stheintent tostealsomethingofvalue,nottheactoftheft,whichsatisfiesthiselementofburglary. Burglaryisnotthesameastheft.Theactofbreakingandenteringatnighttimewiththe intenttocommitanyfelony(e.g.,homicide,rape,larcenyormischief)isburglary.Thelaw wishestoavoidargumentsoverexactlywhatandhowmuchtheburglarintendedtosteal onceinside.Therefore,moststateshavemodifiedthismensreaelementtotheintentto commitanycrime,thusavoidingtheargumentofwhetherornottheintendedcrimewasa felony.Amentalstateofpurposely,knowingly,orrecklesslyintendingtoinflictinjuryor commitharmwillusuallysuffice.It'simmaterialwhethertheintendedcrimewas committedornot;whatmattersiswhetherthere'saspecificintenttocommitacrime (otherthanburglary)priortoactuallygainingentrance.Thisleavesopenthequestionof whattodowithoffenderswho,say,breakintokeepwarmorescapefromharm,andwho, onceinside,seeanitemofvalueanddecidetostealit.Suchoffenderscannotbecharged withburglary,andmoststateschargethemwithrobberyorsomeotherattemptedfelony, althoughaburglaryconvictionmaystillholdbecausecompletionofacriminalactis presumptionofamensreaforburglary.Ontheotherhand,theintenttostealcannotbe inferredfromtheactofunlawfulentry.Intentcanonlybeinferredfromasetof circumstances:forcibleentry;pointofentry(rearorsideentrance);typeofbuilding (itemsaburglarmightbeinterestedin);timeofentry;andhidingorattemptingtoescape wheninterrupted. 7.

    MODERNBURGLARYLAW
    Burglaryissometimesgradedinto1stdegree(assaultsapersonpresent),2nddegree(carriesa weapon),3rddegree(intendsafelonyorgrossmisdemeanor),and4thdegree(intendsany misdemeanor),butmorecommonlythedistinctionismadebetweenSIMPLEBURGLARYand AGGRAVATEDBURGLARY.Burglariesofthe1stand2nddegreewouldbethesameas aggravatedbecausethesegradesallinvolveinhabiteddwellingsandtheoffenderbeingarmed withadeadlyweapon.NewYorkstategradesallitsburglariesintermsofthepotentialfor dangertothevictim.Illinoishasaspecial,moreseriousthanburglary,offenseforbreakinginto inhabiteddwellingscalledHOMEINVASIONwithintenttorob.Allburglariesarefeloniesin everystate,however,andpenaltiesareharsh,rangingfromfivetotwentyyearsentences.The penaltiesforburglaryareoftenmoreseverethanthepenaltyfortheintendedcrime.Conviction forthree(3)burglaries(unauthorizedentries)ofanytypeusuallyqualifysomeoneforalife withoutparolepenaltyunderThreeStrikesYou'reOutlaws. BREAKINGANDENTERINGisatermthatsomestatesusewhohavenotmodifiedtheir burglarystatutestodefinewhatadwellingis.Breakingandentering(B&E)isusuallyreserved forstructuresotherthanresidenceswherepeoplesleep;e.g.,offices,stores,shops,warehouses, factories,andvehicles.Ifthetargetedlocationisusedforconductingbusiness,theoffenseis sometimescalledCOMMERCIALBURGLARY.SomestatesalsousethetermsBREAKAND RUN,CRASHANDCARRY,SMASHANDGRAB,andCARBURGLARY(thesameasthe crimeofrobberymighthavetherelatedcrimesofhighwayrobbery,orcarjacking). POSSESSIONOFBURGLARYTOOLSisarelativelyminoroffenseinmoststates,andas seriousafelonyascommercialburglaryinsomestates.Tobeconvictedofthisoffense,thetools involvedwouldhavetobedescribedonalistcontainedinthestatestatute,andtheprosecutor wouldhavetoshowintenttousethetoolsforunlawfulpurposes.Anyonemanufacturing,altering, orsupplyingsuchtoolsmaybecoveredbythestatuteaswell. FEDERALLAWcontainsnoburglarystatutes,atleastnotintheresidentialsense.Breakinginto abank,pharmacy,orpostofficecanbeprosecutedunderstateorfederallaw,andthesensible thingtodoisprosecuteunderstatelawbecausetheelementsofthecrimeatfederallawmaybe quitedifferentfromwhat'snormallyconsideredburglary. CRIMINALTRESPASSinvolvesenteringorremainingonpropertywithoutpermission.The propertymustbemarkedinsomeway(NoTrespassingsigns)ortheoffendermusthavebeentold toleave.Anyonewhoremainsundertheseconditionsisusuallychargedwiththerelatedoffense ofDEFIANTTRESPASSwhichhasitsoriginsingrownupchildrenwhorefusetoleavethehome oftheirparentsafterbeingrepeatedlytoldtodoso.Trespassingonvacantlandisusuallya misdemeanor,butacommondefenseisthattheareaisanestablishedandwelldefinedpathway, trail,orpublicbeach.Anhonestbeliefthattheownerwouldhavegrantedpermission,ifasked, alsoservesasagooddefense.Necessity(anyoldportinastorm)isalsoadefense,andsomestates excludeabandonedbuildingsfromtrespasslaws,althoughotherstatesincludethemtogoafter homelesssquatters.

    ARSONLAW
    Settingafirethatreachesastructureandburnsaretheessentialelementsofarson.Explosions arealsotreatedasburningsforthepurposesofarsonlaw.Itdoesn'tmatterhowmuchburning takesplace.Thecommonlawruleisthathoweverslighttheburning,thearsoniscomplete.Afew statesdistinguishbetween"sooting"(smokedamage),"scorching"(blistering),"charring" (externalsurfacesdestroyed),andsoforth,butthemainpointisthatastructuredoesnothaveto burntotheground.Thekindofstructureandamountofdamagearecircumstancestobe considered.Anarsoncanoccurinsideahouseiftheitemdamagedqualifiesasapermanent fixture.Sinks,lighting,andappliancesqualify;personalpropertysuchasfurniture,clothing,or documentsdonot. There'sadifferencebetween"settingafire"and"burns"inthatitispossibletosetfireto something,butitgetsextinguishedbeforeanyburningoccurs.Forthisreason,it'simportantthat youreadtheprecisewordingofthestatestatute.Ifthestatutorylanguagecontainstheword "OR"sandwichedinbetween"settingafire"and"burns",thenthatparticularstateconsiders theactofsettingafireanarsonevenifnoburningoccurs. Arsonisacrimeofgeneral,ratherthanspecific,intent.Atcommonlaw,themensreaofarsonis "willfullyandmaliciously",butasacrimeofgeneralintent,malicecanbeinferredfromthe actitself.Allthat'snecessaryisproofthatthepersonintentionally(atanyMPClevelofintent, evenrecklessly,althoughthat'scalledRECKLESSBURNINGinsomestates)startedthefire. Thecriminalintentwitharson,therefore,isintentorpurposetostartafire,evenifthere'sno intenttoburnastructure.Thefiredepartment,notthepolice,gettodeterminethis,whichis oftencalledafireofINCENDIARYORIGIN(asopposedtooneofunknownorigin).Afire inspectormustthentestifyincourtthathe/shealsosuspectedarson,andthenanexpertwitness mustbecalledtocorroboratethefireinspector'sopinion. Arsonistypicallygradedinto1stdegree(homes,schools,churches),2nddegree(unoccupied structures,vehicles),and3rddegree(personalproperty).Arsonisacrimeagainstpossession,not ownership,soit'spossibleforapersontobechargedwithburningtheirownhouse,or committinganarsonagainstthemselves.Statestatutesdonotgradearsonsintermsofmotive, althoughtheyoughtto.There'sclearlydifferencesbetweenarsonforprofit,revengearson,and pyromania.SomestatesreservetheirharshestpunishmentsforARSONWITHINTENTTO DEFRAUD(arsonforprofitorarsonforhire).SomestateshavetheoffenseofAGGRAVATED ARSONwhichiskindoflikefelonymurder,butcarriesadditionalpenaltiesifafirefightergets injuredwhiletryingtoputoutthefire.Apersonwho'spartytothecrimeistypicallycharged witharsonratherthanbeinganaccomplicetothecrime.Actionspreliminarytoarson,like pouringaccelerantonthefloorofabuildingorpossessingfirebombs,maybeoffensesrelatedto arsonundersomestatestatutues.Makingafalsebombthreatorfalsefirealarmisalsoa separate,butrelatedoffenseinmoststates.Arsoninvolvingdamagetofederalpropertyisalmost alwaysprosecutedinfederalcourt,asisanything(warehouses,truckfacilities)involving interstateorforeigntransport.

    MALICIOUSMISCHIEF
    Thisisthecrimeofdamagingordestroyingthepropertyofanother,andit'scalledCRIMINAL DAMAGEorVANDALISMinsomestates.It'snotgenerallymorethanamisdemeanor,butit canbeafelonyinsomecaseswherethere'slargefinanciallossesoraseriousinconveniencetothe generalpublic.Completedestructionofpropertyisnotrequired,buttheremustbesomephysical damagewhichimpairstheutilityofthepropertyormateriallydiminishesitsvalue.Theproperty canbeinanimateoranimate;thefamilypetcanbevandalized.Most,butnotall,statesattemptto gradetheoffensebytheamountoffinanciallossinvolved,withfeloniesstartinginthe$2500 range. Becausethisisprimarilyajuvenilecrime,thelawfirstconsiderswhetherthereareany justifications,excuses,ormitigatingfactorsforthebehavior.Thementalstaterequiredisatleast recklessnessinageneralintentapproachto"malice",but"willfulorwantondisregard"for propertyisoftenspelledoutinsomestatutes.Somestatesandcitieshaveseparatedout GRAFFITIVANDALISMandPOSSESSIONOFGRAFFITIMATERIALSasmoreserious crimes,andmostjurisdictionstreatCEMETARYVANDALISMandHIGHWAYSIGN VANDALISMasquiteserious.Interruptionofpublicservice(suchasknockingoutstreetlights, cuttingtelephonelines,throwingstinkbombsinschool,etc.)isalsomischief,butsomestatestreat itasCRIMINALTAMPERING.Thetrendistowardstatestatutesthatspelloutspecifictypesof mischief;INSTITUTIONALMISCHIEF,forexample,whenschoolsorchurchesareinvolved, andENVIRONMENTALMISCHIEF,whenenvironmentaldamageiscaused.Manystatesand citieshavepassedlawsmakingparentsresponsibleforthefinancialcostsoftheirchildren's mischief. INTERNETRESOURCES: InterestingFactsAboutBurglaryLaw:BurlingtonPoliceDepartment CombattingtheNation'sArsonProblem:FEMAandFEMA'sNAPI 2000PenalCode(Texas):TheCopShop PRINTEDRESOURCES: Cromwell,P.,J.Olson&D.Avery(1991)BreakingandEntering:AnEthnographicAnalysisof Burglary. Gardner,T.&T.Anderson(1996)CriminalLaw.Minneapolis:West. Inciardi,J.(1970)TheAdultFiresetter:ATypology.Criminology8:14555. Maguire,M.(1982)BurglaryinaDwelling:TheOffense,theOffenderandVictim.London: Heinemann. Samaha,J.(1999)CriminalLaw.Belmont,CA:Wadsworth. Shover,N.(1991)Burglary,pp.73113inCrimeandJustice,M.Tonry(ed.),Vol14.Chicago: Univ.Press. Skelton,D.(1998)ContemporaryCriminalLaw.Boston:ButterworthHeinemann. Unknownauthor(1951)"StatutoryBurglary:TheMagicofFourWallsandaRoof"Pennsylvania LawReview100:41120. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw

    InstructorHomePage

    THEFTLAW:
    CRIMESAGAINSTPROPERTY&HYBRIDCRIMES
    Justasallmoderncrimesagainsthabitationhavetheiroriginsintheancientlawoftrespass,all moderntheftlawshavetheiroriginsintheancientlawoflarceny.Trespasswasdesignedto protectrealproperty(itemsofpossessionaffixedtotheground)frominvasion,damage,and destruction.Larcenywasdesignedtoprotectpersonalproperty(itemsofpossessionthatwere moveable)fromMISAPPROPRIATIONandSTEALING.UpuntiltheIndustrialRevolution, larcenywastheonlykindoftheftonthebooks,andafelonypunishablebydeath(a"hanging offense"). Moderntheftlawrecognizesmanydifferentkindsofcrimesagainstpropertyaswellashybrid crimes(bothagainstpersonANDproperty,likerobbery).Underfederallaw,forexample,there arewellover100differentkindsoflarcenytheftsrecognized.Thestatesdon'toftenrecognizeas manyoffenses,andnotallofthemfollowthefederal"consolidated"(UCR)approachofusingthe hyphenatedphrase"larcenytheft".About30ofthestatesuseaconsolidated"theft"approach, droppingthewordlarceny,andlistingtheftsbythetypeorvalueofpropertyinvolved;e.g.,theft ofgoods,theftofservices,grandtheft,pettytheft.About20ofthestatesusea"larceny" approach,subdividedintolarceniesbytrickandlarceniesbyforce,relyinguponcommonlaw definitions.Mostlarceniesandtheftsarespecificintentcrimes(extortionistheexceptionasa generalintentcrime)whichmeansthatthementalstateispreciselyspelledoutincriminal statutes. AnydiscussionofTheftLawisgenerallyadiscussionaboutthefollowingcrimes:(1)Larceny Theft;(2)EmbezzlementTheft;(3)FalsePretensesTheft;(4)ReceivingStolenProperty;(5) Robbery;and(6)Extortion.Numbers13aretypicalofcrimesconsolidatedintogeneraltheft statutes. ELEMENTSOFLARCENY Larcenyisthewrongfultakingandcarryingawayofpersonalpropertywhichisinthepossession ofanotherwiththeintenttoconvertitorpermanentlydeprivetheownerthereof.

    1.WrongfultakingThestatemustshowthattherewasanelementofcontrol,howeverbrief,
    oversomeoneelse'spropertybythedefendant.Controldoesn'tmeantouching.Ifyousell someoneelse'sbicycletoapasserby,evenifyoudidn'ttouchit,youhavetakenit.Thesamewith financialtransactions;youdon'tneedtoactuallyhandlemoneytotakeit.Acommondefenseto thiselementis"borrowing".Sincelarcenyisaspecificintentcrime,thelawrequiresconsidering whetherthere'sanintenttostealoragenuineintenttoreturnsomething. There'snosuchthingas"finder'skeepers"forlostormislaidpropertyunderTheftLaw.All stateshavelittleknownstatutesestablishingthestandardsbywhichareasonableeffortmustbe madetofindthetrueowner.However,ifthere'snorealwayofeverfindingthetrueowner(like findingadollarbillonthesidewalk),thetakingdoesnotconstitutelarceny.Manystateshave

    constructedthreelevelsoftaking: larceny(theft)bytrickcongames,schemes,andswindles larceny(theft)bydeceptionstings,scams,pricealtering larceny(theft)byfraudinsidetrading,telemarketing,creditcard

    2.CarryingawayInlegaljargon,thisiscalledasportation.Itmeansthatthepropertywas
    completelymoved(howeverslightly)fromtheplaceitwastaken.Partial,orincomplete, movements,suchasshufflingorrearranginganobjectdoesnotcount.Carryingawaycanbe donebyaninnocentthirdperson,ifsay,theitemwasstashedonthemwithouttheirknowledge.A commondefenseinshopliftingoccurswhentheshopliftersensestheywillbestopped,and thereforedropsorabandonstheitembeforeleavingthestore.Somestatelawswillsaythisisstill carryingawaysincetheitemleftit'smerchandisearea;otherstateswillrequiretheshoplifter havepassedbeyondthefinalpointofpurchase.Theelementofasportationissettledonthebasis ofcommonsense. Theabovetwoelementsareoftendecidedonthebasisofsomethingcalledtrespassorytaking, whichlooksatwhetherthepersoninvolvedhas"larcenyintheirheart".Therearefourrules (exceptions)associatedwiththis,andthefollowingtypesofpersonscannottakeanythinginlegal sense: Employeescannotnormallypossesstheiremployer'spropertybecausetheyhavecustody overit(thus,employeesarenotusuallychargedwithshoplifting,butwithpilferingor embezzlement) Peoplenormallyconsentto"loan"theirpropertytorepairmenbutdonotrelinquish possession(thus,repairmencanonlybechargedwithlarcenybytrickorfalsepretensesif there'satransferoftitle) Banktellers(orothersauthorizedtohandlemoney)areinvolvedintransfersofcustody, notpossession(thus,cashierscanonlybechargedwithlarcenybytrickorfalsepretenses) Parkinglotattendants(whohavetheircustomer'skeys)cannotwrongfullytakeandcarry awaypropertybecausetheypossessit.

    3.PersonalpropertyUndertheoldcommonlaw,onlymoveablepropertycountedas
    personalproperty,butundermodernstatutes,almostanythingqualifiesaspersonalproperty. Therearegenerallysevencategoriesofproperty: Realpropertyrealestate,trees,itemsattachedtotheland Tangiblepropertymoveable,anythingnotaffixedtotheland Documentsmoney,tickets,paper,anythingofvalue Serviceslabor,utilities,lodging,food,transportation Informationrecords,computerfiles,someservices Intellectualskills,talents,abilitiesorproductsthereof

    Contrabandillegalitems,unlikelytobereportedstolen Thevalueofthepropertystolendetermineswhetherthechargeisamisdemeanororfelony. Grandlarceny,afelony,involvespropertygenerallyworthmorethan$400onaverage,butthe dividinglinediffersineachstate.Pettylarceny,amisdemeanor,generallyinvolvesanythingworth lessthan$400onaverage.Somestatesalsohaveparticularinterestsincertainkindsofproperty. InTexas,theftofoil,nomatterhowlittle,isautomaticallyagrandlarceny;inCalifornia,it's avocados.Somestatesalsousea"marketvalue"approachtodeterminingworth;othersuse "replacementcost".Evidencerulessometimerequireexpertsorappraiserstotestifyastothe worthofproperty.

    4.InpossessionofanotherThelawrequiresthattheownerofthepropertytestifythatthe
    takingwaswithouthisorherconsentandtoidentifythestolenpropertyinopencourt. Sometimes,asinthecaseofjewelry,it'sdifficultfortheownertomakeanidentification.Forthis reason,lawenforcementinvestigatorsoftenhaveapolicyofmarkingobjectsofstolenpropertyat thetimeofsearch&seizure.Itmustalsobeproventhattheownerdidnotabandontheproperty, leavingopenthehonestbeliefthattheydidnotcareifitwastaken.Thingsthatareinawildstate, likewildlife,cannotbethepropertyofanother.

    5.WiththeintenttoconvertorpermanentlydepriveLarcenyisaspecificintentcrime.
    Theintentmaybeprovenbydirectorcircumstantialevidence,andataminimum,bya substantialriskofpermanentloss,butmoretypicallyifthethiefiscountingon,butnothoping for,some"reward"orgainbythesaleorreturnoftheproperty.Thesubstantialriskoflossisa fairlynewelementintendedtoencompasscaseslikejoyriding,wherethethiefplanstoeventually returntheproperty,buttheriskofpermanentlossispresent.Ifitturnsoutthethieftruly believesthepropertyistheirs,thisiscalledtheclaimofright,acommondefensetolarceny.

    EMBEZZLEMENT
    Embezzlementistheconversionoflawfullyacquiredpropertyintosomethingforunlawful purposes(personaluseorprofit).Thepropertyconvertedmusthavecomeintothesuspect's possessionviaapositionoftrust,commonlycalledafiduciaryrelationship.Forexample, employees,parkinglotattendants,drycleaningservices,autoshops,andbankerstypically occupysuchpositionsoftrust.Theactusreuselementsofembezzlementarethesameaslarceny exceptthattheelementoftakingisrelaxedandtheelementofbreachoftrustisadded.Allthat's necessarytoprovebreachoftrustisthatthepropertywashandledinamannerinconsistentwith thetrustarrangement. Embezzlementisaspecificintentcrime.Therequisitementalstateisanintenttodefraudand convertproperty.Thismentalstateissometimesprovenbyconsideringwhathappenedafterthe actoflarceny.Ifthepersonclaimstheyintendedtoreturntheexactsameproperty,itisfalse pretenses.Ifthepersonintendedtoreturnsimilaroridenticalpropertybecausetheyhave alreadyspenttheprofit,orcoveredupthelossesinsomewaybecauseofthephysical impossibilityofreturningtheoriginalproperty,itisembezzlement.

    FALSEPRETENSES
    Falsepretensesisthecrimeofdeceivingownersintowillinglygivinguprightfulpossessionof theirpropertywithanintenttoconvertthepropertytopersonaluseorprofit.Personswho commitfalsepretensesdonothaveanylawfulrighttopossessionoranytrustrelationship.They simplylie,andthisistheprimaryactusreusoffalsepretensesalie,somekindofactual misrepresentationofthetruth.Italsomustbeshownthatthevictimrelieduponthe misrepresentationsomuchthattheywerewillingtogiveuptheirproperty,notjustpossessionof it,butownershipaswell.Thisisthedifferencebetweenlarcenybytrickandfalsepretensesin larcenybytrick,theownerjustgivesuppossession.Withfalsepretenses,there'susuallya transferoftitle,deed,orownership.

    RECEIVINGSTOLENPROPERTY
    Receiving,concealing,possessing,buying,ortransferringstolenpropertyaretypicallythe behaviorsassociatedwiththecrimesoffencingortraffickinginstolengoods.Receivingis generallydefinedasasingleact,whileconcealing,possessing,buying,andtransferringare conceivedofascontinuingacts.Fencingortraffickingarethecontinuingactsofbeinga middlemanordistributor.Thecrimeofreceivingstolenpropertyisaspecificintentcrime requiringproofthatthepersongainedcontroloveranitem,knewthattheitemwasobtainedina criminalmanner,and(atanylevelofintent)intendedtopermanentlydeprivetherightfulowner ofhisorherinterestintheproperty.Controlofthepropertycanbeactualorconstructive,and it'sthematerialfactoftheitembeingstolenthatmatters,notthebeliefthatit'sstolen.If someonehidessomethingtheythinkisstolen,butitisnotinfactstolen,thentheyhavenot receivedanythingstolen.Thelevelofmensreaislessenedinthiscrimetoincludenegligence becauseapersonshouldknow,forexample,thatwhentheyget"toogood"adealonsomething, it'sprobablystolen.Thisloweredculpabilityrequirementisaimedatjunkdealersand pawnbrokers.

    ELEMENTSOFROBBERY
    Robberyandextortionarehybridcrimes,bothagainstpersonandproperty.It'salsosometimes saidthattheseare"aggravated"formsoflarceny.Robberyisforcefulstealingandextortionis blackmail.RobberyisthemostcommoncrimeintheUnitedStates.Theelementsofrobberyare:

    1.TakingThegeneralruleisthatvictimandoffendermustconfrontoneanother.Theremust
    beimmediatepossessionanddirectcontrol,not"control"intheloosersenseassociatedwith larceny.

    2.CarryingawayTheoffendermustgainimmediatepossessionofthepropertyandretainit
    insuchawayastomakeitimmediatelyimpossiblefortherightfulownertoregainpossession. Onlyaslightmovementofthepropertyisnecessarytofulfillthisrequirementiftheelementof impossibilityispresentorthethreatofharmaccompaniesthetaking.Victimsmustrelinquish theirpropertybecausetheyhonestlyandreasonablyfeartherobbers'threats.Thevictimis compelledtoacquiesceinthetakingoftheproperty.

    3.PropertyofothersActualownershipofthepropertybythevictimdoesnotmatter;mere

    possessionissufficient.

    4.FromtheirpersonorintheirpresenceThegeneralruleisthatthepropertymustbe
    onthepersonorintheimmediatevicinity.Otherroomsinthehouseinwhichthevictimis locatedisconsideredwithintheirpresence.

    5.ByimmediateorthreatenedforceThisisthekeyelementinrobbery.Theremustbe
    forcefulintimidation(forceorthreatofforcetoinflictharmtotheperson,property,orrightsof another).Thethreatcanbetothevictim,thevictim'sfamily,thevictim'sdwelling,oranother personpresent.Threatstodwellingsdon'tcountinsomejurisdictions.Ifthereisnoforceor threatofforce,thecrimeislarceny,notrobbery.Ifthereisastruggle,theforcemustbesufficient toovercomethevictim'sresistance;otherwise,thecrimeisattemptedrobbery.Somestatesdon't requireforceatthetimeoftaking,onlyatthetimeofescape.

    6.WiththeintenttopermanentlydepriveTheintentrequiredforrobberyisthesameas
    forlarceny. Moststateshavedividedrobberyintodegrees: 1stdegreerobberyalsocalledstrongarmrobberyormugging.Thisrequiresthe presenceofadeadlyweapon(playweaponsuffices),seriousinjury,ortheintenttocreate seriousinjury.Avariant,calledHomeInvasionRobbery,occurswhentherobberfollows thevictimhome,knocksonthedoortogainentry,orliesinwaitafterabreakin. 2nddegreerobberythisrequiresthepresenceofanaccompliceoraccomplices,any displayofweapon,anyinjuryorthreatofinjury. 3rddegreerobberyalsocalledsimplerobbery,unarmedrobbery,orforciblestealing. Thissimplyrequiresuseorthreatofforce. EXTORTION Extortionistheonlygeneralintentcrimeagainstproperty.It'ssynonymouswiththeterm blackmail.It'stheunlawfultakingofpropertyfromanotherbythreatsoffutureharm.The elementoftimeiswhatdistinguishesextortionfromrobbery.Extortionisthethreatofsome futureharmratherthanimmediateharm.There'salsononeedforvictimandoffenderto confrontoneanother.Extortioncanbecommittedoverthephone,bymail,orbyemail(butthis ofcoursemakesitafederalcrime).Asageneralintentcrime,themotivesforitdon'treally matter.Italsodoesn'tmatterifthevictimcooperates(i.e.,there'snosuchthingasattempted extortion).Here'ssometypicalextortions: threatstodrivesomeoneoutofbusiness threatstodestroysomebody'sgoodname threatstoexposesomebody'sfamilyorpersonalsecret threatstokidnaporinjuresomebody'sfriendsorfamily threatstocollectadebtbyillegalmeans

    threatstohurtsomebodyiftheydon'tdosomething threatstotamperwithsomethingthatbelongstosomebody Extortionisthemostcommoncriminalchargeagainstcorruptpoliceofficers.Otherthanfiling falsestatements/reports,LarcenyTheftisthemostcommonreasonfordecertificationofpolice officers. INTERNETRESOURCES TheArmedRobberyPage FinancialCrimes PreventingCrimeatPlaces UniformCrimeReports PRINTEDRESOURCES Gardner,T.&T.Anderson(1996)CriminalLaw.St.Paul:West. Samaha,J.(1999)CriminalLaw.Belmont,CA:West/Wadsworth. Webb,G.(1981)PlainLanguageLaw:CriminalWrongs.Atlanta:Prof.Impressions. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    CRIMESAGAINSTBUSINESS: FORGERYANDFRAUDOFFENSES
    Theworldofbusinessand/orcommerceoperatesonthebasisofdocuments(paperorelectronic). It'sbeenthiswayeversincethemerchantclassbecameliterate,anddocumentstookonthe qualityofexpressinglegalrightsandobligations.Intoday'sworld,weproveimportantthingsby producingdocuments(e.g.,birthcertificates,drivers'licenses,titles,invoices,billsofsale).False

    documentsrepresentathreattosocialstabilityandorder.Theyundermineconfidenceinthe
    authenticityofdocuments.

    Forgeryandfraudoffensesrefertoavarietyofcriminalbehaviorsdesignedtocheataperson,a business,orgovernmentagencyoutoftheirmoney,goods,orservices.Thisaspectofthecriminal behaviorcheatingordeceivingistheresemblancebetweentheseoffensesandproperty crime.Indeed,manystatesdon'thaveseparatefraudstatutes;theyincludesuchcrimesunder theftorlarcenybyfraudstatutes.Anotheraspectoffraudulentbehaviorisit'ssimilarityto whitecollarcrime.Indeed,becauseitofteninvolvesthefalsificationofdocuments,it'sagood exampleofthis,butsimplefraudsaren'toftencommittedbypersonsofhighorrespectablesocial status(whichfitsthedefinitionofwhitecollarcrime,seefootnotebelow).Anotheraspectof forgeryandfraudoffensesisthattheycorrupttheveryfoundationofpublicadministrationand/ orgovernmentregulation.Thinkabouttheharmdoneforamomentsocietyisreallythevictim allthepeoplewhohadalegitimateclaimtomoney,goods,orserviceswillnowhavetogo without,withless,orburdensocietymoretogowiththesameinordertomakeupforthelosses incurredfromthosewhohadnolegitimaterighttothemoney,goods,orservices.Inmanyways, forgeryandfraudoffensesarethehybridofallhybridcrimes. Althoughmostcrimesagainstbusinessaredistinguishedbythemeansusedtocarrythemout, forgeryisaspecificintentcrimewhilefraudisageneralintentcrime.Forgeryrequiresarather unusualmentalstatewhicheasilydistinguishesitfromothercrimesoftheft.Withfraud,it's sometimessaidthatitmustalwaysbeintentional,asdistinguishedfromnegligent,butthereare somanydifferentformsoffraud,spellingoutsomanydifferentcircumstances,thatit'sprobably bettertorefertofraudasrequiringconstructiveintent.

    ELEMENTSOFFORGERY
    Forgeryisthefalsemakingormaterialalterationofawritingwherethewritinghastheapparent abilitytodefraudandisofapparentlegalefficacywiththeintenttodefraud.

    1.FalsemakingThepersonmusthavetakenpaperandinkandcreatedafalsedocument
    fromscratch.Forgeryislimitedtodocuments.Therecanbenosuchthingasaforgeryofartor forgeryofmachinebecausetheseitemsarenotwrittendocuments."Writing"includesanything handwritten,typewritten,computergenerated,printed,orengraved.

    2.MaterialalterationThepersonmusthavetakenagenuinedocumentandchangeditin
    somesignificantway.It'sthewritingitselfwhichmustbefalse,notthedocument.Thiselementis intendedtocoversituationsinvolvingfalsesignaturesorimproperlyfillinginblanksonaform.

    3.AbilitytodefraudThedocumentorwritinghastoatleastlookgenuineenoughtofool
    people.Forgeriesofcompletelyridiculousthings,liketitlestoswamplandinFlorida,deedsto landonthemoon,oralicensetokill,donotqualifyashavingtheapparentabilitytofoolmost people.

    4.LegalefficacyThedocumentorwritinghastohavesomelegalsignificanceaffectingat
    leastanotherperson'srighttosomething,usuallysomepropertyright,broadlydefinedtoinclude intellectualpropertyliketheformofasignature.Legalsignificanceisdistinguishedfromsocial significance.Awritingofsocialsignificancecannotbethesubjectofforgery;e.g.,aletterof introduction.Similarly,ifyoufoundanoldbookbyafamousauthorandwrotetheirsignature insidethefrontcovertomakeitlooklikeanautographededition,youwouldnotbeguiltyof forgerybecausethishassocial,andnotlegalsignificance.But,ifyouweretoselltheautographed bookatanauction,youwouldbeguiltyoffalsepretenses.

    5.IntenttodefraudThespecificstateofmindforforgerydoesnotrequireanintenttosteal,
    onlyanintenttofoolpeople.Thepersonmusthaveintendedthatotherpeopleregardsomething falseasgenuine.Aforgeryiscompleteuponhavingcreatedsuchadocumentwiththisrequisite intent.Nouseneedeverbemadeofthedocumentnordoesiteverneedtobetriedoutor circulatedbytheoffender("Possessionis9/10thsofthelaw").Thetestiswhetheranyonemight havebeendefrauded.

    ELEMENTSOFUTTERING
    Utteringaforgedinstrumentisthepassingormakinguseofaforgedwritingordocumentwith knowledgeofitsforgednature.Thisisthemoreusualpatterntochargetheoffenderwithboth forgeryandutteringbecausetheforgeryisusedtoaccomplishsomeothercrime,likefalse pretenses,someotherpropertyoffense,orsomethingassimpleaspurchasingalcoholwithafake ID.Falsificationofinformationonemploymentapplicationshasalsobeenheldtoinvolve uttering.

    1.PassingormakinguseThisisanyputtingintocirculationawritingordocumentthat
    involvesforgery.Anyformofmaterialgainmaybethemotive,butgenerallyfinancialgainisthe motive,asinthecommonpracticeofpassingabadcheck.Motiveisnotthedistinguishingfactor, however.Theremustbesomelegalsignificancetothecirculation.

    2.IntenttodefraudThisisthesameasintenttodefraudunderforgerylaw. 3.KnowledgeofforgeryThisisheldtoexisteveninthecaseofthepersonpassing
    somethingwithoutsayinganything,like"Thisisn'tmyrealname,ortheremightnotbeenough moneyinthebalancetopaythis,butcanyoucashthecheckanyway?"Inotherwords,silence (whenknowingaboutsomethingunusual)qualifiesassatisfyingthiselement.Merelyattempting tooffersomethingasgenuinewhichissuspectedtobefalsequalifiesasofferingortransferring (i.e.,uttering).

    BadchecksareperhapsthenumberonecrimeproblemintheUnitedStates.Everyday,1.3
    million"badchecks"arepassed,andthere'snowayforthelawenforcementapparatustokeep

    up.Therefore,theU.S.hasdevisedaratherunusualmixofcriminal/civillawinthisarea, allowingbusinessestolettheperson"makegood"withinacertainnumberofdays(from37 days)orelsetheyareliableforuptotripletheamountofthecheck.

    ELEMENTSOFFRAUD
    Fraudconsistsofvariousdeceitfulmeanstoconvertorpermanentlydepriveaperson,business, orgovernmentagencyofproperty,goods,orservices.Thestatutoryelementsareusuallythe sameasunderTheftLaw,althoughsomestateshaveseparatefraudstatutesthatspelloutthe actusreus(like"baitandswitch")moreprecisely.Fraudisalwaysintentional(fraudulentintent), intentionalbyappearance(constructiveintent),orintentionalbyinferencefromtheact(general intent). Theinvestigationoffraud,likepublicorderoffenses,oftenrequireslawenforcementtoengagein certainunethicalpractices,likeinfiltration,entrapment,andstingoperations.Thevarietyof fraudoffensesissometimesamazing,andconstantlygrowing.Theyalsovaryintheirlevelsof sophistication.Here'sanalphabeticallistofthemorecommonfrauds: BankfraudWhencustomersaretoldtheirsavingaccountsareinvestedinoneplace whentheyreallyareinanotherplace ConsumerfraudWhenhomeownersorshoppersaresoldservicesorgoodsthey don'treallyneed ContractfraudTakingadvantageofgovernmentprocurementprocedures, bidrigging,bribes,orkickbacks InsurancefraudFalselyclaiminglost,damaged,orstolenpropertyinordertoreceive insurancesettlements MailfraudUseoftheU.S.mailsforfraudulentpurposes PyramidSchemefraudMultilevelmarketingploysinwhichemployeesmustrecruit otherinvestorsoremployees StockMarketfraudInsidetradingorinvestmentinstartupstomakefortune overnightinapublicofferingthatneveroccurs TelemarketingfraudHighpressurephonecallstobuynowbeforeitstoolateor otherbargaintricks WelfarefraudReceivingbenefitswhenoneisnoteligible FOOTNOTE:WHITECOLLARCRIME [definition:]Plannedillegalorunethicalactsofdeceptioncommittedbyanindividualor organization,usuallyduringthecourseoflegitimateoccupationalactivitybypersonsofhighor respectablesocialstatus,forpersonalororganizationalgainthatviolatesfiduciaryresponsibility

    orpublictrust.(ProceedingsoftheAcademicWorkshop1996;Morgantown,WV:NationalWhiteCollarCrime
    Center)

    Thistablegivesanoverviewof"sophisticated"(Albanese1999)crimes: Conspiracy: WhiteCollar Crimesagainst Thefts: PublicAdmin: Bribery, perjury, obstructionof justice Regulatory Offenses: Labor,trade, manufacture, environment violations CyberCrimes: Damage, alteration, threats,theft Organized Crime: Illicitservices, infiltration

    Crimesof Embezzle planningand ment, organiz. extortion, forgery,fraud

    INTERNETRESOURCES CrimeBite(CheckFraud)HomePage EconomicCrimePreventionWebPage NASDSecuritiesRegulationHomePage NationalFraudInformationCenter NationalWhiteCollarCrimeCenter PreventionandDetectionofBusinessCrime ReportingOnlineConsumerFraud PRINTEDRESOURCES Albanese,J.(1999)CriminalJustice.Boston:Allyn&Bacon. Gardner,T.&T.Anderson(1996)CriminalLaw.Minneapolis:West. Samaha,J.(1999)CriminalLaw.Belmont,CA:West/Wadsworth. Skelton,D.(1998)ContemporaryCriminalLaw.Boston:ButterworthHeinemann. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    CRIMESAGAINSTPUBLICORDER&MORALS
    Crimesagainstpublicorderandmoralsareintendedtoupholdminimumstandardsofdecency andcivility.Mostofthemhaveancientroots,butinmoderntimeshavecometobeassociated witheffortstoimprovethequalityoflife,asinwatchmanstylecommunitypolicing.Therangeof behaviorsthatqualityoflifelawsgovernisvastfrompublicnuisances,topublicindecencies,to publicimmoralities,tocontrolledsubstanceuse.Theyareusuallygeneralintentcrimeswherethe inferenceofintent(purposely,knowingly,recklessly)istypicallymadebyajudgmentof offensivenesstosomereasonableperson'ssensibilities.Inothercases,likethoseinvolving substanceabuse,theyareusuallystrictliabilitycrimes.

    PUBLICNUISANCES
    Thecrimeof"makingapublicnuisance"istypicallydefinedasanoffenseagainst,orinterfering with,thecomfortableenjoymentoflifeorpropertybyaneighborhoodorconsiderablenumberof people.Thelawinthisregardisoftenaimedatcontrollingunlawfulcongregationsand assemblies.TheFirstAmendmentrighttoassemblyisnotabsolute. Undercommonlaw,anunlawfulassemblyisagatheringofthree(3)ormorepersonsforany unlawfulpurposeorundersuchcircumstancesastoendangerthepublicpeaceorcausealarm andapprehension.Thefullsetofrelatedcrimesincreaseinseriousnessasthenumberofpeople goup: Affray2ormorepeoplespontaneouslyquarrelingorfighting Duelingorfighting2ormorepeoplegatheringforafight;withduelingreservedfor personsofhighsocialstatus Unlawfulassembly3ormorepeople,foranyunlawfulpurpose RoutWhenunlawfulassemblersmovetowardaplacewheretheycouldcarryoutany unlawfulpurposeorplan Riot10ormorepeople,andanytumultuousdisturbance(tumultuousisawordwith manymeaningsnoisy,disorderly,excited,rowdy,unruly,wild,hysterical,frantic, uproarious,chaotic) Anothercommonnuisancecrimeisbreachofpeace,commonlycalled"disturbingthepeace"or disorderlyconduct.Disturbingthepeaceusuallyinvolvesminoroffensesinvolvingnoiseat decibelsgreaterthan85;suchasplayingastereotooloudly.Disorderlyconduct,ontheother hand,caninvolveawiderangeofbehaviors,suchas: fighting,threatening,orengagingintumultuousbehavior loud,unreasonablenoisesthatwoulddisturbasensibleperson vulgarwordsorgestureslikelytoprovokeaviolentreaction obstructingapublicaccessrouteorconveyance

    interferingwithalawfulmeeting,procession,orgathering creatingachemicallynoxiousandunreasonableodor lasciviouslookingintothewindoworopeningofadwelling exposingone'sanusorgenitalstotheviewofothers urinatingordefecatinginanyplaceopentopublicview Oftenacityorstategovernmentwillusepublicnuisancelawstocontrolgangbehavior.Other statesrelyuponorganizedcrimestatutes.Harshpenaltiesexistforencouragingminorstojoina gangandaggravatingfactorsexistforgangrelatedfelonies.Thefollowingisasampleofpublic nuisancelawsaimedatthecrimeofengagingingangactivities: confronting,intimidating,annoying,harassing,threatening,challenging,provoking,or assaultinganyresidentsorpatronsingroupsof3ormore standing,sitting,walking,driving,orgatheringwithanyknowngangmember usingwords,phrases,gestures,clothing,orsymbolscommonlyknownasgangsigns usingorpossessingpagersorbeepersinamannertendingtoindicateparticipationinthe possessionand/orsaleofnarcotics usingorpossessingmarkerpens,spraypaint,orotherobjectscapableofdefacing property approachinganyvehicles,engaginginconversationwiththeoccupantsofanyvehiclesand doingnothingtopreventtheobstructionordelayofvehicularorpedestriantraffic possessinganyweaponscapableofinflictingseriousbodilyinjury trespassingorencouragingotherstotrespass blockingfreeaccessoregresstosidewalks,streets,driveways,ordoorways signalingtooractingasalookouttowarnothersofpoliceapproach Tobesure,manyjurisdictionsprefernottoevenrecognizegangactivitybymakingalegaloffense aboutit.Gangsoftenthriveonarenegadestatusbestoweduponthembytheadversepublicityof lawenforcementcrackdowns.Therefore,manyjurisdictionsprefertoincorporatetheabovegang activityindicatorsintocivilabatementstatutes.Thisinvolvesusingcourtorderedinjunctions tocommandagrouptostopdoingsomething,orbeheldincontempt. Useofcivilabatementhasadvantagesforothertypesofpublicnuisancesrelatedtopublichealth concerns,suchas: Closingdownbars,bathhouses,andtheaterswherehighrisksexualactivitieshavebeen observed(AIDSvirusbreedinggroundlaws) Quarantineofplacesandpersonsassociatedwithunsafesexpractices,suchas"perhour" hotelsandprostitutes(mandatorytestinglaws)

    Regulationandrezoningofadultbookstores(urbanblightlaws) Bulldozingcrackhouses(condemnedpropertylaws)

    PUBLICINDECENCIES
    Forcenturies,vagrancyandloiteringlawshavebeenusedtoprotectsocietyagainstthemoral pestilenceofvagabonds,paupers,andbeggarsjustasifsocietywasguardingitselfagainst physicalpestilence.Thecrimeofvagrancyiscommittedbywanderingaboutfromplacetoplace withoutanyvisiblemeansofsupport,refusingtoworkeventhoughabletodoso,andlivingoff thecharityofothers.Vagrancylawsaremuchbroaderthandisorderlyconductlaws.Somestates usethetermloiteringratherthanvagrancy,whichisoftendefinedasbeinginaplace,atatime, andinamannernotusualforlawabidingindividuals,andundercircumstancesthatwarrant alarmforthesafetyofpersonsorpropertyinthevicinity. Mostvagrancyandloiteringlaws(withtheexceptionofcurfewandtruancylaws)havebeenheld voidforvagueness.Theyalsotendtomakethestatusofbeingpooracrime.Accordingtothe equalprotectionclauseoftheConstitution,thingswiththeprotectionofstatusarenotactsthat canbecriminalized.Indecencylawsthatremainonthebooksarealwaysatriskofinfringing uponastatusgroup,butsomethathavenotyetbeendeclaredunconstitutionalare: AbuseofanimalsManystates,likeNorthCarolina,havealargenumberofcrimes againstnaturestatutes.Mostoftheseareforabusesagainstanimalsand/orprotectingthe petsofone'sneighbors. AbuseofcorpseThisisthecrimeoftreatingacorpseinanywaythatwouldoutrage familysensibilities.Mostcemeterycrimeisalsocoveredby"desecrationofvenerated objects"lawswhichallowtheelementofoutrageagainstthesensibilitiesofanyonelikelyto observeordiscovertheactions. AppearingnudeinpublicThisistheprototypicalpublicindecency.Somestates requireitbe"lewd"or"suggestive"whichmeansobscenedisplayofgenitalia. PanhandlingorbeggingBlanketprohibitionsagainsttheseactsarenot constitutional;prohibitionsagainstaggressivepanhandlingare.Abelligerent,angry panhandlerwhofollowsapersonwhohasrefusedtogivemoneywouldbeanexampleof aggressivepanhandling.Courtshavealsoupheld"unfriendly"panhandlingasaggressive. PublicintoxicationTheCourtshaveruledthatchronicalcoholanddrugaddiction areacts,notstatuses.Somestates,however,haveruledthatjailingdrunksviolatesthe stateconstitution.Otherstatesmaintainthecriminalstatutebutemphasizetreatmentor rehabilitation. SleepinginpublicThishasbeenchallengedonthegroundsthathomelessnessisa statusdeservingofstrictscrutinyunderequalprotectionanalysisasafundamentalright totravelasoneseesfit.Theissueholdsaprecariouspositioninthecourts,somost jurisdictionsusedisorderlyconductorcivilabatementwiththeirhomelessproblems.

    UrinatinginpublicThisisacrimethatisenforcedwithdiscretion,beingtoleratedin somerundownpartsoftownandnotinothers.

    PUBLICIMMORALITIES
    Mostjurisdictionshopetoregulatepublicimmoralitiestosomeextent,buttheycommonlyfall backonsimplyprohibitingsomethingandthenfailingtoenforcetheirprohibitions.Thismeans thattherearetolerated"vice"zonesinmostAmericancities,andalsoproblemsinherentwith "unenforceable"lawsthaterodelegalityandlegitimacy.Mostofthecrimesinthisareaare privateandconsensual.Theyarecriminalnotbecausethere'sa"victim"intheusualsense,but becausethevolitionalbehaviorofbothpartiestothecrimeoffendssocietalnotionsofmorality. Crimesinthisareatendtofallintotwomaincategories:(1)regulationofmaritalstatusand sexualbehavior;and(2)regulationofsexrelatedvice. REGULATIONOFMARITALSTATUS&SEXUALBEHAVIOR

    AdulteryandFornicationinvolvedthesameactofsexualintercoursewhenbeingoutof
    wedlock,theformeroffensewhenatleastoneofthepartnersismarried.Prosecutionofthese crimesissorareastomakethelawsnonexistent.

    Bigamylawprohibitsapersonfromhavingmorethanonespouseatthesametime.Moststates
    allowagoodfaithexceptionifitwasbelievedapreviousspousewasdeadorapreviousmarriage dissolved.Nomensreaisrequiredforthisoffense.MuslimsandMormonshavehistorically practicedpolygamy,buttheformerusuallydonotdosointheU.S.andauthoritiesaresometimes reluctanttoprosecutethelatter.

    BuggeryorBestialityisanytypeofsexualintercoursewithananimal,or,insomestates,anal
    intercoursewithamanorwomen.

    Cohabitationrequiresnoproofofsexualintercourse.It'sjust"livingtogether"outsideof
    wedlock.It'stheleastprosecutedpublicordercrime.

    Incestlawprohibitssexualintercoursebetweenamaleandafemalewhoaretoocloselyrelated.
    Typically,anyrelationship(orconsanguinity)ofbeingfirstcousinsorcloserisincludedasincest. Thelawtendstobaserelationshiponfamilyties,notgeneticties.Therefore,adoptedand"step" relativesareincluded.

    Miscegenationistheintermarriage(andinsomestateslivingtogether)ofpersonsofdifferent
    races,generallywhiteandblack.AllsuchstatuteshavebeenstruckdownbytheSupremeCourt.

    Sodomyhastraditionallybeenacatchalltermforany"unnatural"sexualintercourse,and
    similarly,foranytypeofhomosexualactivity.Somestateshaveabolishedtheirsodomystatutes, andinthosestateswheretheyarestillonthebooks,questionsaboutdiscriminationagainst homosexualsremain.

    REGULATIONOFSEXRELATEDVICEBEHAVIOR

    ProstitutionislegalinpartsofNevada,butillegal(althoughtolerated)throughouttherestof
    theU.S.,especiallyincertain"vicezones"wheresomecommunitieshaveapproachedthe problembychargingprostituteswithtrespassiffoundoutsidethetoleratedareas.Prostitution lawsvary,asdodefinitionsoftheterm"prostitute". Thetypicalelementsofprostitutionare:

    1.OfferingtoengageorsolicitinginThisisanyofferofagreement,orinthecaseof
    soliciting,gettinganothertomaketheofferofagreement.

    2.AnysexualcontactThisgenerallyincludesanykindofcontactwiththegenitals;it's
    questionablefromaconstitutionalstandpointifselfmasturbation(asinpeepshow)constitutes prostitution.

    3.ForafeeThisisgenerallyaccomplishedbyexchangeofmoney. Obscenitylawsareenforcedwithvariablesuccess,andareunofficiallytoleratedifkeptwithin
    certain"vicezones"wheresomecommunitieshaveapproachedtheproblembymanipulating zoningordinancesandbusinesspermits.TheSupremeCourtinrecentyearshasbeenaccepting numerousobscenitycases,andtheCommunicationsDecencyActof1996doublesthepenaltiesif computersareusedtotransmitchildpornography,amongotherthings. Thetypicalelementsofobscenityare:

    1.AveragepersonThisisthereasonablemanstandard. 2.ApplyingcontemporarycommunitystandardsThisreferstolocalnormsaboutwhat
    ispatentlyoffensive.Thematerialorperformancemust,asawhole,lackseriousliterary,artistic, political,andscientificvalue.

    3.AppealtoprurientinterestinsexThismeansthatthere'saonesided,almostobsessive,
    fascinationwithsex.Generally,thisinvolvesmasturbation,excretoryfunctions,sadism, masochism,lewddepictionsofgenitalia,genitaliainastateofarousalorturgidstate,ordepiction ofadevicedesignedprimarilyforgenitalstimulation.

    CONTROLLEDSUBSTANCES
    Thefederalgovernmentandall50stateshavecontrolledsubstanceactsthatarequiteuniformin nature.Undersuchlaws,it'sacrimetodoanyofthefollowing: manufactureordeliveracontrolledsubstance possessacontrolledsubstance possesswithintenttomanufactureordeliver create,deliver,orpossesswithintenttodeliveracounterfeit offeroragreetodeliverandthendeliversomethingnotasubstance

    keepadwellingorpropertyresortedtobypersonsusingsubstances acquirepossessionofasubstancebymisrepresentationordeception Somestatesfollowa"traceamount"rulewhichdoesn'trequiretheamounttobeusable;other statesfollowa"usableamount"rule.Possessioncanbeeitheractualorconstructive(ifwithinan accessibleareaofcontrol).Intenttodeliverisdeterminedbythequantityofdrugs(and,among otherthings,ifbaggiesarepresentandanylistsofcustomers).Deliveryisgenerallythetransfer ofdrugsfromasuppliertoadealerordistributor,andfromadealerordistributortoauser. Possessionisusuallyamisdemeanorwhiledeliveryisusuallyafelony. INTERNETRESOURCES: AGuidedTouroftheWaronDrugs Ain'tNobody'sBusinessifYouDo PanhandlingandAggressivePanhandling SanFranciscoTaskForceonProstitution SummaryofKeyObscenityCases PRINTEDRESOURCES: Gardner,T.&T.Anderson(1996)CriminalLaw.Minneapolis:West. Reid,S.(1998)CriminalLaw.Boston:McGrawHill. Samaha,J.(1999)CriminalLaw.Belmont,CA:West/Wadsworth. Skelton,D.(1998)ContemporaryCriminalLaw.Boston:ButterworthHeinemann. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    CRIMESAGAINSTGOVERNMENT ANDTHEADMINISTRATIONOFJUSTICE
    Crimesagainstthegovernmentareinfamouscrimes(withoutfameorgoodreport),and undercommonlaw,peoplecommittingsuchcrimeshavenotevenhavetherighttodefend themselvesattrial(a"firingsquad"offense).TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates(Article3, Section3)doesnotspecificallyruleoutorruleintherighttorepresentation,butitdoestalk abouttreason(andattemptingtooverthrowthegovernment)asabreachofallegianceandthe

    mostaggravated,seriousfelonythatonecouldcommit.TerrorismagainsttheUnitedStatesis anothersuchoffense.Thepurposeofthecriminallawinthisareaistoprotecttheinnocentand preservethepoliticalprocessofrepresentativedemocracyandfreeelections. Crimesagainstjustice,ontheotherhand,arecommonlawmisdemeanorsthatwould hinder,corrupt,orimpedethefunctioningofthejudicialbranchofgovernment.Crimessuchas bribery,subornationofperjury,andtamperingwithwitnessesorevidencearetypical

    examples,butthentherearecrossovercrimes,liketaxevasion,wheretaxessupportnotonlythe judicialbranch,butthewholegovernment.Theaimofthecriminallawistocriminalize subversionofthesystem.Bothcrimesagainstgovernmentandagainstjustice,withtheexception

    oftreason,areusuallygeneralintentcrimeswheretheactionsspeakfor,orallowtheinferenceof, culpability.

    CRIMESAGAINSTGOVERNMENT
    Overtheyears,theUnitedStateshashadnumerouslawsrelatingtotreason;e.g.,numerous AlienandSeditionActs.TheseditionlawnowineffectistheSmithActof1940whichwasmade bindingonthegovernmentin1956bytheSupremeCourt.TheSmithAct,likeallpreviousActs inthisarea,hasbeenbothnarrowlyandbroadlyinterpretedinguidingwhoorwhatthe governmentcaninvestigateandprosecute,asthefollowingtableillustrates: Narrowinterpretation: Broadinterpretation:

    1.Advocatingtheforcefuloverthrowofthe 1.Anyof(1),(2),or(3)inthecolumnto U.S.government theleft 2.Distributingwithdisloyalintent 2.Activitiesofanyonewhomight materialsteachingoradvisingtheforceful reasonablybeexpectedtouseforceor overthrowoftheU.S.government violenceagainsttheU.S.government(as 3.Organizingorhelpinganygrouphaving opposedtothosewhomerelyadvocateit) apurposein(1)or(2) ELEMENTSOFTREASON

    1.BreachofallegianceThepersonmustoweanallegiancetotheUnitedStates.Theymust
    becitizens,naturalizedaliens(permanentimmigrants),or"nationals"(Samoa,Hawaii,Puerto Rico)andnotaliens,ontemporaryvisas,orforeignnationalswhomayresideintheU.S.Thetest iswhetherornotapersonowesanallegiancetotheU.S.governmentforanyprotectiontheymay receive,notwhethertheyareacitizenorresident.

    2.OvertactofbetrayalThepersonmustcommitsomeovertact,whichisgenerallydefined
    asany"material"aidorcomforttotheenemy.Simplythinkingdisloyalthoughtsisnottreason. Wordssometimesqualify;justas"fighting"wordsarenotprotectedbythe1stAmendment,so are"treasonous"wordspunishableunderArticle3,Section3andmoststateconstitutions.

    3.IntenttobetrayThisisaspecificmensreaelementwhichrequiresthatthegovernment
    showthepersonengagedintheequivalentofpurposelyknowing.It'snotexactlyexpressedthis way,butArticle4,Section2oftheConstitutionprohibitsconvictionfortreasonunlessthe governmentcancallatleasttwo(2)witnesseswhocantestifyastointentortheoffenderconfesses inopencourt. Othercrimesrelatedtotreasoninclude: EspionageThisisthecrimeofspyingorbeingapartytospying.Therearevarious motives,butthemostcommonpatternissaleofsecretsformoney.Espionageactscanalso involvethedestructionofgovernmentrecords,obstructionofaccesstogovernment buildings,ordisruptionofgovernmentfunctioning.

    InsurrectionAlsocalledrebellion;thisinvolvesarmingoneselforone'sgrouptothe pointthatmakesitcreatesareasonableexpectationthatforceorviolencewouldbeused againsttheU.S.government. MutinyThisistheoffenseofunlawfullytakingovercommandoftheU.S.government, anypartoftheU.S.government,oranypartofthearmedforces. SabotageThisisdamagingortamperingwithanynationaldefensematerialor nationaldefenseutilities.Disgruntledworkersatdefensedepartmentairplanefactories whorecklesslyleavelooseboltsonequipmenthavebeenconvictedofthis. SeditionThisisanycommunicationintendedtostiruptreasonorrebellionagainstthe government.Controversyexistsinthisareawiththecrimesofflagburningandother formsofunprotectedfreespeech. SubversionThisisthecrimeofengaginginsubversiveactivities,whichisoftena matteroffreespeechgoneoverboardortransmittingblatantlyfalseinformationinhopes ofhelpingtheenemy(seeTitle18excerptbelow). SyndicalismThisisthecrimeoforganizingapoliticalpartyorgroupadvocatingthe violentoverthrowoftheU.S.government. TerrorismThisisthesystematicuseofviolenceorthreatsofviolencetointimidateor coercethegovernmentorwholesocietiesbytargetinginnocentnoncombatants. UNITEDSTATESCODETITLE18CRIMESANDCRIMINALPROCEDUREPARTI CRIMESCHAPTER115TREASON,SEDITION,ANDSUBVERSIVEACTIVITIES Section2388. Activitiesaffectingarmedforcesduringwar (a)Whoever,whentheUnitedStatesisatwar,willfullymakesorconveysfalsereportsorfalse statementswithintenttointerferewiththeoperationorsuccessofthemilitaryornavalforcesof theUnitedStatesortopromotethesuccessofitsenemies;orWhoever,whentheUnitedStatesis atwar,willfullycausesorattemptstocauseinsubordination,disloyalty,mutiny,orrefusalofduty, inthemilitaryornavalforcesoftheUnitedStates,orwillfullyobstructstherecruitingor enlistmentserviceoftheUnitedStates,totheinjuryoftheserviceortheUnitedStates,or attemptstodosoShallbefinedunderthistitleorimprisonednotmorethantwentyyears,or both.

    COUNTERFEITING
    Themakingoffalsemoney,bonds,postagestamps,andpostalmoneyorders,whetherornot forpersonaluse,isthecrimeofcounterfeiting.Likeforgery,there'saseparateoffensecalled "uttering"forpassingcounterfeitdocuments.Counterfeitingisgenerallyregardedasa governmentthreatbecause,intimesofwar,enemiesoftendroplargeamountsofcounterfeit moneyintotheothercountryinanattempttodestroytheireconomy.

    TAXEVASION
    Drugdealers,gangsters,spies,andotherorganizedcriminalsoftenlivelavishly,andtodothis, theymust"launder"dirtymoneyinordertomakeitlooklikea"legitimate"sourceofincome. Theymustthenpaytaxesontheirdeclaredincomes,buttheIRSusesa"networth"methodof determiningtaxevasionwhichordinarilycatchesmostcases,eventhebestmoneylaundering schemes.Taxevasionandfraudarecrimesbecausethegovernmentneedsmoneytooperate.

    CRIMESAGAINSTTHEADMIN.OFJUSTICE
    Thereareanumberoflawsintendedtoprotectthejudicialsystem.Themostcommonformof prohibitedbehaviorinthiscategoryisresistingarrest(whichinvolvespoliceofficersactingin

    thejudicialcapacityofbringingadefendantintothejudicialsystem,orescape,iffromalawful detention).Theoldercommonlawoffense(fromwhichresistingarrestsprungfrom)is obstructionofjustice.Statestatutessometimeslistdozensofdifferentwaystoobstructjustice, butthemostcommonwaysareto"frame"someonebyplantingevidenceor"fix"someone's problembywithholding,destroying,orremovingevidence.Relatedtoobstructingjusticearetwo (2)crimesofkeepingsilent: CompoundingacrimeAcrimeis"compounded"whenthevictimagreestonot prosecuteforavaluableconsiderationfromtheoffender.It'sthesameaswithholding evidence,butinreturnforreceivingsomethingofvaluefromtheoffender,evenifit'sjust thestolenpropertyback.Usually,onlyseriousmisdemeanorsorfeloniescanbe compounded. MisprisionoffelonyThisisanold(hueandcry)failuretoreportacrimeifoneisa witnessorvictimtoit.Modernstatutesrequire,inadditiontoafailuretodisclose,some positiveactofconcealment,suppressionofevidence,harboringofafelon,orintimidation ofwitnesses.

    ELEMENTSOFPERJURY
    Perjuryisthewillfultakingofafalseoathinajudicialproceedinginregardtomaterialmatter atissuebeforethecourt.Theessentialelementsare:

    1.WillfultakingoffalseoathAn"oath"orsomeotherformofoathallowedatlaw,isan
    essentialelement.Thereasonsarehistorical.Throughouthistory,perjurywasaminor misdemeanorbecausethesupernaturalconsequencesoflyingunderoathwereconsideredmore severethanwhateverthelawcoulddotoaperson.

    2.JudicialproceedingHistorically,thecrimeofperjurycouldonlybecommittedinopen
    court,butstateshaveexpandedittoincludeaffidavits,depositions,testimony,andstatementsin otherproceedings.

    3.MaterialmatteratissueThepersonmustlieaboutasubjectthathasasignificant
    outcomeattrial.Thesignificantoutcomedoesn'thavetobeguiltorinnocence,butitmustbe

    morethansocialsignificance,suchaslyingaboutyourageorplaceofbirth.

    4.[Generalorconstructiveintent]Thepersonneednotknowpositivelythattheir
    statementisfalse.Itissufficientifproventheyaremerelyuncertainabouttheirstatement,but wentaheadanywayandmadethestatement.It'samatterofdeterminingifthepersoncaredor didnotcareabouttellingthetruth.Undercommonlaw,therequirementwasthattwo(2) witnesseswereneededtosupporttheintenttocommitperjury,butmodernlawallowsasingle witnesspluscircumstantialevidence,orcircumstantialevidencealone.

    SUBORNATIONOFPERJURY
    Procuringorinducinganothertocommitthecrimeofperjuryissubornationofperjury. Thesubornermustknowthatthetestimonytobegivenisfalseandthatapersonwouldwillingly andknowinglytestifyfalsely.Crimesthataresomewhatrelatedtosubornationare: Embracerywrongfulinfluencingofjurors Barretrystirringuplawsuitsbetweenpeople Champertywrongfullyinducingapersontobringalawsuit

    ELEMENTSOFBRIBERY
    Briberyisthetender(orreceipt)ofanythingofvalueto(by)apublicofficeholderwiththe intentthatthepublicofficeholderwillbeinfluencedintheperformanceofhis/herofficialduties. Inadditiontobribery,publicofficerholderscanbeadditionallychargedwithconflictof

    interest(personallyprofitingfromoffice)and/orcriminalmisconduct(whereapplicable).
    It'salsoacrimetofailtoreportabribe.

    1.Tender(orreceipt)Atlaw,itdoesn'tmatterhowsomethingofvalueistransferredoreven
    ifanythingisexchangedatall.Making,giving,oracceptingabribeareallthesame.There'sno suchthingasattemptedbribery.

    2.AnythingofvalueThelawdoesn'teventrytodefinethislooseterm;generally,anything
    willsuffice.

    3.PublicofficeholderSomestateswillspecifytheexactofficeholdersthatcanbeinvolved
    inbribery;otherstatesidentifycertainlegalcategories(legislators,judges,jurors,law enforcementofficers);otherstatesincludecorporateofficers,athletes,etc.);andstillotherstates justrefertoanyone,publicorprivate,thathasinfluenceoveranything. 4. [Generalorconstructiveintent]Althoughthedefinitionofbriberyspellsoutan intenttoinfluencetheperformanceofpublicoffice,becausesomestateshavewatered downthe"public"officerequirement,ageneralintent(inferredfromtheactofbribery) toinfluenceisusuallythecase.Somestates,however,requirea"mutual"intentbetween twoparties.

    5.

    ELEMENTSOFCONTEMPT
    Contemptisthewillfuldisregardoftheauthorityofacourtorlegislativebody.Anythingthat frustratesthedignityoftheseinstitutionscanbeheldincontempt.Contemptofalegislativebody typicallyoccursbyprotestersoutsideofCapitolHillwhentheyintimidatewitnessescalledto testifybeforeCongressionalcommittees.Allordersandjudgmentsofacourtmustbecomplied withpromptly.Apersoncanappeal,butabsentastay[ofjudgment],thepersonmuststillcomply eveniftheyhaveappealed.Ifapersonisobstinateenough,theymaybeheldincriminal contempt,whichisaformofpunishment."Civil"contemptisusedtocompelpeopletodothings untiltheydoit.

    1.WillfuldisregardThereisnocontemptunlessthereissomesortofwillfuldisregard,some
    degreeofintentionalwrongdoing.Fallingasleepincourtorbeinglateforreasonsnotyourown, forexample,cannotbesubjecttocontempt.Failuretopayafine,forbeingunableor unemployed,isnotadefensetocontempt.

    2.[Generalintentdirectcontempt]Directcontemptoccursinfullviewofopencourtor
    thelegislativebody.Itmaybepunishedsummarily,meaningthere'snoopportunityforahearing aboutit.AnexamplewouldbewhenLarryFlyntstartedshoutingobscenitiesathistrial.The generalruleisthattheremustbeapersonalattackonatrialjudgeintheformofavicious slanderorangryinsult.Isolatedusesofstreetvernacular,like"chickenshit",havenotbeenheld sufficienttosupportcontemptcharges.

    3.[Constructiveintentindirectcontempt]Indirectcontemptoccursoutofthepresence
    orhearingofacourtorlegislativebody.Apersonsochargedisentitledtoahearingonitbefore submittingtopunishmentforit. INTERNETRESOURCES: AShortHistoryofPerjury CenterforDemocracyandTechnology CenterforNationalSecurityStudies TheLiteralTruthDefensetoPerjury NorthCarolinaProcedureonCrimesAgainstJustice TerrorismLaw&CriminalProcedure(UK) USDept.ofState:BureauofDiplomaticSecurity PRINTEDRESOURCES: Gardner,T.&T.Anderson(1996)CriminalLaw.Minneapolis:West. Samaha,J.(1999)CriminalLaw.Belmont,CA:West/Wadsworth. Skelton,D.(1998)ContemporaryCriminalLaw.Boston:ButterworthHeinemann. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    CIVILLIABILITY
    SuingthegovernmentisthesecondmostpopularindoorsportinAmerica,andpoliceareoften thetargetsoflawsuits,withover30,000civilactionsfiledagainstthemeveryyear,between48% ofthemresultinginanunfavorableverdict,wheretheaveragejuryawardis$2million.Thisisn't evencountingthehundredsofcasessettledthruoutofcourtsettlements,whichprobablyrunsin thehundredsofmillionsandinvolvesabouthalfofallcasesfiled.Itmaytakeuptofiveyearsto settleapoliceliabilitycase. Whenpolicefailtoperformtheirduties,performthemnegligently,orabusetheirauthority, thepossibilityofcivilliabilityexists.Unlikecriminalcases,liabilitycasesaretriedincivilcourt. It'scommontonameeveryoneassociatedwiththeinjuryordamageasthedefendant(officers, supervisors,agencies,eventhegovernmententity)inordertoreachthe"deeppockets".Chances arethehigherupswillhavetheabilitytopaylargerawardseitherpersonallyorbyraisingtaxes. Therearetwo(2)waystosuethepolice.One,thelawsuitmaybefiledinstatecourtasatort

    lawclaim.Thisisthepreferredmethodsincetortscanonlybesettledbymoneyawardsandthe
    standardofproofispreponderanceoftheevidence,astandardmuchlowertoconvictthanina criminalcase.Two,thelawsuitmaybefiledinfederalcourtasaviolationofTitle42oftheUnited StatesCode,Section1983.Thisisreferredtoasacivilrightsclaim,andisessentiallyacharge thatsomeonehashadtheirconstitutionalrightsviolated.Statescannotbesuedinacivilrights claim,butmunicipalitiesandsheriffscanbesuediftheyare(a)actingundercolorofstatelaw, and(b)violatingaspecificAmendmentrightintheConstitution.Thestandardsunderfederal lawarecustomorpolicy,anddeliberateindifference,aratherpoorlydefinedconceptwhichis similartototalityofcircumstances.Althoughfederallawsuitscanresultinmoneyawards,the amountisusuallylesssincethemainpurposeistowinandgettheagencytochangethewayit operates;i.e.,obtaininjunctiverelief. STATE(TORT)LIABILITYLAW Therearethreetypesoftortsunderstatelaw,eachwithdifferentlevelsofproofandfocusing upondifferentelementsoftheinjuryordamage.Evidencerules,precedent,andjudicial discretionplayaroleindeterminingwhattypeoftortlawwillbeapplied. STRICTLIABILITYInthiscase,theinjuryordamageissosevereandit'sreasonablycertain thattheharmcouldhavebeenforeseenthatthelawdispenseswiththeneedtoproveintentor mentalstate.Theonlyissueiswhethertheofficerordepartmentshouldpaythemoneyaward, andsinceofficersdon'tusuallyhaveanymoney,thedepartmentalmostalwayspays.(Examples: recklessoperationofvehicle;excessiveSWATtactics) INTENTIONALTORTInthiscase,theofficer'sintentmustbeproven,usingaforeseeability testinvolvingwhetherornottheofficerknowinglyengagedinbehaviorthatwassubstantially certaintobringaboutinjury.(Examples:wrongfuldeath;assault;falsearrest;false imprisonment) NEGLIGENCEInthiscase,intentormentalstatedonotmatter.Whatmattersiswhether someinadvertentactorfailuretoactcreatedanunreasonablerisktoanothermemberofsociety.

    (Examples:speedingresultingintrafficaccident;notrespondingto911call)Moststateshave threelevelsofnegligence:(1)slightormere(absenceofforesight);(2)gross(recklessdisregard); and(3)criminal.Tobeprosecutedundertortlawfornegligenceusuallyrequiresatleastlevel2 sincetobeprosecutedformerenegligencerequiresconsideringforeseeabilitywhichwould supportchargingthepersonwithanintentionaltortornot. Thereareadditionaldetailsofstatetortliabilityassociatedwithspecifictypesoflawsuits,such as: WrongfuldeathThesearetypicallycaseswhentheofficerthinksasuspectisreaching foraweapon,shootsthesuspect,andthennoweaponisfoundonthesuspect.Courtshave ruledthatthetotalityofcircumstancesmustbelookedat,especiallythereasonwhythe suspectcameintocontactwiththeofficerinthefirstplace.Merelyallegingthatasuspect appearedtobereachingforaweaponisnodefense. Assault&BatteryApoliceassaultwouldbeifaninterrogatorthreatenstothrowa suspectoutasecondfloorwindow;apolicebatteryis(paradoxically)definedmoreloosely asanyoffensivecontactwithoutconsent;e.g.,amaleofficerperforminganillegalsearch ofafemaleoverherprotests. FalsearrestTheunlawfulrestraintofaperson'slibertywithouttheirconsent;e.g., usingthecagedareaofapatrolcarasaholdingarea,severalofficerssurrounding somebody,ororderingsomeonetoremainatthestationcouldallbeinterpretedasfalse arrest. FalseimprisonmentThisisdifferentfromfalsearrestinthatanofficermayhavehad probablecausetoarrest,butlaterviolatescertainpretrialrights,suchasaccesstoajudge orbondsman. HOTPURSUITS:Thishighliabilityareatypicallyinvolvesrecklessornegligent operationofamotorvehicle.It'salsotypicallyastrictliabilityarea,andherearesome oftheactsusedbythecourtstoinferintentorstateofmind:notusingflashers& sirens;notconsideringalternativetochase;usingold,beatuppolicecars;excessive disregardoftrafficcontroldevices;notsecuringthechasepath;notwarningthe public;usingcutoffmaneuvers&roadblocksthatcreatethepossibilityfor overreaction;notstoppingtoassistanyinnocentinjuredbystanders.Thedutiesare threefold:Towarn&protect;Tosecurethescene;Torenderassistance. FEDERALLIABILITYLAW Twoelementshavetobepresentsimultaneouslyunderfederalliabilitylaw.Ifapersonlosesin federalcourt,theystillhaverecourseunderstatelaw. ACTINGUNDERCOLOROFLAWThismeansthatthebehaviorofofficersnotrelatedto employmentarenotactionable.Itdoesnotmeanthatoffdutyofficerscannotbesued.Anofficer moonlightinginasecurityjobcanbeheldliablesincetheyareactingundercoloroflawin performingapolicefunction.And,itsoundslikeacontradiction,butpolicebehaviorthatis clearlyillegalandviolatesdepartmentalprocedure,likebeatingupacitizen,isregardedbythe

    courtasactingundercoloroflaw. VIOLATIONOFACONSTITUTIONALRIGHTTheseinvolvewhateverthecourtbelievesto bespecificallyprohibitedconductregardingfreedomofreligion,speech,press,orassembly(1st Amendment),freedomfromunreasonablesearchandseizure(4thAmendment),freedomfrom doublejeopardyandselfincrimination(5thAmendment),rightstoaspeedy,public,impartial jurytrial,andtobeinformedofthecharges,confrontandcompelwitnesses,andtohave assistanceofcounsel(6thAmendment);freedomfromexcessivebail,fines,andcruelandunusual punishments(8thAmendment);andfreedomfromdeprivationsoflife,liberty,orproperty withoutdueprocess(14thAmendment). TheleadingcaseinpolicedepartmentliabilityunderfederallawisMonellv.Dept.ofSocial Services(1978).Underthisruling,itmustbeshownthatthedepartmentadoptedorpromulgated (howeverinformal)a"custom"orpolicythatwasthedrivingforcebehindtheofficer'sviolation ofconstitutionalrights.Inessence,thisisthedoctrineofrespondeatsuperior,sinceapolicymaker (or"custommaker")hastobefoundtodeclarethedepartmentliable.A"pattern"of constitutionalviolationsandanawarenessofthembyhighrankingofficialsmustbe demonstrated.However,thereisprecedentholdingdepartmentsaccountableforonesingleactas fulfilling"pattern"requirement. Examplesofgrossnegligenceoraccumulationsofmerenegligenceconstitutedeliberate

    indifference.Thisstandardisusuallysatisfiedbylookingatwhetherornottheagency

    administrationengagedinsupervisorynegligence.Virtuallyeverydecisionapoliceadministrator makessubjectsthemtopossibleliability.Thefollowingareexamplesofsupervisorynegligence: Negligenthiringhiringpersonsunfitforpolicework;notconductingpsychological exams;notconductingfullbackgroundchecks Negligentsupervisioninadequatemonitoringofemployeeperformance;failureto reprimandwhenappropriate;toleratingsloppypolicework;hearingrumors&notacting; beingnewtosupervisorjob Negligentretentionkeepingemployeesonthejoborpromotingthemonthebasisof favoritismorfriendshipwhentheyclearlyshouldhavebeenseverelydisciplined,demoted, ordismissed Failuretotraininadequatelypreparingemployeestoperformtheirduties;minimalor tooeasyacademytraining;littleornoinservicetraining;noeducationaltuition reimbursement Negligententrustmentinadequatelypreparingemployeespriortoentrustingthem withresponsibilities;asynergisticcombinationoffailuretotrainandnegligent supervision Negligentassignmentassigningknownproblememployeestocriticalor inappropriateduties;recklessdriverstopatrol;racistofficerstoghettoareas;sexist officerswithafemalepartner Failuretodirectnotgivingofficersclear,articulatedguidanceinhowtoperform

    theirduties;nothavingpoliciesandprocedures;havingofficers"signoff"onsame withoutunderstandingthem Failuretodisciplinenothavinganeffectivedisciplineprocess;notfollowing progressivedisciplineprinciples Failuretoinvestigatealsoaliabilityofofficers;withsupervisors,it'snothavingan effectiveInternalAffairsunit,inspectionsorintegritychecks,adifficult(forcitizens) complaintprocess,oradifficult(foremployees)grievanceprocess Failuretoprotectalsoaliabilityofofficersandjailmanagers;it'snotinspecting safetyconditions;allowingvictimsorwitnessestocomeincontactwithsuspects; (protectionofpublicisanindividualliabilityaddressedwithfailuretodirectfor supervisorsorwritofmandamus) Failuretotreatalsoaliabilityofofficersandjailmanager;notprovidingfirstaid, ambulanceservice,orcounseling(giventheforeseeabilityofsuicide) Negligentclassificationajailmanagerliability;throwingadultsinwithchildren,or dangerousinmatesinwithnondangerousones DEFENSESTOLIABILITY

    Contributorynegligencethisiswherethegovernmentshowsthattheplaintiffwasalso
    negligent,andcontributedtotheirowninjuryordamage.Nomoneyawardisgrantedifthis defenseissuccessful.

    Comparativenegligencethisiswhenthecourtdecidesonapercentagesplit(say6040)in
    termsofwhoisnegligent.Thisdefensetendstomitigate,orreducethesizeofthemoneyaward.

    Assumptionofriskthisiswhenthecourtdecidesthatthesuspectengagedinbehaviors(e.g.,
    fleeingfrompolice)thatassumedtheriskofdamagesorinjuries,andcannotexpecttosuethe policetorecover.

    AbsoluteImmunityThisisaSection1983lawsuitdefensethatislimitedtoparticipationin
    thejudicialprocess;i.e.,testifyingincourt.Ifapoliceofficercommitsperjuryonthestand,they cannotbethreatenedwithcivilliability,onlythecriminaloffenseofperjury.Thecourtsreason thatit'sdifficultenoughtogetpeopletotestifywithoutthethreatofcivilliability.

    QualifiedImmunityThisisaSection1983lawsuitdefensecoveringdutiesofadiscretionary
    nature,suchaswhenapoliceadministratordecidestoincreaseordecreasethenumberofpatrols fordrunkdrivers.Amotoristhitbyadrunkdriverchargingthatthedepartmentdidnothave enoughpatrolcarsoutprotectingherwouldnotwinherlawsuit.

    ProbableCauseThisisthestandarddefensetofalsearrestcharges. GoodFaithThiscoversawiderangeofbehaviors,evenunconstitutionalones,iftheofficeris
    executingawarrantbelievingingoodfaiththatthewarrantwasvalid,butitlaterturnsoutthe warrantwasdefectiveorinvalid.

    CollegeEducationWhenadepartmenthasa4yearcollegedegreestandardforallits

    employees,thisprotectssomewhatagainstvariousformsofsupervisorynegligence,suchas chargesrelatingtothefailuretosupervise,direct,train,orentrust,sinceitcanreasonablybe expectedthatcollegeeducatedofficersarebetterpreparedtounderstandabroaderrangeof motivationandcontrolissues,morelikelytoreadandunderstandpolicymanuals,temperpolice powerswithgoodjudgmentordemocraticvalues,andhaveamoreprofessionalorientation. INTERNETRESOURCES AmericansforEffectiveLawEnforcement,Inc. AELE:CaseLawLibrary TheLiabilityReporter PoliceLiabilityAssessmentGuide PoliceLiabilityConcerningHumanRights PRINTEDRESOURCES Carter,D.&A.Sapp(1990).HigherEducationasaPolicyAlternativetoReducePoliceLiability. PoliceLiabilityReview2:12. DelCarmen,R.(1991).CivilLiabilitiesinAmericanPolicing.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall. Kappeler,V.(1993).CriticalIssuesinPoliceCivilLiability.ProspectHeights,IL:WavelandPress. Lastupdated:06/19/03 LectureListforCriminalLaw InstructorHomePage

    You might also like