Ecology

Definitions
 Ecology: the study of all the interactions (btw living things and btw living & non-living
things) that occur within the BIOSPHERE.
 Ecosystem: all the interacting parts of a biological COMMUNITY and its environment; a
group of living organisms that, along with their ABIOTIC environment, form a
self-regulating system through which energy and materials are transferred.
 Abiotic factors: non-living parts of the environment (e.g. water, elements, temperature &
climate, wind)
 Biotic factors: living parts of the environment (e.g. plant and animal organisms)
 Biodiversity: variety of living organisms that inhabit Earth or in a given area
 Decomposers: (food chain role) various bacteria & fungi that break down dead material and
animal wastes and extract the remaining nutrients
 Population: all the individuals of one species that occupy a certain geographical area
during a certain time
 Community: groups of different species of organisms that interact together (e.g. a
community of soil or stream organisms); all the populations in an ecosystem
 Food chain: a hierarchy of organisms through which energy is transferred in the act of
eating, and involves TROPHIC LEVELS; directional
 Food web: a hierarchy of organisms in which each organism gains energy from eating;
thus, interconnected food chains
 Niche: the role an organism fills in an ecosystem
 Habitat: the place where an organism lives, including needs such as a water supply
 Autotroph: (energy term) an organism that produces complex organic compounds from
simple inorganic molecules using energy from light or inorganic chemical
reactions; the producers in a food chain
 Heterotroph: (energy term, equivalent to the food chain role CONSUMER) an organism that
requires organic substances to get its carbon for growth and development
 Saprotroph: (energy term, equivalent to the food chain role DECOMPOSER) an organism
that gains its energy and chemical nutrients from dead plants and animals
 Primary consumer: (food chain role) first consuming organism (herbivore/omnivore)
 Sec. consumer: (food chain role) second consuming organism (carnivore/omnivore)
 Trophic level: the feeding level based on energy in a food web (e.g. producers, primary
consumers, secondary consumers)
 Producer: (food chain role) green plants and some species of bacteria that use
photosynthesis
 Herbivore: an organism that only consumes plants
 Carnivore: an organism that only consumes meat
 Omnivore: an organism that consumes plants and meat
 Biome: a group of ecosystems which are similar or related to each other in the
dominant form of plants or climate… (e.g. Boreal forest biome, tundra)
 Natural ecosys: developed naturally; typically constantly changing and biodiverse
 Artificial ecosys: controlled by humans; typically changes little and lacks biodiversity
 Ecotones: a transition area between bordering ecosystems with much biodiversity
 Bioamplification: the effect in which harmful chemicals accumulate as they go up in the food
chain; results in very high (harmful or lethal) concentration in top carnivores
 Symbiosis: (also, SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP) a relationship between two or more species
o Mutualistic: a symbiosis in which both species benefit
o Parasitic: a symbiosis in which one species benefits and the other is harmed
o Commensal: a symbiosis in which one species benefits and the other is neutral
 Scavengers: (food chain role) organisms that consume leftovers and scrap materials, but
which do not produce nutrients in a form suitable to be reused by producers;
their wastes must be further broken down

In order of largest to smallest:

biome → ecosystem → community → population

At-Risk
 Extinct: species no longer found anywhere
e.g. blue walleye
 Endangered: species close to extinction in a large area
e.g. eastern cougar
 Extirpated: species does not exist in one area but can be found elsewhere
e.g. grizzly bear
 Threatened: species likely to become endangered if factors are not reversed
e.g. wood bison
 Vulnerable: species at risk because of low/declining numbers in outer/restricted area
e.g. grey fox
 Causes
o Disturbances in the food chain (e.g. loss of food source)
o Human intervention
o Environmental change

Pyramids
 Show hierarchy of food chain, trophic levels
 To draw one:
o Title should indicate type of pyramid, organisms and/or food chain
o Scale (e.g. 50 organisms per square / 100 kg per square / 100 kJ/m2 per square)
o Centre line (all bars should be centered)
o Label each bar (with species and numerical data)
Pyramid of Numbers
 Based on number of organisms (population) at each level
 May be inverted if size differs greatly
o e.g. tree -> birds & insects

Pyramid of Biomass
 Based on dry mass of each trophic level
o Usually uses kg as unit
 May be inverted if life spans or reproduction rates differ significantly
o e.g. phytoplankton (small mass, consumed quickly but reproduce quickly) -> fish

Pyramid of Energy
 Based on energy transferred between the trophic levels
o Usually uses kJ/m2 as the unit
 Can never be inverted

Water Cycle
 A: precipitation over land
 B: precipitation over water
 C: transpiration
o Plants lose water from leaves
 D: seepage from ground
o Water goes from the surface
down into the water table, seeps
into lakes and oceans
 E: runoff
o Rivers
o Melting snow, glaciers
 F: evaporation

Carbon Cycle
Carbon is a NUTRIENT: a chemical element used by organisms to build and operate.

 All organic molecules require C

 Inorganic: does not contain a combination of C and H
o e.g. CO2 gas, carbonates (CO3) as part of H2CO3/CaCO3
 Organic: contains a combination of C and H, but not in carbonate form, CO2 or cyanates
o Usually as carbohydrates (sugars), fats, proteins, DNA, cellulose
 Photosynthesis
∆energy from sun
6H2 O(l) + 6CO2(g) �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� C6 H12 O6 + 6O2↑
o Water and carbon dioxide yield glucose and oxygen (released into atmosphere)
o Sugars move through food chain; consumed, broken down, rebuilt into molecules
 Cellular respiration
o Reverse of photosynthesis
C6 H12 O6(s) + 6O2(g) ⟶ 6H2 O(l) + 6CO2(g) + energy
o All living organisms respirate

CO2 in atmosphere
photosynthesis

respiration

plants 1° consumer 2° consumer

death

decomposers

 Carbon reservoirs
o Inorganic
 Atmosphere: CO2 gas
 Geologic: rocks in the crust contain carbonates
 Dissolved in oceans as H2CO3 and CaCO3 of shells
• Shells deposit as sediment on ocean floor and becomes sedimentary
rock (i.e. limestone); may be trapped for millions of years
o Organic
 Bodies of living organisms
 Aerobic/anaerobic decomposition
o Aerobic: with O2 Anaerobic: without O2
o Bogs and swamps: anaerobic decomposition, slower
 Locks C in dead organic matter (peat)
 Peat compresses into fossil fuels -> coal, oil, gas
 Release from reservoirs
o Geological processes (uplifting (mountains), erosion, weathering)
o Limestone is used in industrial applications (i.e. making cement)
o Volcanic activity
o Acid rain (H2CO3 in rain water)
o Combustion of fossil fuels
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is an essential element for life:
amino acid, nucleic acids, and ATP contain
nitrogen.

 NITROGEN FIXATION
o Legumes and bacteria on their
root nodules
o Lightning also fixates nitrogen
gas directly into nitrates
o Nitrogen-fixating bacteria
convert atmospheric nitrogen
to ammonia (NH3);
AMMONIFICATION
o Other bacteria convert fixated
nitrogen into nitrate in
NITRIFICATION:
 Ammonia -> nitrite
(NO2)
 Nitrite -> nitrate (NO3)
o Nitrate is consumed by plants;
some plants can use ammonia
o Soil rich in nitrate / ammonia are excellent for plant growth
o Animals then consume, and their wastes undergo NITRIFICATION (if ammonia) or
DENITRIFICATION (if nitrates)
To be clear: nitrogen fixation through bacteria is a two-step process (ammonification and
nitrification).
 Denitrification
o Microscopic bacteria, fungi break down nitrates and release nitrogen gas

Phosphorus Cycle
Does not involve atmosphere. Involves erosion, plant absorption from water, wastes returning
phosphates to water, runoff, and sediment that is then returned through geologic upthrust.

Takes millions of years, but has a short cycle: wastes recycled by decomposers, phosphates
dissolved in water, plants absorb from water.
Populations
 Factors affecting population size:
o Birth
o Death
o Immigration — only in open populations
o Emigration — only in open populations
 BIOTIC POTENTIAL: max # of offspring a species can produce w/ unlimited resources
o BIRTH POTENTIAL: max # of offspring per birth
Humans are limited (1–6,7), but fish can lay hundreds of eggs at one time
o CAPACITY FOR SURVIVAL: # of offspring that reach reproductive age
Turtle eggs and fish eggs, for instance, don’t have a high capacity
o PROCREATION: # of times a species reproduces a year
Humans are limited by the 9-month pregnancy
o LENGTH OF REPRODUCTIVE LIFE: age of sexual maturity & # of years the individual can
reproduce
 Carrying capacity: max # of individuals of a species that can be supported indefinitely by an
ecosystem; depends on availability of resources
 Density-dependent factors: water quality, disease, food availability... affected by population
 Density-independent factors: fire, flood... natural events or resources that affect population but
which do so regardless of its density
 Population grows when BIOTIC POTENTIAL > ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE (abiotic & biotic factors
that limit or harm growth)
 Population decreases when ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE > BIOTIC POTENTIAL
 Population curves
o J-curve: population explosion, usually followed by crash due to famine or resource
deficiency
o Reverse-J-curve: population crash
o S-curve: fluctuating growth, usually because of predator-prey balance
 Inverse relationship: as one goes up, the other goes down