BAT 213 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

MANGROVES OF BALIK PULAU

TO : DR MAHADI 17TH MAY 2012

EDWARD LEE KUAN MUN HAN WAN YIN ONG WEI LIAN POI KHOYYEN

Introduction
Mangroves are trees and shrubs found in tropical and sub-tropical intertidal zones and estuarine margins that have adaptations to live in saline water. The genera Avicennia, Rhizophora and Bruguiera are widespread and characterized by modifications of the root systems for support and gas exchange in order to tolerate harsh environment conditions such as variable salinity, exposure to wind action and emersion period. The mangroves provide many ecosystem services, such as stabilizing land facing the sea by trapping sediments, nutrients cycling and process pollutants. (Hassan, Scholes, & Ash, 2005) Here, the large trees act as a surface for attachment of sessile marine invertebrates and the organically rich sediments around prop roots and pneumatophores support large numbers of crustaceans, molluscs and polychaetes. This area also serves as important nurseries for the young stages of commercial fishes and shellfish. The tree canopies also serve to support diverse insect communities, larger mammals and crocodiles. (Raffaelli & Hawkins, 1996) The animal association with mangrove trees is regarded to be fortuitous and their distribution is dependent on various factors. (Perkins, 1974) Balik Pulau is the main town in the southwest of the island of Penang. It has a population of about 120,000. As a tourist spot, it is well known for its durians and laksa. (Bindloss & Brash, 2008)

Methodology
The class was divided into groups of 4. Each group was tasked to carry out a survey on mangrove ecosystem in Kuala Sungai Burung and Pantai Acheh. Characteristics that were observed include; 1. Social characteristics of Balik Pulau area 2. Economic activities that involve the mangrove systems 3. Biological aspects of mangrove Identification of mangrove trees Observation of trees in association with mangrove trees Observation of fauna (marine and terrestrial invertebrates, larger mammals, avifauna and insects) Log 8.00 am : Group meet in USM. 8.15 am : Depart for Balik Pulau 9.00 am : Visit the Balik Pulaus market 10.00 am : Journey to Pantai Acheh 12.00 pm : Journey to Kuala Sungai Burung 2.00 pm : Journey back to Balik Pulau town for lunch 3.00 pm : Depart for USM

Results
Economic uses of mangrove Mangroves are highly valued by coastal communities. They are used for shelter, securing food and fuel wood and in agriculture, such as rice production. 1. Trunks of the Black mangrove are used as fuel wood for cooking, thus provide good income to nearby villagers that are involved in the wood cutting industry. It is important to local hawkers as charcoals processed from mangrove trees are cheaper than natural gas. 2. Mangrove trunks, can be use to construct jetties and other submerged structures because they are resistant to rotting and to attack by fungi. The mangroves, being locally available also makes it a cheaper construction material for the locals. 3. Fronds of Nypa fruticans, a species of palm living in association with mangroves are used in the cottage industry in the manufacture of shingles for roof thatching. (The Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2010) 4. Sagu is taken form the mangrove palm tree Metroxylon sp. (The Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2010) 5. Hypocotyts of Bruguiera are accepted food items. (The Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2010) 6. The bark, leaf shoots and roots of the Red mangrove trees supply tannin used for dyes, leather preservatives and furniture stains. Mangrove tannin is important economically as agents for the synthesis of astringents. (Kolodziej & Kiderlen, 2005) (Souza , et al., 2006) However, the importance of bark tannins in Asian countries has declined. (The Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2010)

7. In traditional medicine, mangrove extracts are used against human, animal and plant pathogens. They are also used as remedy for angina, asthma, backache, leprosy and constipation. 8. Leaves for tea and animal feed and the fruit for food. It is important to maintain local food web and habitat for nearby animal 9. Mangrove forests can be promoted as areas for recreation and eco-tourism. (Global significance of Malaysian mangroves, 2005) It will bring about development of nearby areas and generate income and creating job opportunities to local industries like hospitality, food and beverage and transport.

Economic use of organisms in association with mangroves A variety of organisms live in association with mangrove communities. Diverse marine organisms inhabit underwater prop roots complexes and tidal channels. Commercially important fishes and shellfishes utilize mangrove habitat at some point in their life. Terrestrial organisms and birds utilize the forest floor, root complex and tree canopy. (Newfound Harbor Marine Institute) 1. Fishes are among the many organisms that rely on mangroves at some point in their lives. At the study areas, commercially important fishes such as Scientific name Arius sagor Arius. argyropleuron Stolephorus insularis Stolephorus commersoni Liza subviridis Selaroides leptolepis Scomberoides commersonianus Rastrelliger kanagurta Chiloscyllium punctatum Dasyatis zugei Pampus chinensis Megalaspis cordyla Cynoglossus kops Cynoglossus lingua Local name Ikan duri Ikan duri Ikan bilis Ikan bilis Belanak Selar Talang Ikan kembung Ikan yu Pari ketuka Bawal Cencaru Ikan Lidah Ikan lidah

Note: Fish in bold are fishes actually observed in the market.

Table derived from Table 2. Distribution of Species by Sampling Stations and Sampling Date During the Study, by Amir Shah Ruddin, Yusri Yusuf and Siti Azizah, 2006, Ecological Survey on Mangrove Forests : A Case Study of Balik Pulau and Pantai Acheh, p. 84. Copyright 2006 by Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia and Table 5. Fishes Recorded from the Pantai Acheh Mangrove Area, by Amirrudin Ahmad, Yusri Yusuf and Siti Azizah, 2006, Ecological Survey on Mangrove Forests : A Case Study of Balik Pulau and Pantai Acheh, p 104. Copyright 2006 by Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia.

Other species of fish common to the mangrove swamps is ikan belacak, Periophthalmus chrysospilos.

2. Gastropods and crustaceans are also important members of the mangrove ecosystem here. Some are harvested and sold in the market as food items. A list of gastropods that can be found in the study areas include Scientific name Certhidea obtuse Telescopium telescopium Littorarina conica Nasarius olivaceus (Ahmad, Yusuf, & Siti Azizah, 2006) Local name Siput Belitung Siput Belitung Mangrove periwinkle Mud whelk

Note: Gastropods in bold are observed in market Crustaceans that can be found in the study area are Scientific name Scylla olivacea Portunus pelagicus Uca spp. Uca rosea Episarma spp. Selatium sp. Varuna sp. Balanus sp. Perisesarma sp. (Ahmad, Yusuf, & Siti Azizah, 2006) Local name Mud crab*/ Ketam bakau Flower crab Fiddler crabs / Ketam Rebab Rosy fiddler / Ketam Rebab Vinegar crab Mangrove tree-dwelling crab Paddler crab Barnacles Sesarmine crabs

Note: Items in bold were actually observed in the study area. *Indicate that crabs are sold in market

Discussion
1. Avicennia spp. is a flowering plant, commonly known as api-api in Malay which means fire. There are vertical roots called pneumatophores projecting from the mud. It is used for gas exchange. The flowers are fragrant and rich in nectar and are pollinated by insects.

Figure 1. Avicennia spp.

2. Bruguiera spp. is a small genus and commonly known as white mangrove. It grows well in areas which are inundated by spring tides.

Figure 2. Bruguiera spp.

3. Rhizophora spp. is a tropical mangrove tree and sometimes called true mangrove. It has stilt-roots that elevate the plant above the water and allow them to take in oxygen during inundated by tides.
Figure 3. Rhizophora spp.

4. Nypa fruticans commonly known as nipa palm, it is a species of palm. The nipa palm has a horizontal tree trunk that grows beneath the trunk and only leaves and flowers grow upwards above the surface. It germinates by water.
Figure 4. Nypa fruticans

5. Acrostichum spp. is a fern species. It is commonly known as leather fern or leather swamp fern. It does not withstand prolonged immersion, but it needs wet roots. It can tolerate with high saltwater.

Figure 5. Acrostichum spp.

Mangroves are remarkably uniform communities. Only a few types of trees grow together and are usually rather similar in habit and appearances. Different types of mangrove species have adaptations that allow them to live in various kinds of soil. This contributes to the formation of different vegetation zone in a mangrove community. The presence of different zones is a unique feature of the mangrove forest. (Mansor, Sulaiman, Jaafar, & Mansor, 2006) According the same study, about 25 families and 38 species of mangrove plants have been identified at four locations in Balik Pulau and Pantai Acheh mangrove forests. Eight families of mangrove plant were recorded, each represented by a species. Family Acanthaceae Pteridaceae Avicenniaceae Rhizophoraceae Leguminosae Compositae Combretaceae Meliaceae Species Acanthus ilicifolius Acrostichum aureum Avicennia marina Bruguiera cylindrica Derris trifoliata Pluchea indica Terminalia catappa Xylocarpus granatum

23 families and 39 species of mangrove plants were observed in the locality of Kuala Sungai Burung according to the same study. Species common to both areas are from the family Avicenniaceae and Rhizophoraceae. The most common mangrove plant species found was Avicennia marina. The colonies of A.marina were recorded from 10m of the sea front up to 500m inland. Mangrove crabs seek cover, from predation and desiccation on the swamp floor. They may dig burrows or inhabit communal crab-runs and some adult species may even climb trees e.g Aratus pisoni. Swimming crabs, Scylla serrata, make burrows in the bank from which they pounce upon prey. (Perkins, 1974)

Polychaetes are a rare occurrence in tropical mangrove mud. (Perkins, 1974) But a study Amir Shah, Yusri Yusuf and Siti Azizah (2006) identified Limnodrilus sp. (Family : Tubificidae) and 5 species of polychaetes along the Balik Pulau Forest Reserve. Reproduction strategies of mangroves; Mangrove reproduction has adapted to be successful in salt water environment. Most species of mangroves possess small, sticky pollen grains; pollination agents include bees, bats and birds. The fruits and seedlings of mangroves float and this is the main mechanism of dispersal. Most mangroves such as species of Rhizophora, Bruguiera, and Avicennia are reproduced by vivipary. Vivipary is the precocious and continuous growth of off-spring whilst still attached to the maternal plant; the fertilized seed germinate at the same time still attached to the parent plant. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit or out of the fruit to form a propagule which can produce it own food through photosynthesis. Propagule mostly can see in Rhizophora spp. and Bruguiera spp. The mature propagule will drop into water and it can travel in a great distances. Propagule can survive desiccation and remain dormant for a year before it get a suitable environment to root. Once is suitable to root, it changes its density and float vertically rather than horizontally. Most of the mangroves do produce large seeds and fruits. The food reserve in the large seed provides the seedling with energy to help it through the early stages of establishment. Most of the mangroves produce many seeds. Many seedlings have been produce annually to increase the rate of survival.

Mangroves in land stabilization and storm protection. Mangrove act as pervention of the coastal erosion. It minimise the action of waves and thus prevent the coast from erosion by waves action. The root systems of the plants hold substrate firm, prevent it from being washed away by waves action. Another work has proved that mangroves form live seawalls, and are very cost effective as compared to the concrete seawall and other sturucutes for the protection of coastal erosion ( Harada et al., 2002 ). Compared to seadyke, mangrove are more effective in protecting the coastal land from erosion as even seadyke is not durable from wave erosion and it require maintainence cost as proved in the Red River Delta, Vietnam. The planting of mangrove has cost of US$ 1.1 million but has helped reduce maintenance cost of the seadyke by US$ 7.3 million per year (World Disaster report, 2002). So it is estimated the same at Balik Pulau. For storm protection, like any other forest mangrove protect the coastal area from storm by reducing the wind and wave force when it hits the vegetation in the mangrove. We can also say that the mangrove act as a green wall that protect us from strom. The best example on finds is the super cyclone which occurred on the 29th October 1999 with a wind speed of 310 km/hr along the Orissa coast (India) and played havoc largely in the areas devoid of mangroves. On the contrary, practically no damage occurred in regions with luxuriant mangrove growth ( K. Kathiresan, 2005 ). We do not have large storm and cyclone at Balik Pulau as we are protected in straits of Melacca, but it do protect us from tsunami by reflect and resists tsunami energy, thus reducing the inudation depth and area. It also trap driftwood and other debris, thus reducing human injuries and property damage. Last but not least, it also prevent people from being washed out to the sea ( Tan Cheng Li, 2005 ).

Importance of mangroves to marine organisms. Mangroves shed and drop a few ton of leaf litter per acre per year. The dropped leaves are quickly broken down by bacteria and fungi into the water and provide food for the sea-life. Mangroves are also providing shelter for the marine organisms. For example, the trunks and roots of mangroves which are regularly submerged by tides are a good place for bivalves like oyster and barnacles to attach. The mud is the perfect medium to create burrows in crabs and snapping shrimps. Mangroves also act as a natural nursery ground. This is because in the mangrove areas, the water level is shallow, warm water temperature due to various decaying activities and water current is low. Many fishes lay eggs in tangled root of mangroves tree and later hatch and grow with needed nutrients available. Mangrove trap debris and silt, stabilizing the near shore environment and clarifying adjacent open water, which facilitates photosynthesis in marine plants. The fringing network on mangrove buffers natural forces such as hurricanes, wave action, tidal change and run-off, preventing soil loss with its firm, flexible barrier and protecting the marine organisms. Mangrove forest is also an ideal sanctuary for avifauna. It protects avifauna from harsh condition during migration.

Like many natural ecosystems, mangroves (of Balik Pulau in particular) face many threats in this time. Urbanisation caused coastal mangroves to be cleared for human inhabitation (K.Kathiresan, 2005). During past few years, as the land at the east coast of Penang Island had been fully used. People start to develop the west coast of the island especially along coastal area of Balik Pulau. This becomes a threat to the mangrove forest as this activity need to clear off the mangrove forest first before buliding anything on it. Some new housing area include Taman Jelita, Taman Nelayan Kuala Sungai Pinang, Kampung Pantai Acheh, Kampung Permatang Pasia, Kampung Sungai Rusa and so on (Wikimapia.org ). Agriculture and aquaculture activity are important causes of the loss of mangroves (Hassan, Scholes, & Ash, 2005). There are no major agriculture activities in Balik Pulau but there are still minor ones such as agriculture project that conducted on Permatang Pasir and paddy plantation along the river before Kuala Sungai Burung. But aquaculture activity causes the highest damage to the mangrove forest. There are several aquaculture farms for both shrimp and fish along the coast such as DEW SEAFOOD Grouper Farm, Lim Kooi Haks Prawn Farm, and lots more at Kuala Sungai Pinang. Overexploitation of mangroves for timber, fuel and charcoal is also a threat to mangroves. There are also no compulsory replantation to replace those that been chopped off. Pollution also causes the destruction of mangrove. There are no large factory or industrial area at Balik Pulau so the pollution is caused mainly by domestic and agriculture waste that flows along the river and accumulate at the river mouth where the mangrove are found. Prevention of freshwater flow and tidal flow also caused the destruction of the mangrove forest. The mangroves thrive on area that are exposed to freshwater from stream at the same time being washed by sea water. Building the dam at Teluk Bahang caused poor flow of freshwater which exposes the mangrove area to high salinity and cause poor growth of mangrove.

Great tidal fluctuations bring about greater tidal range which can help mangrove forests to colonize extensively. A greater tidal range increases the intertidal area and encourages the growth of mangroves if the slope is smooth. (Kathiseran) Also, tidal fluctuations reduce competition due to alternate wetting and dryness. The tides also transport clean water and nutrients into the system, export wastes, detritus and at the same time, help dispersal of propagules. The tides flush excess salt away during periods of high evaporation thus preventing highly saline soil. (Mangrove Morphology & Physiology) Large tidal ranges can affect the root systems of mangroves. Mangroves prefer large tidal range, which causes little undercurrent wave action. (Guyana Mangrove Restoration Project) Anaerobic environment is an environment with little available oxygen. Every part of the plant need oxygen for respiration and anaerobic condition of soil is a challenge for mangrove. Although the mangrove produce oxygen by photosysnthesis but it is confined to the leaves. The oxygen is blocked from entering the soil by the water on top of soil blocks. The soil, in waterlogged conditions will use up the soil oxygen and it will become anaerobic. To overcome this challenge, pneumatophores, prop root is used by mangrove to transport oxygen from the air to the root below the ground. Red mangroves have prop roots that extend from the trunk while the black mangroves have small air roots (pneumatophores) that grow vertically from the soil, surrounding the parent tree. During periods of low tide, these structures take up air through its open passages and transport the air to root tissues. Lenticels, cover the surface of the roots and facilitate air absorption into spongy tissue (aerenchyma). The spongy tissue then distributes oxygen throughout the plant via the osmotic pathway. (Environmental factors and adaptations) (Lenticel, 2012)

Fauna found in study area; 1. Crustaceans

Figure 6. Fiddler crab

Figure 7. Fiddler crab

Figure 8. Barnacles

Figure 9. Sesarmine crabs

2. Mudskipper

Figure 10. Periophthalmus chrysospilos

3. Birds

Figure 11. Unidentified bird species

Conclusion
Mangroves are highly valued by a large group of communities, as it provides, among others, livelihood, storm protection, ecosystem services and habitat. However, many mangrove areas have been degraded worldwide and habitat conversion of mangroves is widespread. Estimates of the loss of mangroves form countries show that 35% of mangrove forests have disappeared in the last two decades. As such, measures must be taken to sustain the mangroves and one method is by holistic implementation of management.

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