CHAPTER ONE PREFACE

1.1 Fluid classification and fluid transport properties

1.2 The contradictory phenomena between ideal fluid
dynamics and the actual flow

1.3 Two analytical methods of fluid movement

1.4 Reynolds transport theorem

1.5 The relationships of substantial derivatives in still and
motional coordinate systems



1.1 Fluids classification and fluid
transport characteristics

( )
n
n
0 V
n
V
M
p
lim
n

=


2)Homogeneity
Any part of the fluid nature is constant and does
not depend on the spatial coordinates .
3Isotropy
The nature of fluid at any point in all directions are
the same.

For a polar fluid or a magnetic fluid, even it is
homogeneous, but it is not isotropic.


Continuum mechanics model is reasonable
under normal circumstances

Some special fluid flow, such as missile and
satellite altitude flight, and the shock boundary
layer, not to be dealed with a continuum
mechanics model.


1.1.2 Fluids Classification
(1) subject classification.
The fluid can be divided into the the ideal fluid and
viscous fluid based on mathematical description and
different approach

Considering compression the fluid can be divided into
compressible fluid and incompressible fluid. The former
called gas dynamics or compressible fluid dynamics; The
latter is called incompressible fluid mechanics or
hydraulics.
The actual fluid has viscosity and compressibility . The
above classification is a reasonable approximation of the
actual flow or simplified in some cases.




(2)Constitutive relation classification
Hooke's law: the relationship of stress and
deformation of solid mechanics
Constitutive relationship: the relationship of
stress and deformation of fluid movement.




(2)Constitutive relation classification

Newtonian fluid:
There is a linear relationship between the shear
stress caused by fluid deformation and
deformation speed or velocity gradient , this
viscous fluid is known as Newton fluid.
(Otherwise known as a non-Newtonian fluid)

t
y u c c



For non-Newtonian fluid, when the
velocity gradient does not change over time,
the Oswald law approximates as follows:
(1-2)

is called the apparent viscosity
coefficient
.
1-3




|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
y
u
a
t
a

1 - n
a
y
u
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=


1 - n
a
y
u
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
If n=1called Newtonian fluid
the line a
If n 1called pseudoplastic
fluid(line b)
If n 1called Inflation fluid
(line c)
when called Binghan Plastic
fluid line d.




0
t t >

1.1.3 Fluid transport properties


Fluid transport properties:
The fluid molecules do irregular movement,
and the fluid characteristic of the statistical
average of momentum, heat and mass transfer
caused by internal friction between layers
refers to:
the fluid viscosity
thermal conductivity
mass diffusivity


1.1.3 Fluid transport properties

1Viscous
Newtons tablet shear flow experiment
associated fluid viscous shear stress with
strain rate pointed out that the shear stress
is proportional to shear deformation speed,
which is that Newtonian viscous stress
equation
1-4
is Viscosity coefficient ,Coefficient of
dynamic viscosity
.

dy
du
t =

is thermodynamic function which is
connected with the temperature, pressure, and
the impact of pressure is not big.
For gas, temperature increase, will increase.
But for liquid, the result is opposite.
kinematic coefficient of viscosity :

1-5

v =


The gas viscosity approximate calculation formula
Maxwell-Rayleigh (1899)
1-6

Sutherland formula(1893)


n is temperature index
isthe gas dynamic viscosity coefficient at 1 atm, 0
s-Sutherland number


n
0 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
T
T

s T
s T
T
T
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
0
1.5
0 0

K T 273
0
=
0

Actual real fluid:
Viscous - viscous dissipation (irreversible
process).
Difficult to solve the non-linear equation

Fluids with small viscosity, such as water and
air, can be dealed with a non-viscousity fluid
when the speed is low

The fluid with is called an ideal fluid.



0 =


(2) Thermal conductivity
the Fourierlaw

q is the heat flux vector that pass through the
unit area in an unit time
k is heat conduction coefficientchanging with
temperature and pressure.

or



-kgradT T -k q = V =
n
0 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
T
T
k
k
s T
s T
T
T
k
k
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
0
1.5
0 0


The thermal conductivity is a reversible process,
heat conduction also results in mechanical
energy dissipation.
Heat conduction, the fluid heat Q with unit time
and unit volume can be represented by the
following formula:

T k
z
T
y
T
x
T
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
k Q V =
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=


3 Mass diffusivity
Mass transport properties of the fluid caused by
molecular random motion called mass diffusion.
self-diffusion that caused by the same fluid
molecular transport.
the mass transfer and exchange produced by
the molecular motion when a concentration
gradient presented in two different fluid.







Ficks law

--- The transport quality of fluid components
pass through unit area within the unit time;
Minus---concentration decreases direction;
D --- Diffusion coefficient;
--- Volume concentration, indicating that the
quality of the component of the fluid within the unit
volume.



( )
vi i
C D m V = -
i
m
i
i

i
i
M
C =
v


Mass concentration
The relationship between the transport quality and concentration
gradient can be written:

In the formula is the diffusion velocity of component fluid .
when the density of the mixed fluid constant,
Ficks law

Mass diffusion is also a reversible process, and is also one of the
reasons that generating mechanical energy dissipation.

vi
mi
C
C =
~
( )
i i
C D V
m
ln - V =
i vi vi i
C C D V m = V = ) (
i
V
i


4several dimensionless characteristic number
that characterizing fluid transport properties
Prandtl number

Schm number

Lewis number
these dimensionless numbers are property of
fluid and have nothing to do with the fluid state






k
c
P
p

= r
D
Sc

=
D c
k
Le
p

=


1.2 The contradictory phenomena between
ideal fluid dynamics and the actual flow
1.2.1 Dalembert's paradox
Uniform flow around a cylinder (outflow) is a
classic problem of ideal fluid dynamics.

Dalembert's paradox is that the drag on the
cylindrical that the circulation flow of ideal fluid
passing around is zero.




Acyclic amount flow of ideal fluid, is made up of
the uniform flow of the parallel flow
superimposed the reverse dipole with an intensity
m ,which constitute the plane irrotational flow.
The flow velocity distribution:
;

In the cylindrical surface (r = R), the radial velocity
, circumferential speed

V
u
u
in 1
2
2
s
r
R
V V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

0 =
r
V u
u
sin 2

= V V
u cos 1
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

r
R
V V
r


The pressure distribution of cylindrical surface
based on the Bernoulli equation is that :
2
2
2 2

+ = + V p V p

u
Defining the surface pressure coefficient as

u

2
2
sin 4 1
2
1
=

V
p p
C
P
Take the integral of cylindrical surface pressure,
we can get the force on the cylinder:
}
= =
t
u
2
0
0 cos dA p F
x
}
= =
t
u
2
0
0 sin dA p F
y


0 = + =
y x
F F F
It is shown that, in the circulation flow of ideal
fluid around a cylinder, the resistance on the
cylinder is zero, that is Dalembert's paradox.


The theoretical resistance cylindrical suffered is
equal to zero, because of the symmetry of the
surface pressure distribution before and after the
flow flowing around a cylinder.
In fact, because of viscous, cylindrical shall
subject to friction resistance and the pressure
difference drag action produced by boundary
layer separation


For the flow around a three-dimensional sphere,
similarly, we get the velocity distribution of the flow
around ball.


If we plug the ball velocity distribution into the Rubonuli
equation, we get the pressure surface of the ball or the
pressure coefficient distribution

u cos 1
3
3
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

r
R
V V
r
u
u
sin
2
1
3
3
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

r
R
V V
0 =
r
V u
u
sin
2
3

= V V
) sin
4
9
1 (
2
1
2
2
u + =

V p p
u

2
2
sin
4
9
1
2
1
=

V
p p
C
P

1.2.2 Pipe flow

1 The steady flow in a circular tube
In accordance with the ideal fluid dynamics, the
characteristics of ideal fluid flow is :
The velocity u and the pressure p along the flow
evenly distributed
The velocity profile on the different cross-section
are the same and the speed of each point on the
same cross section equal to each other
The pressure in the tube along the flow direction
unchanged (no mechanical energy loss).


1.2.2 Pipe flow

1 The steady flow in a circular tube
For the viscous fluid because of the viscous
impact, the velocity of the fluid in the tube wall
is equal to zero, and the speed of the tube axis
is the largest.
The shape of the tube velocity profile for
laminar flow is rotary parabolic, the pressure
gradually decreases along the flow direction,
and this flow is called Hagen-Poiseuille flow.


Hagen-Poiseuille flow ,we can use viscous fluid dynamics
to solve accurately the tube velocity distribution and
viscous frictional resistance. (See Chapter 3)

laminar turbulence Boundary layer is constantly
thickening, until the development of completely turbulence,
and which velocity profile distributed evenly or full than the
laminar
| e R


For turbulent flow in a smooth circular tube, its
velocity profile can be calculated with logarithmic
law or the exponential formula, the resistance
can be estimated with a simple Brad Hughes
(Blasius) formula or Prandtl formula.


The flow inside the conical pipe
For the Ideal incompressible fluid, the velocity within the channel
increases as the area decreases and is even-distributed along the
flow direction.
In fact, due to viscous, in the expansional channel, the adverse
pressure gradient makes the flow separation in the conical inner
wall, followed by the formation of the recirculation zone. When the
divergence angle is large, that will also be accompanied by large-
scale vortex, and the flow presents instability. Just as the above
picture.
According to Jeffery-Hamel, the similarity solution of flow in the
inner layer velocity distribution in 2-dimensional expansional or
contractional Channel when the angle of the channel.
o
10 2 = o

1.3 Two analytical methods of fluid
movement

1.3.1 Lagrange method
The Lagrange method focuses on fluid particle and
describing fluid particle motion, studying on the
changes of fluid state parameter, such as the fluid
velocity, acceleration, fluid pressure, density and
temperature.

Fluid particle radius vector

Here, radius vector is a material coordinate



) , ( t R r r =
) , , ( z y x R

1.3 Two analytical methods of fluid
movement

1.3.1 Lagrange method

Fixing and changing t, we get velocity,
acceleration changes of the fluid particle motion
Fixing t and changing ,
we get the change of position of different fluid dot at
the same time
Fluid particle velocity, acceleration is expressed as



) , ( t R r r =
) , , ( z y x R
R
r r
V
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= =
t dt
d
R
r V
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
2
2
t Dt
D
) , , ( z y x R


Component form



The characteristics of Lagrangian analysis method:
First, we describe the fluid motion according to the
change of fluid particles ;
Second, the momentum equations describing fluid
motion is the second-order partial differential
equations in mathematics.

R
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
t
x
u
R
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
t
y
v
R
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
t
z
w
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
2
2
t
x
dt
du
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
2
2
t
y
dt
dv
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
2
2
t
z
dt
dw

1.3.2 Euler method

Euler method is based on changes of the fluid
in space (control body) and study the change of
fluid movement speed, acceleration, and its
state parameters


is called the body coordinates, and it
has nothing to do with the initial time t
0


T v p , ,
) , , ( z y x r
) , ( t r R R =

1.3.2 Euler method



can also be written

Therefore Euler method is to describe fluid
motion according to the changes of fluid velocity
over time of fluid particles flowing through a
fixed space.
V
r r r r
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
z
w
y
v
x
u
dt
d
) , ( t r V V =
) , ( t r R R =


Fixing and changing t, we get the
variation of the fluid velocity over time at a fixed
spatial point

Fixing t and changing ,we get the
change of position of different fluid dot at the
same time






) , , ( z y x r
) , , ( z y x r


The acceleration expression Euler's method






dt
dz
z dt
dy
y dt
dx
x t Dt
D
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
V V V V V
V V
V V
) ( V +
c
c
=
t Dt
D
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
dt
du
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
dt
dv
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
dt
dw
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=


V V
V V
) ( V +
c
c
=
t Dt
D
partial derivative produced by non-stationarity
convective acceleration produced
by nonuniformity of flow field
material derivative describing the variation of
velocity by Eulerian method


Acceleration is speed change that
the observers perceive when move together
with fluid particle(trabant), namely material
derivative, which is also Lagrange analysis.
If the observer stays in fixed point and
doesn't move, he can only feels the partial
derivative , and could not perceive the
convective acceleration



Dt DV
t c cV
V V ) ( V


Partial derivative and convective acceleration
are Euler analysis



The formula set up quantitative relationship
between these two kinds of methods

V V
V V
) ( V +
c
c
=
t Dt
D


Eulerian method features:
1The research object is the flow field
2Describe the momentum equation of the flow
field movement in mathematics is a first order
partial differential equation, its easier to be
solved than the Lagrange method which is
second order partial differential equations.
Note that for any vector and any scalar
there are formulas
A
A V
A A
) ( V +
c
c
=
t Dt
D
B
B
t
B
Dt
DB
) ( V +
c
c
= V

1.3.3 Variable transformation of two
kinds of analysis methods


At the moment , The fluid particle at
AT one point , the fluid flow r to
with speed v

If the origin of radius vector R and r coincidence
=0
So,
or




0
t t = ) , , ( Z Y X R
t t =
) , , ( z y x r
r R b r A + = + ) (t
) (t b
}
A + = r R r
}
+ =
t
dt
0
V R r

1.3.3 Variable transformation of two
kinds of analysis methods


The variable interchangeable relationship of
these two kinds of analysis (Euler and
Lagrange) methods is




r R r A + =


(1) DISCUSS mathematical properties of
convective derivative (convective terms)
In Euler methods, the second item in the right
of the material derivative is nonlinear items, so
there exist flow field with acceleration of
convection, and its mathematical properties is
nonlinear.
For ideal fluid cannot use the additivity of the
solutions, the solution of the steady laminar
flow may not be uniqueness.



V V
V V
) ( V +
c
c
=
t Dt
D


In large Reynolds number or turbulent condition, there is
unsteady flow body pulsating.
Even for ideal fluid, It is difficult to solve the Euler equation
because of the nonlinear convective terms



V V V V rot
V
V = V )
2
( ) (
2
To an ideal, incompressible and irrotational fluid flow

The convection acceleration is only the kinetic energy term
of Bernoulli equation.
At this time , no sticky ideal fluid motion equation is also
nonlinear
0 = V rot





For viscous fluid flow, nonlinear term is
convection derivative term instead of viscous
stress item.
If the viscosity coefficient is constant, the
viscous stress itself is linear.
So the difficulty of analyzing viscous fluid flow
is not viscosity but non-viscosity term.














V V V V rot
V
V = V )
2
( ) (
2


(2)DISCUSS The mathematical formulation
of Incompressible fluid
In general, if fluid density in the flow process
remain unchanged, we call it incompressible
fluid.
Namely, a kind of fluid whose material derivative
of density is zero is incompressible fluid.






0 = dt d


indicates fluid density does not
change over time, but not indicate the density
is the same everywhere .
It may not be homogeneous fluid (grad=0).
Only if the fluid is incompressible and
homogeneous, its density is constant.


0 = dt d


By the Euclidean analysis method, material
derivative relationship


when ,grad=0, =const.

grad
t dt
d
+
c
c
= V
0 = dt d


1.4 Reynolds transport theorem

In order to apply the basic law that suitable for
material system (fluid particles system) to the
fluid flow in a control-volume (fixed space),
Reynolds transport theorem (or material
derivative of material volume integral) will be
used.

Reynolds transport theorem is a basic formula
that connect the fluid mechanics basic equations
with vortex motion.


1.4 Reynolds transport theorem


For the Lagrange analysis of the fluid particle
system


F: deformation gradient tensor
For Euler analysis method


: inverter deformation gradient tensor
R F R
R
r
r d d d =
c
c
= R r F c c =
r F r
r
R
R d d d =
c
c
=
1
r R F c c =
1
1
F
) , ( t R r r =
) , ( t r R R =


Jacobi number

As to a regular hexahedron



So

Jacobi can indicate the ratio of the fluid material
volume of the before and after deformation.



F R r = c c = J
0
t t = dXdYdZ dV =
0
t t =
= = dxdydz dV
0
JdV
0
dV dV J =


0
= J
0
1 1
= +
dt
d
dt
dJ
J

0
1
= + V div
dt
d

V div
dt
dJ
J
=
1
So


Physical meaning:
The divergence of V indicates the relative change
rate of fluid particle passing trace along J .
Take Element of volume V whose border is an
arbitrary surface S. is a scalar function
within the V.
Volume integral material derivative
) , ( t r
0 0
0 0
) ( dV
Dt
DJ
Dt
D
J dV J
Dt
D
dV
Dt
D
V V V
} } }
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =

So

In Euler analysis method


Get Reynolds transport theorem:


dV
Dt
D
dV
Dt
D
V V
} }
|
.
|

\
|
V + = V

dV dV
t
dV
Dt
D
V V V
) (
} } }
V +
c
c
= V

V div
dt
dJ
J
=
1

) ( V +
c
c
= V
t Dt
D


dS V dV
t
dV
Dt
D
S
n
V V
} } }
+
c
c
=

dV
t
V
}
c
c
dS V
S
n
}

Reynolds transport theorem has established
the relationship between the physical
quantities in closed system (fluid particles
system) and open system (control volume).

For vector
A
dS V dV
t
dV
Dt
D
S
n
V V
} } }
+
c
c
= A
A
A

1.5 The mutual relations between the material
derivatives in static and moving coordinate systems
We often use a fixed absolute coordinate system
(inertial coordinate system) to describe fluid motion, but
according to different problems, the relative coordinate
system (non inertial coordinate system) is more
convenient.

eg:
unsteady flow in absolute system, but steady flow in
relative system





1.5 The mutual relations between the substantial
derivatives in static and moving coordinate systems
1.5.1 A scalar field (physical quantity)
In Euler method, the material derivative of scalar quantity
B in a moving relative coordinate system
1-59

subscript r indicates relative coordinate system, W is
relative velocity.
For a scalar quantity, the trace of a fluid element in a
static coordinate system is different from that in a
moving coordinate systems
B
t
B
Dt
DB
r r
) ( V +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
w


But in a finite time interval, the starting point
and the end point of the absolute trace and
relative trace may be at the same space
position respectively.
Corresponding to the starting point and the
end point, the material derivative relationship
of scalar B is




r
Dt DB Dt DB ) ( =


The relationship between absolute velocity and
relative velocity
w u v + =
B
t
B
Dt
DB
) ( V +
c
c
= V
B B
t
B
Dt
DB
) ( ) ( V + V +
c
c
= w u
Scalar field has the same change rate with time
in static and moving coordinate system and
velocity gradient is also the same
r
B B ) (V = V


In cylindrical coordinate system



Because


So

) , , ( z r u
u
e
c
c
= V
B
B ) (u
r r
z z t r r = + = = , , e | u
u
e
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c B
t
B
t
B
r
B
t
B
Dt
DB
r r
) ( V +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
w
B B
t
B
Dt
DB
) ( ) ( V + V +
c
c
= w u

1.5.2 A vector field (physical quantity)

When vector rotes with the angular velocity of Moving
coordinate relative to static coordinate , its change rate with time in
the moving coordinate system is zero. But in the static coordinate for
the change rate is
(1-65)
with

Substitute into above equation and consider , get
vector field in motion and static cylindrical coordinate system
relationship 1-66

e A
dt
d
A
dt
dA
dt
A d
dt
d e
e
e A
+ = =
) (
A
e
= + + = ) (
z r
e e e A
dt
d
A
u
0 = dt dA
A
A
A A

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
Dt
D
Dt
D
r


For vector 1-67

with substitute into equation(1-66), At the
same time considering and
Finally get moving cylindrical coordinate system of material derivative
expression
1-68
Draw an analogy between equation (1-67)and(1-68)So the partial
derivative relationship of a vector field in sports cylindrical coordinate
system is
1-69
A
A w
A A
) ( V +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
r r
t Dt
D
A V
A A
) ( V +
c
c
=
t Dt
D
w u v + =
u e c c = V A A u ) (
( ) A A
A A A
V +
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
w
u
e
t t
r
( ) A A
A A A
V +
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
w
u
e
t t
r