Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 32 (2008) 17231730

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Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science

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Design of a 3 kW wind turbine generator with thin airfoil blades

Kazumasa Ameku 1, Baku M. Nagai 1, Jitendro Nath Roy *
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of the Ryukyus, 1 Senbaru, Nishihara-cho, Okinawa 903-0213, Japan

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Three blades of a 3 kW prototype wind turbine generator were designed with thin airfoil and a tip speed ratio of 3. The wind turbine has been controlled via two control methods: the variable pitch angle and by regulation of the eld current of the generator and examined under real wind conditions. The characteristics of the thin airfoil, called Seven arcs thin airfoil named so because the airfoil is composed of seven circular arcs, are analyzed with the airfoil design and analysis program XFOIL. The thin airfoil blade is designed and calculated by blade element and momentum theory. The performance characteristics of the machine such as rotational speed, generator output as well as stability for wind speed changes are described. In the case of average wind speeds of 10 m/s and a maximum of 19 m/s, the automatically controlled wind turbine ran safely through rough wind conditions and showed an average generator output of 1105 W and a power coefcient 0.14. 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 16 November 2007 Received in revised form 11 June 2008 Accepted 21 June 2008

Keywords: Renewable energy Wind turbine generator Blade design Seven arcs thin airfoil Variable pitch control

1. Introduction Windmills have been used for many centuries for pumping water and milling grain. The discovery of the internal combustion engine and the development of electrical grids caused many windmills to disappear in the early part of the 20th century. However, in recent years wind turbines are used again to produce electricity for many purposes. There has been a large and active research interest in this eld. In the previous studies, the theoretical optimum distribution of the rotor blades [13], and experimental studies [3,4] of the wind turbine characteristics were researched. On the performance of the turbine, some investigations of the turbine [4,5] were described. While wind turbine technology is going by the way of larger scale and offshore wind farms, it is also important to develop small wind turbine generators which are sufciently safe and easy to run on individual homes for self-sufcient and independent power production. Usually, small wind turbines are designed with a high tip speed ratio as compared to large wind turbines, thus their rotational speed becomes very high. Also, most small wind turbines have xed pitch type blades while their rotational surface can be furled upward or side wards to prevent the over-rotation. Therefore, small wind turbines are often noisy and dangerous under strong winds in the rough wind area of East Asia including the Southwest Islands of Japan.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 98 895 8620; fax: +81 98 895 8636. E-mail addresses: kazumasa@tec.u-ryukyu.ac.jp (K. Ameku), dr-nagai@tec.uryukyu.ac.jp (B.M. Nagai), jiten_vb@yahoo.com (J.N. Roy). 1 Tel.: +81 98 895 8624; fax: +81 98 895 8707. 0894-1777/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.expthermusci.2008.06.008

In general, the horizontal axis wind turbine efciency depends on the tip speed ratio and solidity. The relation between tip speed ratio k and solidity r is shown in expression (1) which is simplied form of Betz theory on wind turbine aero dynamics [6].

1 16 1 2 cL 9 k

Here, cL is lift coefcient of a wind turbine blade airfoil. The equation is shown with solid line in Fig. 1 in the case of cL = 1.5 and 0.5. For example, using a usual tip speed ratio of 6, solidity becomes 0.05 at cL = 1. When it is lowered to a tip speed ratio of 3, solidity increases by a factor of 4 to 0.2. Therefore, it is necessary to enlarge the area of the airfoil blade and the weight of the blade may increase by a factor of 16 than in the previous case. With so many disadvantageous points in this case, lighter blades and thinner airfoils would be needed for a low speed-type wind turbine. In this study, to develop a low speed-type wind turbine generator, a prototype 3 kW wind turbine blade has been designed with the thin airfoil named Seven arcs thin airfoil which means the airfoil is composed with seven circular arcs. The proposed thin airfoil as shown in Fig. 2 has appropriate roundness (arc2arc6) at the front part of the simple arc airfoils (arc1 and arc7) to prevent leading edge stall. The characteristics of the thin airfoil are analyzed with the airfoil design and analysis program XFOIL [7]. The thin airfoil blade is designed and calculated by blade element and momentum theory (BEM) [1]. The performance characteristics of the machine such as rotational speed, generator output, power coefcient, torque coefcient, and tip speed ratio are described. Moreover, the thin airfoil has been manufactured and tested on the bench in the laboratory and then installed on the roof of the ve-storied engineering faculty building in the university. The

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Nomenclature cL cD cf cp cpb cq Fc fr Ft If J K La N nz Pg lift coefcient drag coefcient thrust coefcient power coefcient blade power coefcient blade torque coefcient centrifugal force friction coefcient thrust force eld current inertia moment of the rotor mutual inductance equivalent inductance rotational speed gear ratio generator power Pw Qb Qg R RL.R V F wind turbine power (blade power) blade torque generator torque radius of rotor blades load resistance wind speed attack angle generator efciency mechanical efciency pitch angle of rotor blade tip speed ratio (TSR) air density solidity twist angle wind turbine rotor angular speed

gg gm
h k

q r
X

experimental data of the thin airfoil blade are presented. Another feature of this work is variable pitch and generation control system [8]. 2. Development of wind turbine 2.1. Outline of wind turbine generator The prototype wind turbine was designed for everyone to be able to easily use and be stopped safely by an automatic variable pitch control system in gusts, which often come unexpectedly. Table 1 and Fig. 3 show specications and outline of the prototype wind turbine generator. The prototype is a wind turbine with a power rating of 2.5 kW, 4 m diameter, horizontal, upwind, and free yaw with three variable pitch blades. The rotational center of the turbine blades is 5.7 m above the roof of ve-storied building. The main shaft is set on the tower tilting upwards about 3.

The tower pole can be fallen down for maintenance by a hand winch and eight tension wires. After the length of tension wires are adjusted, it is very easy to fall down and setup the tower pole. The yaw control system is a passive free yaw with a movable tail. The tail can move left and right upward to the nacelle with a tilting pin joint which keeps the centerline by the force of gravity on the tail. When the wind direction changes suddenly, the tail moves rst, then the whole nacelle axis moves slowly to the wind direction. 2.2. Design of thin airfoil blade The characteristics of the thin airfoil are analyzed with the airfoil design and analysis program XFOIL [7]. Fig. 4 and Table 2 show the developed seven arcs thin airfoil compared with the NACA4418 airfoil. From Fig. 4, the upper surface of the developed thin airfoil is close to NACA airfoil, although their wing proles are entirely different from one another. From Table 2, the developed thin airfoil has 11% camber at 0.35 chords and 8.5% thickness at 0.10 chords.

Table 1 Specications of the wind turbine generator Type No. of blades Yaw control Design Horizontal, up-wind 3 Free yaw 3 2.5 kW at 160 rpm 11 m/s 3 kW

Tip speed ratio Output Wind speed

Generator capacity

Fig. 1. Relationship between solidity and tip speed ratio.

Fig. 2. Proposed thin airfoil.

Fig. 3. Outline of the wind turbine generator.

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Compared with NACA, the camber of the thin airfoil is increased by a factor of 3 and the maximum thickness is decreased to less than 1/2. Fig. 5 shows the relation among lift coefcient, drag coefcient and attack angle a as compared with the NACA airfoil. From this gure, to compare with NACA, it is clear that the lift coefcient cL is higher than that of the NACA airfoil and the maximum cL value of 2.04 exists near attack angles of a = 12. On the other hand, the difference of the drag coefcients cD in both airfoil cases is very small from attack angle a = 010; otherwise, the cD of the thin airfoil is slightly larger than that of the NACA airfoil. Fig. 6 shows the numerical airfoil performances with the thin airfoil and NACA airfoil. The horizontal axis is the angle of attack a and the vertical axis is the liftdrag ratio. From this gure, the liftdrag ratio of the thin airfoil suddenly increases from an attack angle of a = 32 and then reaches the maximum liftdrag ratio of about 100 around an attack angle of a = 5. Therefore, the performance of the thin airfoil is good enough. Moreover, for a negative attack angle a, the liftdrag ratio of the thin airfoil is virtually zero, whereas there remain negative values of the liftdrag ratio for the NACA airfoil. The values of the maximum liftdrag ratio are indicated in Table 3. The maximum liftdrag ratio of the thin airfoil is 100 at attack angle a = 5 and the NACA is 118 at a = 7. Fig. 7 shows the distribution of chord length and twist angle of optimum blade shape calculated by BEM theory. The horizontal axis of both gures shows each blade radius from 0.4(cut-off 0.2) to 2 m (blade tip) and the vertical axis shows blade chord length c and twist angle , respectively. The optimum solidity r of NACA airfoil blade is 0.06 at a tip speed ratio of k = 6 and r = 0.19 at k = 3. In the case of a tip speed ratio of k = 3, the optimum solidity r of the thin airfoil blade is 0.14, and is lower than the 0.19 solidity

Fig. 6. Relationship between liftdrag ratio and angle of attack.

Table 3 The maximum liftdrag ratio

a
Thin airfoil NACA4418 5 70
0

cL 1.63 1.19

cD 0.0163 0.0101

cL/cD 100 118

Fig. 4. Comparison of thin airfoil and NACA4418.

Table 2 Camber and thickness of each airfoil Camber Thin airfoil NACA4418 11% (at 0.35 chord) 4% (at 0.40 chord) Thickness 8.5% (at 0.10 chord) 18% (at 0.30 chord)

Fig. 7. Distribution of chord length and twist angle.

Fig. 5. Relationship between liftdrag coefcients and angle of attack.

of the NACA blade because of the higher lift coefcient cL of the thin airfoil blade. The optimum solidities have been calculated from the optimum chord length distributions. The twist angle distribution of the thin airfoil blade is from 34 to 7 at the blade tip while the relative twist angle is 27. Fig. 8 shows the coefcient of induced rotating velocity which comes from the tangential induction factor with each dimensionless radius of the rotor blade. To ensure good performance of the turbine blade, it is superior when the induced rotating velocity becomes small or closes to zero. From this gure, the coefcient of induced rotating velocity is sufciently small in the case of the over dimensionless radius r/R = 1.00.5 and rapidly growing from r/R = 0.5 to cut off 0.2.

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K. Ameku et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 32 (2008) 17231730 Table 4 Each force with different running conditions of one blade Force Centrifugal force Fc Torque Qb1 Thrust force Ft Condition N = 160 rpm N200% = 320 rpm Pg = 2.5 kW, N = 160 rpm Pgmax = 4.5 kW, N = 160 rpm V = 11 m/s, N = 160 rpm Vmax = 20m/s, Nmax = 285 rpm Value 1684 N 6738 N 92.1 Nm 166 Nm 208 N 688 N

Fig. 8. Coefcient of induced rotational velocity with each position of rotor blade.

Fig. 9 shows the relation between the local blade power coefcient and the dimensionless radius r/R. In this gure, the inclination lines of the cases are almost equal like a straight-line distribution. The contribution of the local blade power coefcient from r/R = 0.51 is 80%, whereas from r/R = 0.20.5 is 20%, when combined; the total blade power coefcient is 0.52. Through this the authors focused on the chord length of the blade near the cutoff if the chord length might be shorten in actual blade design. Considering the above analysis and for easy blade pitch angle control, the authors have tailored the chord length distribution by decreasing its size and weight while attempting to maintain the high blade power coefcient. So, the blade shape has been modied, that is, the blade chord length of the thin airfoil becomes shorter than that of the optimum design as shown in Fig. 7. The chord length of the tailored thin airfoil blade is 230 mm from the blade tip to r = 1.6 m, 190 mm at cutoff r = 0.4 m, and then linearly increases up to 230 mm at r = 1.6 m. The thickness has been modied from 8.5% of chord at the blade tip to 18.5% of chord at the cutoff in order to keep the stiffness of the blade. As a result, the solidity of the tailored thin airfoil blade is 0.08, and is decreased by half of the optimum design. The total blade power coefcient of the tailored thin airfoil blade is 0.49 that is a minimal effect to the total blade power coefcient of the optimum design 0.52. The tailored blade shape also has been shown in Fig. 7. The calculated forces acting on the tailored thin airfoil blade in the design with different running conditions are indicated in Table 4. To make a lighter blade, the blade pipe has been put on the part of the blade with maximum thickness near the leading edge and covered with glass ber reinforced plastic sheet (GFRP). Fig. 10 shows the outline of a prototype thin airfoil blade. Each blade appropriately twists to catch a good wind along the axis of the blades. Each blade is about 6 kg in mass. The blade is 1870 mm

Fig. 10. Outline of a prototype thin airfoil blade.

Table 5 Comparison between thin airfoil and NACA for one blade Parameter TSR Area (m2) Mass (kg) Center of gravity (mm) Inertia moment (kg m2) NACA 6 0.206 5.4 560 4.3 Thin airfoil 3 0.344 6.0 759 6.7

in the total length, 1600 mm the wing shape length, and 230 mm in maximum width at the blade tip. After completed making the thin airfoil blades, the bending test has been completed. When a concentrated force of 515 N (about 50 kgf), which corresponds to the maximum running load at a wind velocity of 20 m/s and a rotational speed of 285 rpm, was loaded at the tip of the blade, the tip bend was 273 mm. This bend is smaller than the length of 473 mm between the wind turbines pole surface and the rotational surface of the blades at the tip. Table 5 shows a comparison between the thin airfoil blade and the NACA blade. The center of gravity position is measured as the distance from the ange. 3. Numerical analysis Fig. 11 shows the relationship between the tip speed ratio k, the thrust coefcient cf, the blade power coefcient cpb, and the torque coefcient cq of the prototype thin airfoil blades at the design pitch

Fig. 9. Relationship between local blade power coefcient and dimensionless radius.

Fig. 11. cpb, cq, cf vs. tip speed ratio.

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angle of 7. In this gure, the performance curves of the optimum NACA blades designed with same tip speed ratio are also represented. Both cases show the maximum tip speed ratio at no load condition that is also called runaway condition. Compared with the NACA blades, the prototype blades have high enough power coefcients and a smaller maximum tip speed ratio, which is a good characteristic because the maximum rotational speed remains lower than the NACA blades. Regarding the cf curve, the thrust coefcient cf of the thin airfoil blades is 0.68 at the rated tip speed ratio of 3 and the maximum value of cf is 0.80 in the ranges of tip speed ratio k from 4.5 to 5.5. On the other hand, the thrust coefcient cf curve of the NACA airfoil blades does not change from rated to maximum. These characteristics of the thin airfoil blade owe the airfoil performance, because of suddenly increasing the liftdrag ratio and higher the drag coefcient cD, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 12 shows the relationship between each torque coefcient cq and tip speed ratio k with blade pitch angles h from 7 to 37. In this gure, to show the effect of the torque coefcient, the step of changing in pitch angle is decided as 6. As the pitch angle increases, the maximum torque coefcient cq becomes smaller, but the slope of the cq curves with respect to the tip speed ratio becomes steep. The characteristics of the generator output Pg is given by Eq. (2). The type of the generator is synchronous, which is the dominant generator type in power systems. It can generate active and reactive power independently and has an important role in voltage control. When the eld current If becomes a maximum 2.7 A, the generator output shows full performance.

Fig. 13 shows the performance of the wind turbine generator. The solid lines are the blade power Pw for every wind speed at the design pitch angle of 7. The dotted lines are the generator power Pg with the corresponding eld current. The circle points are the optimum running points at a tip speed ratio k = 3 and power coefcient cp = 0.25. The generation control system controls the wind turbine through the circle points line at the pitch angle of 7. Fig. 14 shows the relationship between generator output Pg and rotational speed N. The power generation controller supplies eld current for the generator to match the maximum power coefcient curve for each pitch angle. The characteristics of wind turbine operation including generator performance are obtained by Eqs. (2) and (3). Fig. 15 shows the relation of turbine rotational speed to wind speed at pitch angle from 7 to 37. In this gure, the characteristics of the lines are similar to one another. It is clear that the controlled rotational

Pg

K 2 RL:R I2 f R2 nZ XLa 2 L:R

nZ X2

Here, Table 6 shows the constant parameter values of the generator. Wind turbine output Pw is given by Eq. (3) using the torque coefcient cq as shown in Fig. 12.

Fig. 13. Performance of wind turbine generator (WTG).

Pw

1 qV 3 pR2 gm gg kcq 2

Here, mechanical efciency is gm and generator efciency is gg.

Fig. 14. Relationship between generator output and rotational speed.

Fig. 12. Relationship between torque coefcient and tip speed ratio.

Table 6 Constant parameter values for generator Parameter Generator efciency gg Mutual inductance K Equivalent inductance La Load resistance RL.R Values 0.6 0.223 H 0.0178 H 4X

Fig. 15. Relationship between rotational speed and wind speed.

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speeds increase proportionally with wind speed, and after a certain point the inclinations become larger. The constant inclinations of the lines under the certain point means that there is optimum tip speed ratio of each pitch angle. The inclination of the lines become larger at the maximum led current point, so that the wind turbine easily over rotates. Therefore, it is difcult to control the generator only with a eld current controller. We have to change the pitch angle when turbine rotation reaches a certain limit. 4. Measurements and considerations The prototype machine was set on the roof of the engineering faculty building in the university. Fig. 16 shows the outline of the generation and control system. The prototype system is composed of a generator system, a load system, control system, and measuring system. A generator output of 100VAC is rectied and supplied to DC loads, 3 kW4 X resistance, which obtain the maximum output at the maximum eld current. The wind turbine is controlled

by both a blade pitch controller and a generation controller. A personal computer (FMV5100D5, Fujitsu) measures rotational speeds of the main shaft by a tachometer (MP981, Ono Sokki) on the gearbox for the controls. A worm and gear system with a stepping motor (UPK564AW-H100, Oriental Motor) is installed in the center of the hub and the rotational main shaft. For the blade pitch control, the computer sends signals to a pulse generator of motor driver and then the stepping motor obtains signals through the slip rings. Each signal of the pitch controller consists of 16,000 pulses to the motor driver and changes 6 of the blade pitch angle, which is one step of the control. The rated pulse speed is 25,000 pulses per second, so a pitch angle command of one step can nish within one second. The computer memorizes the present pitch angle. The blade pitch angle can change the rotational surface from 0 to 90, feathering angle. The design blade pitch angle is 7 at the blade tip. Two limit switches are installed in the hub and can detect the three positions of 0, 31 and 90 by the combination of the switches. For the power generation control, the computer sends signals to the eld current controller. The generation controller supplies eld current from 0 to 2.7 A in steps of about 0.1 A. Both controllers can also be operated manually. During the experiment, eight items were measured at every 0.5 s and averaged over a period of 1 h, these were, wind direction, wind speed, generated current and voltage, eld current and voltage, rotational speed of the turbine and limit switch conditions. Generated current, voltage, and rotational speed of the turbine are used to control over the interval of 0.5 s. Wind speed is only used to evaluate wind turbine performance and not for control. Wind direction, wind speed, electric currents and voltages are sampled to the computer via an A/D converter. Two limit switch signals are taken in the computer through an I/O interface. Fig. 17 shows the ow chart of control program. The control program estimates wind speed by Eqs. (4)(6) with measured generator output and rotational speed.

dX Q b Q g fr X dt 1 qV 2 pR3 cq 2 Pg

Qb Qg
Fig. 16. Wind power generation system.

gg X

Fig. 17. Flow chart of the control program.

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Tables 6 and 7 show the constant parameters values for the generator and the rotor, respectively. Based on both estimated wind speed and measured rotational speed, the control program works in three stages. At rst, the wind turbine is controlled in the standby stage in which pitch angle is xed at 31 and starts generation. When the average estimated wind speed goes over 5 m/s for 1 min, the control program transitions to the stage 1 which sets the pitch angle to 19, using only power generation control. If the average speed decreases, the pitch angle is reset to the 31 of the standby stage. When the average estimated wind speed is larger than 7 m/s or rotational speed 140 rpm, the wind turbine is controlled by stage 2, where the pitch angle controller operates

Table 7 Constant parameter values for the rotor Parameter Inertia moment J Friction coefcient fr Gear ratio nz Values 24 kg m2 2.0 Nm s 17

in addition to the eld current controller. In the stage 2, the control program determines standard pitch angle by estimate wind speed and the uctuations in rotational speed. Furthermore, if instantaneous rotational speed increases past 180 rpm, the blade pitch angle increases by 12 for a few seconds to prevent over rotation. In the case of an instantaneous rotational speed over 250 rpm or an estimated wind speed above 40 m/s in any stage, the control program goes to the escape mode where eld currents are xed to the maximum and the pitch angle is set to 90 to stop the machine. The wind turbine has been examined with a xed pitch angle of 13 on November 20, 2005. The prototype wind turbine generator showed an average generator output of 194 W and an average rotational speed of 56 rpm under the average wind speed of 6.0 m/s. The calculated power coefcient was 0.14. Fig. 18 shows measurement results with the automatic control program on October 5, 2006. The wind condition measured over one hour was an average 10.0 m/s, standard deviation 2.3 m/s, with a maximum 18.8 m/s wind from the NNW direction. The control program worked only in stage 2, and the wind turbine showed an average generator output of 1105 W, with an average rotational speed of 115 rpm. The calculated power coefcient was 0.14, and was smaller than the design value of 0.25. From this gure, it is clear that the control program varied the pitch angle and maintained a lower rotational speed to prevent over rotation past 250 rpm. This is the reason why the calculated power coefcient is lower than the design value. So, some additional improvements of the control systems are needed to achieve the full performance of the wind turbine. Figs. 19 and 20 represent estimated wind speed to measured wind speed for comparison in the cases of instantaneous and 10 s moving average respectively. The distribution of estimated wind speeds almost agreed with measurements. From these

Fig. 19. Comparison of estimated wind speed and measured wind speed (instantaneous).

Fig. 18. Measurement results with automatic control program (October 5, 2006).

Fig. 20. Comparison of estimated wind speed and measured wind speed (10 s moving average).

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gures, the calculated correlation factors are 0.37 and 0.51, respectively. So far, the estimated wind speed was calculated by rotational speed, output power, torque and inertia moment of the rotor. The next step of this research will make a revision of the program with some other theoretical equations. 5. Conclusions The prototype wind turbine blades were designed with a thin airfoil and a tip speed ratio of 3. The wind turbine has been controlled via the two methods of variable pitch angle and by regulation of the eld current of generator and examined under real wind conditions. The results are (1) The characteristics of the thin airfoil blades were presented by both theoretical and numerical analysis while the characteristics of turbine operation including generator performance were reported. (2) In the control program, the estimated wind speed was calculated by generator output and rotational speed. The distribution of estimated wind speed almost agreed with measurements. (3) The automatically controlled wind turbine showed an average generator output of 1105 W and a power coefcient of 0.14 under an average wind speed of 10 m/s.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to express thanks to Ichiro KAKEGAWA, Yuji YAMASAKI, and Tadayuki YAMADA who were graduate students at Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering of University of the Ryukyus for their support in this work. This work also supported by the Harada Memorial Foundation. References
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