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YALE

ORIENTAL

SERIES

"

RESEARCHES

"

VOLUME

VI

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES

BY

ALBERT

T. CLAY

NEW

HAVEN PRESS
OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS

YALE
LONDON
"

UNIVERSITY
MILFORD
"

HUMPHREY

MDCCCCXIX

Copyright,

1919,

by

Yale

University

Press.

THE

ALEXANDER

KOHUT FUND.

MEMORIAL

PUBLICATION

is published This volume Alexander Kohut Memorial

was

by the Yale Publication

University
Fund. This

Press

on

the

Foundation

established October 13, 1915, by a gift to Yale University from of enabling scholars to publish members of his family for the purpose in the Semitic field of research. texts and monographs Ph.D. Kohut, Reverend guished The Alexander (Leipzig),a distinthe fund has been memory scholar, in whose April 22, 1842, of a noted family established, was born in Hungary, Ahavath Chesed in pastor of the Congregation of rabbis. When

Oriental

New

York He

City, he became
and
was

one a

Seminary,
death.
was
a

logical of the founders of the Jewish Theoprofessor in that institution until his

noted pulpit orator, able to discourse with equal in three languages. Among his contributions to Semitic mastery learning is the monumental Completum, an work Aruch paedic encycloin eight volumes. Semitic and of the Talmud, Oriental scholars have honored his memory by inscribing to bim a 1 volume of Semitic Studies (Berlin, 897). dictionary

0)

TO

GEORGE

A.

BARTON,

Ph.D.,

LL.D.

MY

ESTEEMED

COLLEAGUE

AND

FEIEND

PREFACE Sayce and Wright about forty years ago brought to the attention of those interested in Ancient History the forgotten empire of the
Hittites.

The

study
which

in the decades
Another

of the inscriptions preceded had made

who
came

and Babylonia of Egypt ing this possible by furnish2000 B. C.

allusions to this people

to the fore about

ence nearly forgotten empire which exerted a powerful influthe Amorite, is also the surrounding nations, namely upon to light through brought similar investigations of the last few literature; but this empire decades, largely in the cuneiform belonged to the period justprior to the ascendancy of the Hittites.

study showing that the religion and culture of Israel are not of Babylonian origin, nians the thesis was that the culture of the Semitic Babyloadvanced
in the land had, if not its origin, at least a long development before it was carried into Babylonia ; and that the of the Amorites from Babylonia, not importations religion and culture of Israel were

In Amurru,

the Home

of the

Northern

Semites,

but developed and As indigenous

naturally

in their

own

land from

an

earlier

civilization. is well known, there appeared

a

in Germany

years ago Babylonian

vigorous school of critics generally School, which Astral-mythological or furnished

the Hebrews

of about a score known the Panas

Babylonia

with most ideas, including monotheism; in fact, the members of this school held that the civilization of Israel generally had its origin in Babylonia.

had

that maintained of their religious

Winckler,

the founder

that the patriarchs and Saul, David, etc., were

to show of the school, endeavored other leaders of Israel, as Joshua, Gideon, solar or lunar deities of the Babylonians.

Delitzsch called Canaan domain a at the time of the exodus of Babylonian Gunkel held that Israel's religion had assimiculture. lated it had become this Babylonian actively material, and when in strength, it swallowed the foreign elements, feathers found that elements of the Marduk and all. Zimmern cult were his death was applied to Christ : even suggested by that of Marduk But the most extreme Jensen, who found and Tammuz. of all was relaxed
(9)

10

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

that all the biblical characters, from Abram John the Baptist, were simply borrowed myths. In popularizing that
these theories,
as

to Christ, even

ing includsun-

from

Babylonian

far-reachwell as others not so ing, arose certain American and English scholars resorted to all kinds of efforts to pare them down so as to make the borrowings them more palatable: by making early instead of in Germany,
that when

late, proposing

Israel entered Palestine they were part it appear the mental possession of the people; or by making of that these Babylonian myths were simply used in a devotional way
to illustrate ethical implications, or a more spiritual faith. In many
as

media

for the expression

of

quarters, scholars gravitated it was and conceded generally that there was dependence a considerable Babylonia. Reflections of these upon revolutionary ideas flared up almost everywhere. The purpose to examine was the data upon of the study Amurru

toward

this theory;

which

the theories rested; the results were such that it could be Israel did not adopt the civilization of the Babylonians asserted that and that they were not the purveyors religious of borrowed

ideas

from Babylonia. The myths study of the cultural influence, for elements of both lands did not show such Babylonian language apart from the use of the Babylonian and syllabary in the West, the evidence from the Neolithic to the Greek period is and
To cite a single test, Ellil was the name wanting. of the chief god Nergal was of Babylonia until Marduk supplanted him. also a deity. The thesis Amurru well known Babylonian maintained that

of Amorite deities which had arisen in Babylonia largely because of the form in which they had been written : En-lil, Amar-Utug, Even though this proves incorrect, and Ne-Uru-Gal.
were names

these

if Babylonia

with its religion and culture, where is the influence of these deities seen? The single use of the ideogram Ne-TJru-Gal on the Ta'anach seal proves nothing, for it doubtless reproduces the name But where in of an Amorite god. the West

furnished the West

do

we

which
1

we

know

find the pronunciation of Ellil,Marduk, was actually used in Babylonia ?

like Mordecai mentioned

Nergal,1

Post-exilic

names

"the

priest of Nergal" B. C. century

be considered ; nor cannot of course in a Phoenician inscription of the third

PREFACE.

11

presented not only to demonstrate that the Panbut also to show that the Babylonists' claims must be abandoned, elements from which the Semitic Babylonian religion had largely The thesis
was

evolved Amurru

land, or in the land of their origin in the West culture being imported ; and that, instead of the Hebrew from Babylonia, it had grown naturally from up and developed down from generations older and indigenous civilizations which had come To make this appear reaching far back into the ages. had quity antibeen

to show that there was an necessary reasonable, it became for the civilization of this Semitic land which had hitherto unrecognized.

fully expected that out of the mass of details offered in would seize upon substantiation of the thesis, certain reviewers It
was

such

as

reader. there are

be readily recognized as doubtful by the casual would Mingled with the hundreds of facts presented in Amurru, many comparisons and suggested identifications set forth,

on the that the unbiased investigator recognized were not "put level." For as one "It is sufficient merit same scholar wrote: to have opened up new vistas of the ancient culture of the Northern if some Semites ; and even of the points emphasized, and Western

unduly, should not turn out to be supports for the theories, than enough and more remains to substantiate the main enough thesis that the Amorites at an entered Babylonia early period perhaps and the worship of certain gods and cosmological and designate as Babylonian traditions with them, and that what we other ments elereligion is the result of the mixture of these Amoritish Valley."2 those indigenous to the Euphrates with
It
was

brought

appeal It was
cause

that such an innovation would not thought for a moment to Winckler and his followers, abroad or in this country. that such a reactionary view would not even contemplated

the casting aside of the cherished Pan-Babylonian theories by those who had adopted them as their own. And yet the publications since the appearance of the book in 1909 show that the literature suddenly stream of Pan-Babylonian to an almost insignificant rivulet. gratifying has been the number in various comment publications, or
2

changed

from

rent tor-

Most

of those Avho, by review or have by correspondence,

24. 1910, p. 291.

Prof. J. A. Montgomery

in The

Nation, March

12

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

point of view; and even of those who, though unable to see their way clear to reverse completely their position, have realized that the cumulative proof presented is evidence of that requires serious consideration. a character
accepted
new

the

in no sense was as an meant work Amurru apologetic effort in the interests of the traditional view of the Old Testament. It The
was

not

intended
the

to minimize

brought

current

myths

or

the fact that the biblical writers legends, with which they were

monotheistic concepacquainted, into accord with their advanced tion It did, however, defend the universe. of the government of historical existence of such personages as Abraham, vigorously the

Moses, etc.,as well as of a patriarchal period. "While there was no apologetic effort intended, the conclusion which resulted tended
to emphasize the reliabilityof the main outlines of the early history of the Hebrews and neighboring peoples as recorded in the Old

Testament.
purpose of the present contribution is to assemble all the light that bears upon the history and religion of the Amorites, especially of that early period when the empire stillexisted; to

The

corroborate the great antiquity that the writer has claimed for this people in making them one of the earliest known ; to show that Ur of the Chaldees was the capital of the Amorite very probably empire ; incidentally to offer additional evidence in substantiation that the generally of the thesis of Amurru; and to demonstrate accepted theory baseless.

of the Arabian

origin of the Semites

is utterly

It would be rash to imagine that all the multitudinous details forth will pass the test of future searching inquiry. Inevitable set alterations and difference of opinion manifestly will result from their presentation ; yet it is fully expected that the main outlines will stand the test.

writer is indebted to bis colleague Prof. C. C. Torrey, to Prof. A. T. Olmstead, Doctor Ettalene M. Grice and Doctor Henry F. Lutz for valuable suggestions, and assistance rendered in connection with the manuscript and proofreading. Albeet
New Haven,

The

T. Clay.

Conn.,
11, 1918.

November

CONTENTS.
Page

Introduction The Home

The

17 27 50 53 58

II III

of the Semites
Amurru

Country

IV
V

Excavations
The

in Amurru of Amurru and Writing

or

Races

VI VII
VIII IX
X

The Languages The Name Amorites Early

of Amurru

61
66

Amurru

Uru

in Babylonia in Amurru

76 95
100 Ill 121 131

Babylonians

Ur the Capital of Amurru Other Mesopotamian

Mediterranean Amorites Egypt Kingdoms

XI XII XIII

Kingdoms

in Cappadocia

XIV
XV

and Amurru
in the Old Testament and Amurru

138
152

Amorites
Assyria

XVT XVII

156
162

The

Deities of Amurru

(13)

ABBREVIATIONS
A ABL ABB
ADD AE

"

Barton,
Harper,

Archaeology Assyrian

and the Bible. Letters. and Babylonian Doomsday and Europa.

Book. Documents.

Johns, An
Johns,

Assyrian

Assyrian

Deeds

Miiller, Asien

AJT

AJSL
Amurru AKA

of Theology. American of Semitic Languages. Clay, Amurru the Home of the Northern Semites. King, The Annals of the Kings of Assyria.
American Journal Tallqvist, Assyrian
Briinnow, A
zur

und Journal

APN
B

Personal

Names.

List Classified of Cuneiform Ideographs. Assyriologie. de Philologie Assyro-Babylonienne. Records

BA Babyloniaca BAR BE
BRM

Beitrage

Babyloniaca-Etudes Breasted, Ancient Babylonian Babylonian

of Egypt.

Expedition Records

Catalogue

Catalogue

of the

of the University of Pennsylvania. of J. Pierpont Morgan. tion. Cuneiform Tablets in the Kouyunjik Collecin the Library

Clay PN
Chron

Clay, Personal
King,

Names

of the Cassite Period

(YOR

I).

CT
EBL EM

Chronicles concerning Early Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian

Museum.

Babylonian

Kings.

ish Tablets, etc., in the BritLarsa

Lutz, Early

Babylonian

Letters

from

(TBT

II).

Miiller, Egyptian
Races.

Mythology;

Vol. XIII, The Mythology

of all

HB HE

King, A

HLC
JA

of Babylon. Breasted, A History of Egypt. Barton, Haverford Library Collection of Cuneiform Tablets.
Journal
Journal

History

Asiatique.

JAOS
JBL

JRAS
KB KAT3

of the American Oriental Society. Journal of Biblical Literature. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Bibliothek. Keilinschriftliche Zimmern and Winckler, Die Keilinschriften und
Testament.

das

Alte

(15)

16 KTA

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

Messerschmidt, Thureau-Dangin,

aus Keilschrifttexte

Assur.

LC

Lettres

et Contrats

de I'epoque

de la premiere

Dynastie

Babylonienne.

LIB. MBI

King,

Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi. Barton, Miscellaneous Babylonian Inscriptions.

MDOG
MI

Mitteilungen

der Deutschen

Orient-Gesellschaft.
lection Col-

Clay, Miscellaneous

Inscriptions in the Yale Babylonian

Miscellen; Part I

(YBT I).
Miscln
MVAG OLZ PSBA R
RA

"Weissbach, Babylonische

der Verbffentlichungen Deutschen der V orderasmtischen Orient alistische Literatur-Zeitung. Mitteilungen Proceedings

Wissenschaftliche Orient-Gesellschaft. Gesellschaft.

Rawlinson,
Revue

of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western

Orientale. Assyria.
and Names.

Asia.

RBBA

et d'Archeologie Jastrow, Religious Beliefin Babylonia

d'Assyriologie

Ranke RS SA SBH

PN

Ranke,
Revue

Early

Babylonian

Personal

Semitique.
Hymnen.
Ta'annek,

and Akkad. Reisner, Sumerisch-Babylonische King, Sumer Hrozny, Die

von Keilschrifttexte

Ta'annek

in Sellin Tell

Ta'annek. TSBA
Transactions The

UMBS
VB

of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. Publications University Museum of the Babylonian

tion. Sec-

Vorderasiatische Bibliothek.
Yale

TS

YBC
YBT

Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmaler. Babylonian Collection.

Yale Yale

Oriental

Series
"

"

Babylonian Researches.

Texts.

YOR
ZA

Oriental Series

Zeitschrift Assyriologie. fur

INTRODUCTION
evidence of the early existence of the Amorites, as well as largely theory, depends the proof of the futility of the Arabian a study of countries, cities, temples, deities, and upon of names
The
persons.

welcome founder

occasional historical reference is found which throws light upon the subject, for example, the origin of the as to the invasion of the land, or a of a dynasty, an allusion An

But in determining etc. suzerainty of the country, data upon which historical events origins or influences, and even important evidence available at present based, there is no more are

title showing

than that furnished

In not a even a single upon for example, it rested alone upon the resemblance name; of the Humbaba Humba, an name epic to the name of the Gilgamesh Elamitic god, that the belief that the cedar forest scenes of the epic
were

the study of names. few instances, considerable depends through

laid in Elam,

which, however,

instead of the Lebanon is now definitely shown is

at present
more

or

Amanus

districts,

mistake

(seeChapter
thousand
personal to all

VIII).
There
are

known

than

hundred

written upon clay tablets belonging which were history. Having the opportunity periods of Babylonian ing of studyit becomes names a particular country, such large masses of of to single out or designate with considerable accuracy possible what
names

is foreign and what is not. A large number in Babylonian literature do of foreign names it impossible to not contain any known elements, which fact makes identify their source; but thanks to our increasing knowledge of the cultural elements of certain peoples, at least those of a general exact knowledge character, and more of the civilization of others,
it is quite possible to identify with the one hand that are Babylonian on
that
are

names considerable accuracy Sumerian, and on the other or Cassite, Hittite, Mitannian, Elamitic, Persian, Hebrew,

Egvptian,

Arabic, Greek, etc.

(17)

18

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

from a readily be determined of these nationalities can but even the nationality of knowledge of their nomenclatures; quently frehave littleknowledge in languages can names of which we
Most
to start with we may be familiar belonging to a foreign people, it nevertheless with only a few names to identify many scores becomes soon of others as possible know For example, we may that belonging to the same people.

be identified. Although

Teshub

was

the

name

in Mitanni. found

Names
as

Hittite god, who constituted with Teshub of

a

was
can

also worshipped tatively therefore be tenelements

set apart

Hittite, or Mitannian.

The

that

are

of other with names combined with Teshub are compounded deities, which enables us to increase the list,at least tentatively. be continued until a surprisingly large list of This process can in thus assembling and words is collected. The possibility of error determining foreign
names,

of whose language we ; but nevertheless, although such lists of foreign names suffer the method leads to permanent results. modification, found on tablets from Babylonia The foreign names represent

well as words, belonging to peoples have little perhaps no knowledge, is recogor nized
as

in contact with those who lived in the valley the peoples that came instances only isolated In some of the Tigris and Euphrates. belonging to a particular of names, and again masses instances such influx of foreigners is caused In many people. the by migrations or conquests ; a foreign nation has invaded brought land; or these alien names represent peoples who were
examples
occur,

captive into the land, or considered in connection

it possible in some with littleadditional data.

tusu, many

settled in it. These foreign names, of rulers, make with the personal names instances to reconstruct considerable history
who
names

Amorite

Nisin, Larsa, and Babylon as well as the thousands of foreign Amorite

example, in the time of ManishThe names occur. of the rulers of the dynasties, which were contemporaneous,

For

in the legal and epistolary literature of the latter part of the third millennium influence. The names B. C, show the same of the rulers of the Cassite period bear Cassite names, and the documents of this time
names

of the contain many Hebrew names names. Israel had been

character, and also Hittite-Mitannian abound in the Assyrian inscriptions, after is true in the carried into captivity. The same
same

I.

INTRODUCTION.

19

Neo-Babylonian

In the Persian
some

Egyptian

period after Judah had been carried into captivity. Persian and names, many period, besides Hebrew due to the rule the latter apparently occur, names

to be expected, in the And as was of the Persian kings in Egypt. found. Besides the large masses Greek period, Greek names are in in the various periods can smaller groups of foreign names,

many

instances
names

be accounted

for.

in certain periods deciding questions bearing on invasions, migrations, influence, etc. In brief, the study of names, together with isolated historical facts
peoples, has made gathered from the records of contemporaneous it possible to create at least the outlines of the history of certain the political histoiy and religion of the history land Amurru all our knowledge of Hebrew would embrace and religion, the early legends and primitive religions of Palestine the history and religion touched referred to in the Old Testament,
on

eign the absence of such fordata in furnishes very important Even

ancient nations. A complete treatise

upon

in the Amoraic

B. C,

as

of the early period, Incidental references are made, when the Amorite empire existed. however, to certain facts belonging to the later period, from Egyptian belonging
We
are

is the purpose the material

inscriptions of the first millennium and Aramaic It in the later Greek and Roman sources. well as to emphasize especially of the present study, however,
belonging
to the history

and Biblical sources, to the early period. here interested

which

throw

light upon

questions

chiefly in the Amorites of the third, fourth, and fifth millenniums B. C, when the great empire of the Amorites is that the Semites existed, although the prevailing new
came of Amurru out of Arabia as barbarians in the latter part of B. C, and later. True, the knowledge the third millennium we have of their early history is littlemore than a glimmer here and

there, obtained from the records of Babylonia feel the pulse of this people by contact as we in the surrounding lands. It is upon appear
must

and

Egypt,

except

with offshoots that these data that we

namely, the influence exerted by the Amorites in contact through they came upon peoples with whom their encroachments upon, and invasions of other lands.
;

largely rely at present

The

existence

of

an

Amorite

civilization

as

early

as

the Baby-

20

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

furnished Babylonia well as the inference that Amurru with its Semitic inhabitants, as noted, are dependent largely upon inscriptions. Unfortunately the Sumerian at the and Akkadian
Ionian,
as

very

investigation we of our difficultyof differentiating between what Semitic. beginning The fact that
a

are

confronted and

with
what

the is

is Sumerian

language that has

in the Sumerian religious idea appears Much does not necessarily imply that it is Sumerian. has already proved to been credited to the Sumerians
name or a

idea of the ziggurrat, for example, being a high worshipped, is generally regarded place, upon which the gods were to be almost entirely due to the idea. This seems a Sumerian as be Semitic.
The

fact that the towers with which they are far as is known, as because

bear Sumerian
connected. that have

names,

as

well
case

as
even

the temples in centres, It is largely

But this is the

are regarded as having of these names district. from a mountainous come We know of a certainty that in all early periods of which we guage have knowledge, the Semite as well as the Sumerian used the lan-

always been that the Sumerians

Semitic.

was

late periods Sumerian of the latter. Even in comparatively gical used for legal purposes ; and up to the very latest, as the liturIt was language. used frequently also for monumental
on

in all periods. Lugal-zaggisi used both languages I, 87, and UMBS V, 34). The same BE his monuments (cf.
purposes true of Sargon

is

(UMBS

V, 34,

a etc.),nd kings of the Nisin, Larsa,

and Babylon dynasties. Long ago it was a Semite, when argued that Lugal-zaggisi was inscription was known (BE I, 266-268). It was only his Sumerian also maintained that
names

like Ur-Nina
or (Bau-ukin,

A-Kur(Kalbi-Nind),

Gal
Hero

(Apil-Uru),Dun-gi of Gir"), etc., were

garb. Naturally

perhaps Semitic, but that they

Dun-Gir
appeared

"the

in

Sumerian Sumerian
other
even names

it is possible to transpose most of the into Semitic, because the ancient Oriental and names in construction and in meaning, had much in common
extent this
was

if not linguistically. been

it cannot be proved to what "While unfortunately be shown to have can actually done, the custom

practiced.

I.

INTKODUCTION.

21

For

example, of Babylonian
were

written
names,

in the period of the Larsa dynasty, the golden era history, we know of Semitic names of places which the exact pronunciation us phonetically, giving of that also written in Sumerian; and in some transposed, for example, Ishkun-Nergal, the are city in the fourteenth year of Rim-Sin, is also
were

these
cases

the elements Semitic name of a

written

in Sumerian, it is very

NergaJ-gar-ra.1

Also

because

to often difficult know from have to do with we the personal name appears, whether e. (i. Semitic)or a Sumerian.

of other considerati the form in which

an

Akkadian

this is not without a parallel even Japanese name written ideographically

But

in the present time. be also pronounced can

in

Chinese, which would fact unless the name

instances, it cannot that
a

be quite different from Japanese; and in is known to be one the other, in many or

be determined.
was

With

the knowledge,

fore, there-

centre

Semitic,
even
same

we

have

reason

written is true of the names of temples, ziggurrats, and deities. Neis the name Uru-Gal, "Nergal," of a deity in a Sumerian garb, but we know the deity was Semitic.
The
names

though

Semitic, and also that the dynasty was to infer that many of the personal names, in Sumerian, The were actually Semitic.

Sumerian, is true
even

of the temples of every names appear with Sumerian in Amorite

as well as city, Akkadian in the inscriptions. This

lands, for example, the temples at Aleppo, Harran, Tirqa, etc., bore Sumerian It is impossible to names. explain this at the present time in any other way than that it was due to the fact that the Semites had used the language and script
of the Sumerians

time, of course, prior to our From this we get the impression that we are far earliest records. from the point of having clear ideas as to where and when the Semites first used the Sumerian cuneiform for their language. Naturally, these are problems which can only approach solution
at
a

very

early

the written language of the Semitic the latter peoples other than the Semitic Babylonian, from whom At present, absolutely nothing is known came. of any Semitic after
more

is known

about

script except
1

the Babylonian,

prior

to the earliest known

YOB IV
1.

Phoe-

See Grice, Chronology

of the Larsa

Dynasty,

22

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOBITES.

alphabetic writing, and this is dated from nician and Aramaic Semites in Cappadocia already used in the third about 1000 B. C. B. C. what we have been regarding as the Babylonian millennium and script. A few tablets found in middle Mesopotamia lonian the Babyindicate that in the early part of the second millennium letters the Amarna script was used there. And of course
language the Hittite tablets show that the language and script were the land in the latter half of the second millennium used throughout B. C, not only for Semitic tongues but non-Semitic as well.

and

us of conclude that many other considerations make from solution at the present time. involved are far the problems "We may ultimately find that the Semites had adopted their system of cuneiform writing before they settled in the valley ; or that they

These

and

for a period after they entered did not have a written language invaded and became masters of the the valley, until the Sumerians find that the Semites, bringing with them their land; or we may culture, invaded however, whom,
the land already occupied by the Sumerians, upon for their written language, dependent they were

and from Sumerian

one

The system of writing evolved. which contact their own being the parent script and perhaps for a time the only stand used by the Semitic Babylonians, it is not difficultto underin the early period how its use was more extensive very much

than the script which had evolved from it. "While these questions cannot be solved, the writer, in view of the increased light upon the situation covering investigations of a to the view that the Semitic and more series of years, inclines more lonian, elements that have been absorbed in the culture we regard as Babythan is usually recognized ; and, more numerous are much
moreover,

uals that although the names of temples, gods and individin a Sumerian garb, this is no proof that they are not appear
in his Busspsalmen
that the penitential admitted translations from the Semitic Babylonian

Semitic.
Zimmern

represent psalms may into Sumerian, and that there text was a whether Prince in his Materials for a

mining certain criteria for deterBabylonian or origin. of Sumerian Sumerian Lexicon also takes the position
were no

that many

of the Sumerian

texts

are

really "translations

of

I.

INTRODUCTION.

23

Semitic priests into the formal religious SumeBriinnow, The late American scholar, Rudolph rian language." in letters published some (RA 18, 259 ff.), years ago by Halevy Semitic ideas by
the position that all the so-called bilingual texts revert to Babylonian originals. He inclined to the view that the Semites were the original inhabitants of the valley, and that the Sumerians, took

entering, largely adopted the civilization they found in the land. Semitic, He did not maintain that the origin of the civilization was due to the amalgamation but that it was a product of these two
on races,

in which

the Semitic element

predominated,

and

eventually

gained supremacy. The thought expressed Akkadian Sumerian, known.

by these writers, that much of the Sumeroliterature that has been handed down is Semitic and not in the light of all that is seems perfectly reasonable
as

the religious texts the knowledge that it reasonthe writing was able confined to the scribe or priest, makes intended to invoke the to infer that the formulae which were

Even

regards

deities or charm

or less the spirits would be couched in a form more The religious and unintelligible to the pious Semitic applicant. intellectual leaders were in this way able to awe their clients and keep them dependent by using a language them that was upon

is also of the opinion that the Semites occupied the land prior to the entrance of the Sumerians, who, he holds, settled in southern Babylonia, drove the Semites northward, and He bases his argument the fact on occupied their old cult centres. that the monuments show that the Sumerians represented their hair and long beards, while they themselves gods with abundant they represhaved their heads and faces ; also that the garments sent
wearing are different from those of the people. Since gods are usually depicted wearing the same as man, costume it must follow that the image of the gods, as regards their hair and
as

unintelligible. Eduard Meyer

their gods

have been according to the pattern shown them by their Meyer thinks were To be conthe Semites. predecessors, whom sistent, Meyer have to admit that the primitive and unculwould tured Semite must have dressed well ; and that the Sumerian, who had the genius for art, was dependent upon him at least for these

dress, must

24

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

us marks of his civilization. This reminds of the well-dressed Atnorites, whom the Egyptian artist depicted in the tomb of BernHassan (seeChapter XIV).

first question as to whether the Semites or the Sumerians occupied the land of Babylonia, is here irrelevant. Suffice it to find both present in know that in the earliest history known, we
The

Sumer

as

well

as

in Akkad.

fitting to discuss briefly the keeping In this connection, it seems Semitic or distinct or differentiating between what is Akkadian to the criticism Babylonian and what is West Semitic. In answer
on of Bohl,2 who takes issue with the thesis presented in Amurru that it does not keep separate these elements, which the ground themselves, as difference the Babylonians early as the time of

Hammurabi,

what The

clearly recognized, it is only is clearly set forth in Amurru the Home

necessary

to rehearse

of the

Northern

ites. Sem-

of the Semites who as the northern branch of the Semitic family, is in are regarded the lands west of Babylonia ; that the people from this region ians valley, and in time were called Akkadmigrated to the Euphrates
;

title of this thesis implies that the home

that

invaders, what

periodically, after the civilization of the earliest into influenced by the Sumerians, had been developed

invasions or is peculiarly known Akkadian, there were as that brought additional migrations during the succeeding millenniums dealing are people from the same region into the valley. We with millennia.
a

The

century

or

two, would

civilization under these conditions, after from what it was be sufficiently removed
came

originally, so that the people who would be recognized as foreign. be

more

The

afresh from the old centres distinction, naturally, would

pronounced

in centres

where
know,

Sumerian

influences

were

greater. Each Babylonian

school of scribes which different appellations of the same sunother schools. The deity of the Semites can only be accounted for in this way. hundreds of names show that as a of deities written in Sumerian and from
The

each had

city, as its temple and

we

represented

principality, distinct was

rule it was
-

customary
und

to write them
p. 39.

ideographically, and that the

Kanaanaer

Hebraer,

I.

INTRODUCTION.

25

selected were often descriptive of the god's attributes; dEn-amas, for example, dEn-lil, "Lord as "Lord of the storm"; dEn-Din-tirki, of the fold"; or, as indicative of the god's origin, It can "Lord scarcely be thought possible that all of Babylon." in common in Sumerian were the gods' names usage pronounced
as

ideograms

written,

for

example

dNin-a-dam-azag-ga,
etc.

dNiii^igi-si-bar-ra,

dUmtin-bad-urudu-nagar-ki,

written intended to however, even though originally not names of deities, dNe-Uru-gal, perhaps for example, be pronounced "light as such, formation, dEn-lil dAmar-Utug, a syncretistic of the great Uru,"
"lord

Other

ideographically

of the storm,"
or

dNin-gal Nergal,
name or

"great

lady,"

etc., in time

were

called

pronounced The actual

been Adad,

Shara, Ura,

Ellil, and Nikkal respectively. have of the deity En-lil, however, may In some other name of the storm-deity.

Marduk,

other words, the ideogram into use, and came and deity.

itselfin
even

some

instances

was

displaced

the original

name

pronounced of the

It is understood that dNin-Gir-Su, Lady of Girsu, at Telloh, was The name a deity similar if not identical with dNin-IB at Nippur. know Inurta or Inmashtu in was of the latter we now pronounced It would not be surprising the late period (see Chapter XVII). to learn that dNin-Gir-Su originally was simply another ideogram Urta or Inurta. Doubtless, the name used at Telloh for the same

ideogram At

dNin-Marki
the
name

perhaps without any exception written in that city with the sign Lagab with igi-gunu, inserted, and yet there are reasons for holding the view that Shara
was a

Umma

others and many of the deity Shara

were was

originally the

same.

very

common

name

deities and temples, not Chapter XVII, and MI p.

names

element found only in Babylonia

or

in the appellations of but in Amurru (see

14). While

of Babylonian

deities appear

of the several thousand in Sumerian dress, from the

most

few whose actual pronunciation know have reason for we now we believing that the origin of a very large number ically of the ideographin Sumerian Semitic. was written names As
an

illustration,let from Amurru

a

Babylonia

think of the original Semites ('Amur= with their deity 'Amor

us

entering 'Awur=
to

'Uru). In
above,
not

thousand

years,

only could

the

name

under have

circumstances

referred

suffered modifications, but

26

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

the conception thousand years

as

well

as so

during the of the deity as well. Even in Amurru, under different influence, the conception of the deity have suffered modithe pronunciation may of its name fication,
be quite and the
a

peoples
we

that there would living in Babylonia

gap

between

newcomers.

this cult of the In other words,

lonia originally entered Babyas having modified under other Different names for their influences their religious conceptions. arisen in the different centres storm-deity had in the meanwhile more or less distinct said, were occupied by Semites, which, as was
must look upon from the wide

the Semites, who area of Amurru,

had

each other and under different influences. In other words, in a thousand years, under influences of this kind, a culture would had previously been have developed what quite distinct from brought into the land. With these conditions in mind, it is quite from
that the priests and the guild of scribes would look understandable a as foreigners, and as possessing upon the fresh influx of Amorites The same true with referwas ence cult quite distinct from their own.
was

to personal names; originally Amorite,

for example,

the

name

Ishme-Dagan

Amurru, Dagan.
name

in Jashma'-Dagan pronounced and was Ishmebut it had long been Babylonized and pronounced bearing the When, however, fresh invasions brought men

into the country was the difference in the pronunciation In other words, noted, for the scribes wrote Ja-as-ma-'-dDa-gan. less Babyin a generation or so the foreign Semites were more or Ionized,
there
were
or

or

were
no

absorbed completely by the Akkadians fresh influx,foreign names either gave way

and if dian, to Akka;

the nomenclature gradually in the pronunciation. This is shown period

of the Cassite dynasty, Semitic Larsa, Nisin, and Babylon dynasties, when Amorite names In the Cassite period, owing to the inactivity of the abounded. The Amorites, West Semitic names very generally disappeared.

ceased to show any distinction in the by a study of the names which followed that of the West

doubtless given up for that of cult of the individual family was the land, with which it had much in common. The distinction, therefore, as to what is West Semitic and what is Akkadian, was (in spite of the asserclearly made in Amurru tion of Bohl, mentioned this discussion.

above),and

is kept

in mind

throughout

H.
THE There
are were

HOME
who hold

OF

THE

SEMITES
that the Semites and the Africa,

those

the view

race, and lived in Northern originally one into Arabia, and from there were whence the Semites passed over The view, however, that Arabia was dispersed. the original home

Hamites

of the Semites that are found

regarded Arabs that have deposited themselves simply as successive migrations of layer upon layer in those lands. The migrations, due to have recurred periodically. We told that are over-population, Arabia breeds vast numbers tribes, but it can not of its nomad Arabia up support them ; that a thousand years was required to fill to the point when it could no longer sustain its inhabitants, and in
consequence

is generally accepted by scholars. in other lands surrounding Arabia

The
are

Semites

They

they migrated to tions adjacentlands. With slight variathis 'stock' theory has been used by a succession of writers. tell us that the first migration of which we have knowledge
the

brought

Semites

into Babylonia.

The

represented by the Semitic outbursts on 2000 B. C, and accounts also for the Semitic invasion of Babylonia the rulers of the First Dynasty when controlled the of Babylon

is second migration Palestine between 2500 to

land ; this theory, however, has recently been modified. The third as the "Aramaean migraperiodical disgorging of Arabia is known tion," hold that this "spat Some land again the when out." migration B. C, the middle of the second millennium This and others that they firstmoved out in the thirteenth century. into Syria and Mesopotamia, migration took the Aramaeans and began
near

next somen," called "spilling over" of hungry tribesperiod, or "sporadic wave from the fifthcentury, when the Nabataeans was moved upon Petra. And Asia and Islam invaded Western the last is when

their kindred

tribe, the Hebrews,

into Palestine.

The

In nearly every work that is examined the on of Europe. history of Semitic peoples, some form of these statements, making Arabia the cradle of the Semites, or making all Semitic peoples from Arabia, is found. come
parts
(27)

_'s

THE

EMPIKE

OP

THE

AMORITES.

One
the

of the earliest writers to have maintained the of the Semites was primitive home who
in his Das

that Arabia

was

German

scholar

(1861, und in later works, maintained that agriculturists do not ff.), and Sayce, as early become nomads, and that all Semites are Arabs.
Sprenger
241

Leben

Lehre

des Mohammed

1872, declared that the Semitic traditions all point to Arabia as the original home of the race ; it is the only part of the world which has remained exclusively Semitic. The racial characteristics
as
"

best be intensity of faith, ferocity, exclusiveness, imagination can explained by a desert origin. Schrader, De Goeje, Wright, and Meyer, were other writers who held similar views.1
"

to have been originated by theory seems periodical wave Winckler who in his Gescliichte Babyloniens und Assyrians says: ' ' Arabia, due to geographical considThe home of the Semites was erations

The

at present and to the fact that the purest Semites are due to over-population The migrations found in that land. are "we have definite knowledge of and recur periodically. He said,

These are in reverse northward." began in the seventh century A. D., order : and culminated in the conquest of Islam ; 2. the Aramaic, from the fifteenth to the thirteenth century B. C. ; 3. the Amorite, a thousand four main

Semitic migrations 1. The Arabian, which

earlier, 2400-2100 earlier when Babylonia

years

4. another, a thousand years was settled by the Semites. This thousand year disgorging theory has been adopted by many it "Thus English words: and American writers. In Paton's

B. C,

and

Arabia up that it took a thousand years each time to fill appears to the point when it could no longer hold its inhabitants but must lands. ' ' In addition to the four disgorge them upon the

adjacent

migrations Nabataean,
Barton

assumed

by Winckler,

Paton

adds

which is placed as beginning in his Semitic Origins (1902) developed

a more

the so-called earlier about 500 B. C.2

the Arabian

than previously had been done. elaborate manner Even though one does not agree with the position taken by Barton, treatment he cannot help admiring his full and thorough of the

theory in

subject. Not
1

only does he look upon

on

Arabia
Barton.

as

the cradle-land of

For
Early

the literature History

the

see subject,

Semitic Origins.

of Syria,

p. 7, 211, etc.

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

29

North the Semites, but upon origin of the Hamito-Semitic

After

Africa
races,

the place of the ultimate which he claims are kindred.

as

the migration of their of the Semites into Arabia, some Hamitic brethren, who until then had been nomads, displaced the Negroids in the valley of the Nile, learned agriculture, and formed for Arabia being the His arguments of the Egyptians.3 in Arabia and in home of the Semites, follow : 1. Semites are now Syria, Abyssinia, lands, Babylonia, etc., lands more contiguous the
race

fertile than Arabia, time immemorial.

in which 2. During

agriculture has been practised from the historic period, wave after wave

of Arabs has been pouring from Arabia into the surrounding lands ; it is probable that the migration has always been that way, and not law of social progress 3. It may be regarded as a vice versa.
pass from agriculturists; but not

that nomads

change have

from

sterile to a fertile country, and become from a fertile to a sterile country, and It is inconceivable, if Semto nomads. ites agriculturists
a

originated

in

land

more

migrated thither. has been protected by deserts, has preserved the characteristics of fully than any other Semitic more primitive Semitic speech much
tongue. 5. The

fertile than Arabia, that they should 4. The Arabic language, where the race

Arabs,

better than

the racial characteristics faith, and imagination.

other Semites, have preserved of ferocity, exclusiveness, intensity of

In his review of these successive waves, Luckenbill also adopted He said the first wave from the desert of Arabia to the theory. the north took the Babylonians of the Dynasty of Sargon about
2500

B. C. into the Euphrates

founders

The of Phoenicia. Dynasty into Babylonia, took the Aramaeans

the valley, and they were perhaps brought the First or Hammurabi next wave and the Canaanites into Canaan. into Syria and Mesopotamia, and Amorites,

The

next

their kindred

tribes, the Hebrews,

ca.

Moabites

and

Edom-

ites, into Palestine

3

1500 B. C.4
linguistic evidence by Barton in

This

JAOS
i

latter view 35 214 ff.

is supported

with

1910, p. 22 ; and AJSL 28 p. 154. It is only fair to Luckenbill to state that in an article which recently 1918, (AJT appeared Dynasty is West Semitic. p. 30),he accepts the view that the Hammurabi

Biblical World

30

THE

EMPIRE

OP

THE

AMORITES.

Macalister views
as

has accepted these 'stock' is another writer who breed vast facts. He says: "for though Arabia may
them;

tribes it cannot support numbers of its nomad be diminished the struggle for existence may inhabitants, by
means

and

though

of infanticide, yet a its surplus population

lands. The
country,

artificiallyby the of intertribal battles and, in ancient times, time comes periodically when necessity forces
to
as
overrun

the

more

historically every Palestine, p. 27.)

Although

has been noticed, comes thousand years, more or less."

fertile neighboring into prominence in (Civilisation

as Amorite, regarding the origin of the First Dynasty King nevertheless looks upon Arabia as the cradle of the Semites. ern The first settled NorthHe traces four great Semitic migrations.

Babylonia;
took

the B. C. The third was place in the fourteenth century, which established its kingdom Aramaean in Syria with its capital at Damascus ; and the fourth took place in the seventh century of our era (MB p. 125).

the second, which was in the third millennium

the Canaanite

or

Amorite,

It would
who

serve

no

purpose

share these views. most scholars have accepted these periodical from Arabia as historical facts.

to multiply quotations from writers Sufficeit to repeat what is said above, that
waves

of emigration
to decide

It is not the writer's purpose

between

to discuss

or

attempt

contending scientists concerning the ultimate origin and its separation from the of the Semitic race, gradual formation the millenniums required to develop race, so-called Hamito-Semitic the striking racial difference, the conditions under which Semitic inquiries characteristics developed, and all other anthropological the origin of Semitic society. The writer has waded concerning
through
masses

entirely upon confine themselves

these points, on of conjectures hypotheses, such as Anthropologists

to, but he prefers to base

based
must
own

almost largely

conclusion alone upon historical or archaeological data and traditions ; which leaves untouched the ultimate origin of this race. of course One-half of the country is Arabia is a land of great contrasts.
of sandy deserts, with wide areas of shifting sand, where composed In is difficultto obtain, and famine is always imminent. water

his

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

31

of these parts furnishes a meagre

many

noted, however, region of the wadies;

in midsummer
can are

it is only after the spring rains that the soil It should be subsistence for the Bedouin. that there is a river system which includes the

but the rivers never reach the sea. dry. In such sterile places, no permanent
for.
are

These

ments settlesmall

be looked
there

Elsewhere,

there

are

great

and

oases.

Then

In the great Indian Ocean, the Persian

extensive districts on tropical

and pastures. the coast of the Eed Sea, the Gulf, and in Southern Arabia, the land

fertile highlands

is naturally of frankincense, myrrh, coffee, spices, and perfumes, there is true The same all that is required for a great civilization.

districts of Arabia. also of the mountainous the climate of Arabia The question arises in this connection, was Hommel, a to-day? in ancient times the same as who has made careful study of the work of the explorers of Arabia, says : "It is
more that in ancient times there was water much safe to assume that great Huntington Ellsworth than at present."5 maintains in the climate of Central Asia have taken place during changes

historic times.

great tracts of territory which time were at one populated are at the present desert, or mitigated desert, which supports vegetation only part of the year. He tells us

He

has shown

how

and Northern Arabia, from three to five hundred miles almost identical with south of Lake Gyoljuk,present phenomena ton Mr. F. A. Norris, a member those of Central Asia. of the Princethat "Syria
to that region in 1904-5, states that a large number quate of ruins lie in the desert in a location where to-day there is no adeit would be impossible to secure water supply, and where

Expedition

sufficientwater ruined

with

cities were is now appears formerly to have supported oases date from the beginning of the Christian Era. ' ' 367

the the system when of irrigation employed in their prime. Elsewhere the water which saline. The (The Pulse

of

ruins Asia

change of climate, Huntington claims, has been observed to have taken place also in the Sinaitic Peninsula, and in Egypt. even

f.) This

If the desert portion of Arabia

5

in ancient times
694 ff.

was

less sterile

"Arabia,"

in Explorations

in Bible Lands

32

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

than at present, and the wadies, which parts of the land, contained water of the year, one can readily understand would

are

tain clearly defined in cerfor at least the greater part how tribes with great flocks
so

from the north. even pass into this country to take into consideration the fact that great

It is only necessary Bedouin tribes

at present

when
move

of the year occupy these sterile districts in the seasons rains, for the time being, restore fertility; after which they to other parts where subsistence is possible. history has made there
us

As

acquainted
permanent

with

the fact that in the

habitations of cities or peoples engaged in agricultural pursuits, the question as to whether belongs to the the nomad preceded the agriculturist, or vice versa, Moreover, history and tradition make us sphere of anthropology.
earliest period
were

tribes in the nation, including nomadic northern regions of the Semitic world in the earliest period known ; to the point, movements ward of the people eastand what is stillmore into into Babylonia, tribes southward and of the nomadic acquainted with
a

great

Arabia.
The

fact that the Arabic

language

preserves

more

of primitive Semitic speech, it seems has to others, is evidence only of the fact that Arabia by Semites prior to the time when the Semitic languages
we are

fully the characteristic to the writer, as it

was

settled

with which decay, or rather such modifications suffered as usiially follow the development of civilization. The language of Arabia, even at the present time, three thousand years later than

familiar had

the period to which the earliest South Arabian inscriptions belong, be said to have retained many can tive of the characteristics of primihad lost Semitic speech which the other Semitic languages

millenniums ago. for the permanency

manners,

which along the Euphrates, in Aram, were not isolated, as in Arabia,

an

of life in Arabia are responsible but also customs not only of language and In the great centres fact is so well understood.
The conditions
or

along the Mediterranean, which development more was rapid. As

illustration, the English

language

better preserved London. as

seen

in parts of England The most primitive French ent spoken at the prestime is not heard in Paris, but in isolated districts,which have It seems to the writer that the linthe least development.

of several centuries ago is less affected by such metropolises

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

33

frequently used in support so of the theory of guistic argument, the Arabian origin, needs no refutation. In connection with the argument that exclusiveness, intensity of faith, imagination and ferocity are all racial characteristics of the

Semites, and that Arabs have better preserved them, it need only be said, if this is correct, that the climate and other existing conditions for the pronounced these pecuare character of liarities responsible
of the Arabs. The argument based upon the so-called waves of migration is the one which is so cogently pressed by the advocates of the theory, and is fortunately the one we can fully test by history and tradition. it is necessary to ascertain, as the first step to be taken, take cognizance can what characteristic features of civilization we of that are peculiar to the Arabian. To do
so,

Owing
cursory

to the conditions

explorations

have

than prevailing in Arabia, little more been possible, and these have often been

,; Nevertheless, during conducted under most trying circumstances. the past century there has been a rich gathering of inscriptions, dating, as some scholars hold, from about 1000 B. C, while others even an maintain earlier date. A great antiquity, however, for

Arabian

be assumed. civilization must to the land in the Babylonian

the earliest reference inscriptions is found in an

Perhaps

Chronicle which record the successful expedition of Naram-Sin against the land of Magan, and the taking of its king captive, whose Mannu-dannu. name was
omen

tablet and in the Xeo-Babylonian

(King Chron.
which

II 51

f.) Magan

is regarded
as a

by

some

as

being in

the Sinaitic Peninsula

; but by others

part

region is more accessibly to Babylonia. having transported heavy blocks of diorite from mentions

of Eastern Arabia, A littlelater, Gudea Magan

(F#Ip.
The

66,

etc.).

inscriptions, above referred to, came from four Hadhramotians, Qatabanians and the chief nations, the Minaeans, Sabaea-Himyarites. It is by the help of these inscriptions that For considerable knowledge of ancient Arabia has been gained. the present discussion of the Arabian theory let us note some of in these inscriptions, as well names the of the chief gods contained
6

Arabian

See Homniel,

"Arabia,"

in Explorations

in Bible Lands.

31

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

in order to test the claim the composition of the personal names, had that the civilization of the Amorites, Hebrews and Babylonians its origin in Arabia.
as

chief deity in these inscriptions is the god 'Athtar, who is the personification of both the morning and evening stars. It is generally thought that the god 'Athtar and the goddess Ashirta or deity. Some hold that Athtar Ishtar were originally the same
The
was

The second deity in the earlier form, but see Chapter XVII. is the moon-god, importance who has a different appellation among The Minaeans mentioned. called him each of the four peoples called him from the Western Semites) among the ; by the Sabaeans, Ilmaqqah 'Amru; and

Wadd;

the Hadhramotians

b (doubtless,orrowed Qatabanianshe was named

Sin

or

Almaqu-hu.

The

third by the Anbay

deity of the South Huwal Minaeans,

Arabian
or

H61
as

pantheon by the

called An-Kurah Hadhramotians, and

was

(regarded the

same

Nabu) by

the

Qatabanians. Sun
local

deities,

tutelary names, are always goddesses, usually with who deities of cities such as Ta'lab of Riyam, the god Sami', Nasr, in Shibam t (doubtless,o be identified with the Qainan,Ramman Hagir, Ramman Rimmon or of the Babylonians), of Damascus,

Dhu-Samwa,
some

Dhaw,

Motab-Natiyan,

Niswar,

II Fakhr,

Zur,

are

in the inscriptions.7 In deities mentioned of the prominent short, these South Arabian inscriptions offer considerable material
on

from our knowledge the deities of the land. And manency of the perthe land it is safe to conthe manners of and customs of jecture in the periods preceding that of these inscriptions the that

in a general way practically the same. religion very likely was The study of the personal names as an adjunct of the religious ideas expressed in the inscriptions furnishes also valuable criteria, since they indicate what deities the people worshipped. It is scarcely possible that any one would regard the moon-god Sin as of Arabian origin because the inscriptions show that he was worshipped
by the Hadhramotians,

connected
7

with the mountain

"Arabia,"

is probably and because his name called Sinai and with the desert
in Bible Lands,
Names," ff.,and 1917. 99-112,
733

See Hommel

in Explorations
Proper

Pilter "Index 115-132.

of the South Arabian

PSBA,

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

35

And it is scarcely possible that any one called "Wilderness of Sin. because of the name Arabian as of the god would regard Nabu by the Qatabanians, Anbay. worshipped who is considered by some in two inscriptions, name occurs Hadad, whose to be the same. In than an importation. otherwise would scarcely be regarded that these three gods are West short, there can be no question but
of peoples have taken place, large groups there will be unmistakable evidence of them in case have been preserved ; and that in the absence of of personal names invasions, definite historical statements conquests, concerning than that secured from bondages, etc., no better evidence is known

Semitic (see Chapter XVII). that if movements We have seen

Having before us the elements of study of the personal names. be the ancient Arabic civilization that we should expect would has been claimed, as carried with the people if they migrated, as
a

Hittites, Cassites, etc.,we inquire to what extent to the have those which are peculiarly Arabic been transported of migration. other lands, in these so-called five periodical waves The burden of the proof, naturally, that such evidence exists, and did the Amorites, actually took place, lies with those who hold these there are any grounds views ; nevertheless, let us inquire whether can rest. upon which these hypotheses that these
waves

inscriptions and other In searching for evidence in the Babylonian first note legends bearing on the early history of that land, we that the legendary
down list of ante-diluvian by Berossus, shows that the names

kings of Chaldea handed Amorite8 are (seeChapter

VIII). The

shall see, show the same. early dynastic lists, as we tions, In the votive inscriptions, the religious texts, the building inscriplook in vain for tablets, etc., we on the seal impressions

On the other hand, anything that is characteristically Arabian. the influence from Amurru, whose civilization is as old if not older
Syncellus gives two dynasties after the flood, the first he designates as Chaldean, and the second Arabian ; the names of the latter are : MapSoKevn;s, It MapSaxos, 5u7i/uop8aKOS, NajStos, rTapanos, Xa/Jot-n-a/Jos. is thought by some
8

that this list is spurious

the deluge and

of filling out the gap between serving the purpose tainly IV 87. CerSee Poebel UMBS the firstking of Assyria.

they cannot

be proved

to be Arabian.

36

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

than Babylonia,

is much

in evidence in the earliest historical period

(seethe succeeding chapters).

to the nomenclature of the Babylonians of the early that confront us are period, alphabetically almost the first names "father," "brother," those compounded with Abu, and Aim,

In turning

followed of a deity. Hommel,9 which are used instead of the name by Pilter,10Paton,11 and others, regard these elements as of South for regardArabian origin. The writer sees no reason whatever ing Semitic. Moreover, them than as common while otherwise is a very common element in Babylonian Name Syllabary published by Chiera over Aim
names, one

in fact in the

hundred

different
a

score
as

far

compounded with it,and it is found in the Old Testament, as of different West Semitic names is known to the writer, it has thus far only been found once
names are

and fifty in nearly

in the South Arabian

Some
'paternal generally met

have

been
as

inscriptions of all periods.12 disposed also to look upon 'Amm Arabian;

but
even

or

Hammu,

uncle,'

this

seems

to have

been

given up, which is due to the fact that it is so frequently with in the West Semitic inscriptions, especially in the early

period (seeChapter XI). The only attempt known to the writer at identifying an unmistakable Arabian deity as an element in names found in Babylonia is in the case of ivedum in Ahi-ivedum. ing Pilter, apparently, followRanke
is Wadd."
quote

(PA763) reads Alii-wadum,

To
names

show

brother and translates "My to that this is impossible it is only necessary

other usually translated

constituted with this element Wedum-liblut, "the one," as

ivedum

or

edu

Sa/mas-wedwm-

usur,

Tabba-ivedi, Tabba-edi, etc. (seeChiera UMBS 11, 158). In short, after searching for elements that can be said to be charac9
10

Ancient

Hebrew

Traditions.
.

PSBA

1916, 153 f

11

Biblical World. XLV,

p. 294.

Paton

also regards
as

sumu,

"name,"

and

the imperfect Arabian

12

of verbs formed Origin.

with the prefix ya

characteristic marks

of

Pilter, who regards the names of the Old Testament compounded Ahu in the South Arabian inscrip"Akhi tions as Arabian us says: meets with but rarely; there is Akhukarib" 38 p. 156. PSBA

Even

H.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

37

teristic of Arabian
at but that they
are

civilization,no

other conclusion

can

be arrived

wanting. In this connection it is proper to inquire what Hebrew tradition has to say on the subject. The Hebrews looked upon Mesopotamia,
the Tigris and the Euphrates, as the cradle tory hisThey also made the second beginning of man's of mankind. in which country the ark rested. from Armenia, to emanate Aryan It is an interesting coincidence that many scholars look
or

the district between

this region languages.

upon

as

the probable

home

of the Sanskrit

group

of

writers of the table of nations in the tenth and eleventh chapters of Genesis, in giving a history of the family which became the nation Israel, felt the necessity of accounting for the divisions The after the flood, and of showing how the peoples were related. The sons of Aram, the descendant of Shem, are : Uz, Hul, Hul and Gether have not been identified as yet, Gether, and Mash. of mankind but Uz

is understood

to represent

in Arabia, not far east from Edom in which was the important city Ki-Mashki, or of Mashu, Damascus (seeChapter XII). If Uz has been correctly identified in Xorth Arabia, we have here at least a distinct effort on the part

the peoples ; and Mash

of Job's fatherland trict represents the dis-

of the Biblical writer to account for the Arabians. Another begat Eber, whose descendant of Shem, Arpachshad, Peleg and Joktan. Thirteen sons sons were tioned, of Joktan are menIn Arabia. to represent are who understood peoples of other words, we have here another effort by the Biblical writers to Their view is that account for the origin of the Arabian nations. from the north. they emanated

The Terah,
name

descendants

of Peleg

are
or

and
a

Abram.

Sarug,

given as : Reu, Serug, Xahor, Serug, is found to have been the

district in the land of Aram; of and Nahiri, or Nahor, is close by Serug (see Chapter XI). Here the writer places the home of the Hebrews, following the former current view. It is needless to refer to the fact that modern criticism does not the tenth chapter of Genesis or any other similar effort in regard the Old Testament having any historical value as regards the as No one would question that the separation of origin of the races. the peoples referred to took place at a time very far removed from

38

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

But it must be conceded, the historical period. as writer or writers looked upon the Aramaeans

at least, that the one of the nations

that of a great antiquity ; and that the view of these writers was Arabia was What traditions populated by people from the north. based, we, of course, they possessed, upon which their views were It would seem, however, that their opportunity are unable to say.

for knowing

that Abram

enjoyed
and

maeans, about the early history of the Arathat is,their own at least greater than ancient history, was by those modern scholars who begin the history of
at least something

from with the exodus of the Aramaeans Egypt, in the latter half of the second millennium Arabia, or even from this point of view, which are B. C. The theories advanced do not ingenious manner, developed in a wonderfully of course,

the Hebrews

of truth in these legends concerning the modicum in spite Such views are maintained in Aram. patriarchal home and philology have restored of the fact that history, archaeology, for a Semitic civilization in this region with for us the background recognize
even
a

earlier than the period of the conquest; antiquity very much tiate and in spite of the fact that nothing has been revealed to substanto believe that when their theories. There is every reason
an

the time arrives for the ruin-hills of this district to be opened up, we shall become acquainted not only with a civilizationas ancient, if not more so, than any known at present, but also much evidence
to show

that in the traditions handed

down

by the Hebrew

reflections of great value Semites. history of the Northern

The

there

are

for the reconstruction

writers of the

second wave of Arabs which is supposed to have brought the Semitic population to Palestine, in the second half of the third at the time of the millennium, and a great influx into Babylonia received more attention largely because of the excavations in Palestine and the great mass of belonging to this period. inscriptions found in Babylonia The theory that the rulers of the First Dynasty of Babylon were First Dynasty of Babylon,
were wont to adopt, originated origin, which for a time many A XI, 543), the French scholar, Pognon (J with who merely 1888, that the dynasty might be either of suggested, as early as

has

of Arabian

Arabic
to

or

origin. Two of Aramaic Ammi-zaduga, the name

years

later Sayce ruler

the

tenth

called attention of the First

n.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

39

occurring in the South Arabic inscriptions; and he seemed to think that some of of the names of the First Dynasty Homruel, to whom Babylon were Arabian. the elaboration of the Arabian; were theory is due, later tried to show that all the names
Dynasty,
as

but he admitted at the time that he thought "both Hammurabi and Canaanitish have assumed names his successors either for must with a view to conciliating their Canaanite subpolitical reasons jects,
or

possibly

because

they had

to show thus condescended however, p. 92.) Winekler, eleven

are

married Canaanite wives and tion, their love for them." (Hebrew Tradi-

names

are

Babylonian,

that eigbt of the maintained Canaanite, while two, Apil-Sin and Sin-muballit, leaving Zabium (Geschichte Israels uncertain that the First Dynasty
to prevail, and

130
or

ff.). The
Amorites,

view
now

seems

rulers that they

were were

Canaanites
of Arabian

to have been given up. origin seems occurHommel that many ring of the foreign names also maintained Arabian inscriptions of this period were in Babylonian also Names the Hammurabi 110 ff.). Ranke, in his Personal (Ibid.

of

fully discussed the question of the Arabian origin of the One can not help admiring Ranke in attempting foreign names.13
Dynasty,
13

The

hypochoristic
because by

atu

attached examples

to

names,

is regarded
most

of him

numerous
as a

as masculine found in the

well

as

to

feminine

Safaitic inscriptions
But This

of the names ending is also found influence

was

of their Arabic origin. characteristic mark is attached are Babylonian. to which this ending in the

Cassite period,
Moreover,

felt in Babylonia.
an

when the

little foreign
names

Semitic
Safaitic

of the

inscriptions, having
to the
or

period of our later. The score

names,

belong compared, afiixed t. with which they were Christian era, from the second to the four century, with and a half of other names, which are compared
must

these Safaitic
many

which dozen

of the elements are fact, however, Banke

names

be looked upon found hi the

in the

same

light. Semitic

And

besides,

Northwest
the

inscriptions;

be taken

which Tinkarum,

and Four Jinkar, said to be an compared with Jadah-ilu, and Jadah-halum, are others, Aii-esuh, Ammi-zaduga, compared but these are also well known Arabic names, North Semitic elements. with
are

with those taken seriously in this connection. he compared with South Arabic

Nor can noted. from Ibn Doraid This

names;

of about a (of the ninth century A. D.) leaves eight of Banke 's list
comparison
two

of these, Nakarum Arabic tribal name.

40

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

to defend

his teacher's theory, but

on

of the whole contention vanishes Not only are the rulers of the First Dynasty considered Amorite, dynasties but also, as will be shown later, the contemporaneous

the stabilclose examination ity like the morning mist.

Erech (seeChapter VIII), of Larsa and Nisin, and perhaps also of is And Semitic foreigners also sat on these thrones. for West there any evidence of Arabic influence in the literature of this era?
As

far

as

is known

to the writer

no

trace of it has thus far been

observed. What is true of Babylonia is also true, as shown above, of Assyria bear West Semitic names about this time, for the early rulers also (see Amurru, p. 140). It is interesting to note here that King "We this point, in the words: on may recently commented that Assyria received her Semitic population at about this assume {HB migration." offshoot of the Amorite period as another
has 136

f.)
up
to the present

Unfortunately
Northwest

time

no

inscriptions from

the

Semitic

peoples

evidence to be gathered from the CapArabic migration in the inscriptions for the supposed padocian is in the negative. The answer latter part of the third millennium. Instead of Arabic, we find Amorite or West Semitic elements much in evidence in their personal names, such as Amur, Anu, etc. Ashur, Ashirta, Shamash, the gods Ashir or (see Chapter XII).

found, except the cuneiform inquire whether there is any

this period have been We therefore tablets in Cappadocia. belonging

to

lodytes It has been asserted that the Semites who dispossessed the trogThis is an assumpArabs. tion at Gezer, in this period, were flourished in the Lebanon The Amorites pure and simple.
This
leaves Baibum,

Zamzum,

compared
no

which was with Shams,

comment,

compared the name

with Ba'ab and Ba'ab-el, and The latter of the sun-goddess.

a

needs comparison IX Ba-'-a-bi-el,BE

44: 16 LE.

is and the former In a note, two names Jaskur-ilu,

are

Hebrew which

name, cf. he later published

(BE

VI,
.

2), Jasmah-el

l?N"OCM is also an The former, and find in Pilter's index of names, latter the writer cannot It should be noted that Ranke also suggests a comparison
sumu

and however,

compared Amorite

with
name,

*?Ni*2D*
and the 39, 99 ff.

PSBA

of the elements ishi with

with the South

Arabic

HOD;

zimri with

"l,2"j ; and

Jftl*.

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

4-1

Canaan prior to this era, and geographically region millenniums over, in this period (seelater Chapters). Morewas a part of Amurru the Semites, whose existence in Palestine has been noted This seems through the excavations, are very probably Amorites.
take into account, as noted above, that highly probable when we dynasties had been established about this time three different Amorite had possession of Assyria; that Amorites in Babylonia;
were responsible for the and that it is not impossible that Amorites history which also synchronizes with this dark period in Egyptian moveSince we have no evidence whatever of an Arabian ment period.

that the perfectly reasonable to assume Semites, who dispossessed the cave-dwellers at Gezer and perhaps the dwellers on other hills of Palestine at this time, were of the same stock, namely, Amorite.
at this time, it seems

in the fourteenth chapter of the eight names examination of Genesis, Pilter concludes that four are probably Amorite: form of the Arabic bari'a; that Birsha' that Bera' is an Amorite

After

an

is from

which Even though

there is
no

ymous quadriliteral root in Arabic ; that Shinab, which is synonthat 'Aner, Sin-abu, is Arabian; the Babylonian and with likely Am-ner, is also Arabian was (PSBA 36, 212 ff.). very
a
'

should prove correct, for which conjecture in justificationany of the different forms of this name
the latter
can

can corruption of Sin-abu, the name Further, no such personal names only be said to be Babylonian. inscriptions. Bera' and Birsha' occur in the South Arabian as

in the versions, 'Amm If Shinab (as

only be regarded
a

as

common

Semitic

above).

is

The writer thinks that it will be generally to show Arabian influence by these names
The
name

Abram,

or

conceded that the effort is not very successful. in the fuller orthography, Abraham, which

for years has been regarded by certain scholars as Arabic, is not found in the Arabian inscriptions. On the other hand, both elements have been found in the West Semitic and in the the name of Babylonian
name

inscriptions.

About

decade

ago

Ungnad

found
,

the but

Abram

(A-ba-ra-ma,A-ba-am-ra-am,
a

A-ba-am-ra-ma)
p.

recently Lutz found the fuller form on Collection, namely, A-ba-ra-ha-am

letter in the Yale

nian Babylowas

(EBL

5), which

written in the

era

of the patriarch.

42

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

the Biblical tradition might be mentioned also properly by the descendants of Ishmael, the son of Abraham concerning in accounting for the Bedouin, who with a primitive and Hagar, over the deserts lying between of life roamed patriarchal mode

Here

the Sinaitic Peninsula princes before Egypt twelve

or "as

and the Persian Gulf. He tribes who dwelt from Havilah

was

the father of unto Shur, i. e.,

thou goest towards Assyria" (Gen. 25; 13-18). Here also the tradition concerning the six sons the of Keturah, representing Arab tribes south and east second wife of Abraham, These can only be regarded as of Palestine, might be mentioned.

that traditions which indicate that the Hebrew writer understood The Midianfrom the north had settled Arabia. the Aramaeans ites also are regarded as the half brothers of Isaac and Ishmael.

third periodical "disgorging" period, according to Winckler, Paton, Luckenbill, and others, is the so-called Aramaean, which began about 1500 B. C, and lasted for several centuries. Before
The

this time it is claimed that no the monuments ; the firstsure

is the
name

is found on trace of the Aramaeans monuments sign of them in the Egyptian for Damascus in
a

Darmeseq
No

list of Ramses

III

credence, as noted above, is placed in the Biblical tradition concerning the ancestral home of the patriarchs theory in Aram. The conclusion follows that this is a mistaken

(1198-1167B. C).

that

was

them. by

regarded maean Arabia, and by others as Araout of who by who lived in the desert south of Canaan, known nomads About 1200 B. C, they invaded the collective name of 'Abraham.' They Palestine. had no higher culture of their and conquered
some

foisted upon The people we

as

Israel in the late period, and know the tribes of Israel as

came

accepted
are

by

Arabs,

own,

but adopted

also were believe that an

Jacob

that of the people they conquered. clans, not individuals. While there are 'Abraham'

people united with a and entered Canaan as early as 2000 B. C, the 'Isaac' and 'Rebekah' tribes were later waves which migration of Aramaean The third wave was the Abraham absorbed and Sarah people.

and those who 'Sarah' people

Isaac

'Jacob,' and
"cow,"

the fourth

was

'Israel.'

Leah,

which

name

means

for "sheep," are collective names merely and Rachel, the 'cowboys' of tribes that and 'shepherds,' two main groups Since the from the south and east respectively. entered Canaan

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

4:3

Musri in North Arabia, named it is claimed by some 'Egypt,' that Misraim, was confused with it, and that this is the place, i. e., Musri in Arabia, whence the Others hold, in view of the fact that there was Hebrews migrated. discovery
that there
was
a

country

Goshen

in South
was a

Palestine, that what

movement

is known

as

tribes from of some however, There are, Canaan.14 still believe that scholars who Israel, or at least a part of the people, lived in Egypt. The evidence for this so-called Aramaean migration from Arabia, far as which overflowed Syria and other countries at this time, as the writer can ascertain, is confined to the references to the people
Palestine called Habiri in the Amarna by the people we know other archaeological of Arabia
with them. If the Hebrews
seem
came

Israel entering South to North

letters, and
as

to the conquest

the Hebrews.

There

may

tine of Paleshave been

or

historical evidences offered for the "disgorging" at this time, but the writer is unacquainted
out of Arabia
at this time, it certainly would

hints of such a movement that at least some in the mass of literature about this period which
down.

would be found they have handed

particle of evidence to substantiate the to the idea that this movement from Arabia; was and it seems to discuss extensively this question until writer wholly unnecessary The story of Israel in Egypt, which land such has been produced.
a

There

is not

obscure tribes, its sojourn in Goshen, received so many the building of store chambers with sun-dried bricks, the references to the Nile and to Egyptian life at court and in the home, the personal
we

know

of individuals, everything has the proper coloring and Not only is the is entirely true to what is known of the land. correct in the account of the people's residence there, atmosphere
names

but also the references to Egypt after they had departed and lived in the wilderness, to which frequently looks back. the narrator With the story of the in Egypt and in the wilderness in

sojourn

a single hint of any other possession, and in the absence of even origin for the Hebrews who entered Canaan, the proof of the assertions, forth as historical facts, rests with are so which often set
our

14

For

Paton,

JBL

review of the literature 32, p. 1 f. (1913).

on

Israel's conquest

of Canaan,

see

44

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOKITES,

those

present writer, until archaeological is forthcoming to show that the contrary or philological evidence is correct, is content to hold the view that the Hebrews, with the

who

make

them.

The

ing civilization they possessed, would not have accepted in the succeedthe humiliating origin of their an account of centuries such if it had not been fact. nation,
The writer genealogical Testament. and
upon

is cognizant of how modern criticism regards the lists in Chronicles as well as in other books of the Old Deuteronomy, Those in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, with their hundreds of other details, may ; and yet if the Hebrews be looked

Joshua,
in the

bic are of Arageneral way trace of this fact that there would be some origin, it seems found in these lists,especially as the nomenclature cannot be said We peer in to be that of a period of the later or dual kingdom.
same

to be peculiarly of what we know vain for those characteristic marks It is quite reasonable to infer that the Hebrews Arabian. out of Egypt and who lived in the Sinaitic Peninsula for who came

time should have intermarried with the dwellers of that region ; ture and it would not be in the least surprising to find in the nomenclain their down that they handed such constituent elements names as would conclusively show such contact with the Arabs ;
a

have we so example, well illustrated in the Murashu had with Archives, found at Nippur, where the contact the Hebrews the Babylonians ent and Persians through intermarriages is so apparin the personal names. Even this has not been pointed out by
as,

for

to the writer. those who hold the Arabian theory, as far as is known from invasion' received its name If this so-called 'Aramaean Aramaeans, the fact that the Hebrews are who entered Canaan

the designation
them
are
as

such. Arabs, who by has been claimed,

of the Biblical tradition, for it regards If, however, it is understood that these Aramaeans

is that

reason came

the least, confusing. The identification of the Habiri with the Hebrews, taneously simulmade in 1890, soon tablets, the discovery of the Amarna after Zimmern, has been ever by both Conder since the subject and inclined discussion. Not few scholars have a of considerable
toward

of the crowded condition of Arabia, as forth from that land, the term is, to say is not in Arabia. Aram

this view in

one

form

or

another.

Some

claimed

that they

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

45

represent

main bands

resented entering Palestine ; others, that they repin advance that left Egypt a portion of the people of the body; that they represented roving stillothers maintained

the Hebrews

merly The present writer forfrom the wilderness. of Hebrews inclined to the view that the Habiri represented the Hebrews Joshua, because, besides other under entering "Western Canaan
reasons,

Habiri
The

the chronology invasion.15

of this event

synchronized

with that of the

in cuneiform fact that 'Ibri could be properly reproduced to make the Habiri, together with other considerations, seemed as it However, certain other facts make reasonable. view appear
possible, the writer feels, to explain their identity in another in that the Habiri were way ; namely, mercenaries or subjects the Aramaeans; probably, however, service of the Hittites, perhaps have been a branch of the Hittite they may peoples.1''
now

-Mitannian

in 1907 held that the late date of the Exodus based upon inconclusive the excavations rests upon of Naville at ancient Pithom account of the excavations; and evident from his own grounds, as became

15

The

writer

of the character, The name the oppressor portrayed. the city called Eamses etc., of of Zoan in earlier times, very probably in the Old Testament, which was called known by this name was as the name the account was when written, the same land in which Joseph placed his father and brethren (Gen. 47: 11). of the respect This view that Eamses II was not the Pharaoh of oppression was by Ohr several years earlier. (See Light on the Old Testament

that Thutmose

III in every

fulfils the requirements

anticipated

from Babel
Personal

2*67 ff.)
16

The

reasons

for this

conjectureare
p. 42

found

in the

writer's
are

Names
Not
a

of the Cassite Period,

few

f., which

in brief
were

the following:

letters give evidence

that the Habiri

Hittites who were by Winckler which it. and and

a

the land from upon encroaching in the Boghaz-koi that tablets there is

identified with the The discovery the north.

had in
term

Hani
a

ha-ab-bi-ri "gods

parallel list Hani

habbatu meaning as far as is known to the writer, the text of the tablet or tablets has been published. has been found not (More recently the ideogram SA-GAS
on

a list of deities habbiri" of the written at the close of ideogram an SA-GAS, standing for habbiri, "plunderers," nately, Unfortushows the same.

to refer to officials records of the Larsa Dynasty, where it seems living in Babylonia.) The or occurrence workmen of several personal found in Babylonian names tablets of the Cassite period, which can be iden-

temple

4li

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOKITES.

In the Babylonian
Mitannian,
names,

tablets of the Cassite period, besides HittiteCassite names prevail. There are also a few Elamite
some

which foreign

besides small groups which represent other peoples, The occurrence cannot be determined. at present
names

of of the

of this period indicates either and of the Hittite-Mitannian extensive Cassite peoples, or historic events of considerable importance, Naturally, the fact of these peoples. accounting for the movement
in the nomenclature the part on migrations

that the rulers of this dynasty for the royal sites, accounts The presence names. of so

were names

many

foreigners whom we call Casother Cassite and the many is Hittite-Mitannian names

nant better understood when we take into account the fact that the domithe Hittite; and at this time was people in the Northwest that the Mitannian ; which people had taken possession of Aram is evident from There other sources. is a striking fact to be noted in this connection ; the Amorite names so of the previous period, namely prevalent in the nomenclature peared,17 that of the First Dynasty of Babylon, have very generally disapthe Amarna letters, and from

already Babylonia,

at least this is the case studied. In other words,

so

in the thousands

every other period, conspicuously to are absent at this time. Foreign Semitic peoples do not seem be in evidence in this era. And in particular, it should be added, the influence from Arabia in this period, as indicated by the nomenclature,

migrations noticed in nearly

of documents of the Amorites into

If, therefore, is nil, at least as far as has been observed. Arabia was sending forth at this time, as has been claimed, one of favored its periodic waves into the more tribesmen of hungry
In short, regions round about, they must have avoided Babylonia. the inscriptions of Babylonia ment evidence of a moveoffer no more from Arabia at this time than can be shown from any other
source.

tified as being Hittite-Mitannian, Ea-ba-ru,

point
to

namely

Ea-bi-ri Ea-bi-ir-si, and

probability that this designation was it reasonable to look These facts make in some way with those peoples. from the desert, but as being peculiarly the Habiri not as Hebrews upon
the

perhaps identified

Aramaeans. related to the Hittites, if they are not 17 II, 2; and PN. UMBS See Clay, BE XIV, XV;

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

*l

tablets speak of another people employed the Sutu. the Habiri, namely, as manner or In one letter These are said to be nomads of the Syrian Desert. of Namiawaza they are mentioned with the Habiri as supporters appeals to be delivered (Xo. 195); and in another, Dagan-takala from the hand (Sa-Ga-as) "the robber people" of the Habiri ha-ba-ti),nd the Sutu (Xo. 318). Probably the Sutu (ameluti a Hittite. Semitic mercenaries, and the Habiri were were identification of the Habiri In connection with the proposed to the name of the city of with Hittites, attention might be called Abraham Hebron, where the children of Heth lived, and from whom ham's The name bought the cave of the city in Abraof Machpelah. Mamre, time was and it is also referred to as Kiryath-Arba. It is not impossible that the name Later it was called Hebron.

Several of the Aniarna utilized in the same

(Hebron) is a formation on on Shemesh. from Habir(i), like Shimshon

Hebron

(=dn)

from

Moreover,

the word the city

in the period of Hittite ascendancy. received its name fourth wave The so-called Xabataean or of migration need living in Edom a people The Xabataeans are detain us long.
the latter part Xa-bat-ai mar

not in

It is thought of the last pre-Christian millennium. in a letter of AshurbanipaPs time (Harper ABL 305),refers to an individual from this nation, whom Streck regards banipaPs to think mat Xa-ba-a-a-te in AshurOthers seem Aramaean. as an Annals and is of the Xabataeans, refers to the country perhaps 25 : 13.

Gen. of Ishmael. fied identiIt will be noticed that at least two of the few names with the country at this time, namely Ha-za-el, the father of TJ-a-a-te-',king of Arabia, and Bir-Da-ad-da,18 the father of
to be identified with

Nabaioth, the

son

U-a-a-te-',
Aramaean. The

are

Aramaean;

perhaps

the

name

TJ-a-a-te-'is also

inscriptions which belong of the Xabataean Arabic than to the first century B. C, it is claimed, contain more It is thought that the Xabataeans Hebrew names. and Aramaic
extant
names

land, east of that country, from the pressed upon Edom adjoining Petra their chief city. Even though it could be shown and made
18

AshurbanipaPs

Annals

VIII

2.

48

THE

EMPIRE

OP

THE

AMORITES.

that the

majoritywere

this fact would hardly sending one of its thousand of the Semites, was lands. the surrounding over waves

who used the Aramaean t justifyhe statement that Arabia,

year

Arabs

language, the cradle

periodic

No and and
ever

military power in the seventh the Near East, eighth centuries of the Christian era overran even parts of Europe, and established its civilization whereone

would

deny

that Islam

as

but this is not to be accounted for as being due to Arabia being overcrowded, but because of lust for loot and power. No one would attempt to deny that Semites from Arabia have it went; entered to range during certain Euwalla the year, like the 'Anezeh or seasons peoples at of did in Biblical times ; while others present, or as the Midianites tricts. attracted to the cities and to the agricultural disnaturally were
constantly

filteredinto Syria.

Many

carried into exile, the Edomites Petra, about 300 pressed into their lands in the south of Judah. The Decapolis was B. C, fell into the hands of the Nabataeans. After the Jews
had

been

created

as

Greek

league

to promote

and also for mutual In the first century of our era, the Beni Jafna migrated peoples. from Yemen, and some centuries later founded the Syrian dynasty

interests in trade and commerce, the surrounding protection from

this part of the of the Ghassanides ; and later on, Islam overran All such movements this highly delightful and towards world. III, were land" by Thutruose fertile region, called "God's perfectly from all directions. But neverthePeoples came less natural. is not to be explained as in Amurru the origin of Semitic life We have knowledge of too many resulting from such incursions.
into the land, other movements etc., to be misled with such Every fact bearing upon the
as a

the Hittite, Mitannian,

tine, Philis-

subject

conception of the land's history. in the early references to the

in subsequent chapters, points to land of Amurru, as will be seen it as a home of the Semite, reaching back into prehistoric millenniums, indicates also mean a civilization of no character; and with radiated in all directions. Moreover, belongs to as of the Semitic race stated above, the ultimate home anthropology, and is a question which there is no desire to discuss. that from
this land Semites

In conclusion, the writer simply wishes to ask those who to why to maintain as this theory to satisfy themselves

continue the fair

II.

THE

HOME

OF

THE

SEMITES.

4:9

lands of Amurra tile and Akkad, with their attractive climates and ferlands, a veritable 'Garden of Eden,' where the oldest civilizations have knowledge to be found, should have we are of which
been
as

dependent

Arabia.

for their inhabitants In short, from whatever

wanting.

upon

such

breeding

point of view

place this theory is

examined,

it is found

Ill THE The

COUNTRY

AMURRU of ancient times roughly bounded Gulf, the

chief lands in which the Semitic peoples have lived are located in that great parallelogram
by the Taurus

Mountains,

the Tigris River, the Persian

Indian
The

Ocean, the Red

Sea, the Isthmus

ranean. of Suez, and the Mediter-

potamia, Syria and Mesoas northern part of this territory, known is fertile,as well as stretches of lands along the coast on the lower part of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and part of the tory Persian Gulf. A considerable portion of the balance of the terrioases

is barren, but yet it is dotted here and there by small and large of great fertility.

cally united politionly time this great stretch of territory was it. In other eras, Islam dominated was considerable when but the character of the districts had come under separate rulers,
The

districts separating land, with its great deserts, and mountainous one mation responsible for the lack of amalgapart from another, was for the breaking up of the or cohesion of the peoples, and territory into separate and distinct provinces. The northern part of this great Semitic world, at present called Syria and Mesopotamia (or El Jezireh),nd styled 'the fertile a peculiarly central position between Africa and To the northwest Asia, as it were, although strictly a part of Asia. the Hittites, to great nations beyond Asia Minor, a gateway was
crescent,'

lies in

"

To the north lay the other peoples. Scythians, and other nations whose influence and history is only The Assyrians, by name. at present not even slightly known, many

Greeks, Romans,

and

many

and other great peoples lay on the Arabs, a people of the same race, the east. In the south were ranean. and Ethiopians ; and on the west the Mediteralso the Egyptians Syria has often been likened to a bridge with the sea on Babylonians, Persians, Parthians, the
one

side and

the desert

on

the other, connecting

(50)

Western

Asia

HI.

THE

COUNTRY

AMURBXJ.

51

By reason of its position, the land has been the scene and Africa. invasions and contending armies during the past millenniums of many Hittites, Amorites, Here the Egyptians, its history. of Arabs, Turks, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Assyrians, Babylonians, of the land; and other peoples have contested for the supremacy the last effort being that of the English and French against the be If the earlier history of the land can ever Turk and German. field other struggles of nations on this battlewritten, doubtless many will become known. Amurru, mountains, with its diversified features of snow-capped tablelands, fruitful plains, and tropical valleys, accommodated besides the agricultural and pastoral Semites who abode in houses
and
tents, various
races,
some

In this way, nature of this region, people of the mountains, valleys and cities,who led lives which had As a result, cave-dwellers lived in the hills of little in common. earth.

of which lived even fostered, in the compass

in

caves

of the

Palestine to

late date ; while doubtless the agriculturist comparatively the Bedouin had flourished in the valleys and plains and however, the caveGradually, for millenniums. them about by those who sought the hills on which to dweller was supplanted
a

build fortified places or walled themselves against invaders. Phoenicia

towns,

and

in this way

to protect

coast, due to the natural and the citiesof the Lebanon especially attractive to sea-faring of the land, were products a that produced of races peoples, resulting in a great admixture contributions to the culture of the ancient peculiar type, whose

world

were

extensive.

Syria

with

its Orontes,
was

Euphrates,

and

of peoples other rivers, and great stretches of plains, back into a hoary antiquity. reaching The conditions from a geographical point of view throughout this favorable for an extended part of the Near East, are supremely
The occupation. and continuous climate, the soil, the natural highways in all directions, all suggest the offering communication in idea that it was a land that teemed with a great population

the home

Its rivers, lakes and seas, its mountains ancient times. tivated and its culhills,where the vine grows in terraces and the olive tree flourishes ; its rich plains and valleys, all make it a delightful and

52

THE

EMPIKE

OF

THE

AMOBITES.

highly desirable land in which to live, a veritable land "flowing As Cicero said in one of his orations, the with milk and honey." "is so rich and so productive that in the fertility of its country
ture soil,and in the variety of its fruits, and in the vastness of its paslands, and in the multitude of all things which are matters of exportation it is greatly superior to all other countries" {Manilian

Law

VI).

IV

EXCAVATIONS
Excavations have
not

IN

AMURRU

conducted as yet in the land of the from all the Amorites except in Palestine ; and it would appear, that this is the least important light that we have on the subject, of the Amorites. part of the great Empire
been
story of the excavations in Palestine has been related many times, yet it seems appropriate in this connection to mention briefly,

The

in

subject
At

of the important general way, some under discussion.

results that bear upon

the

Tell el-Hesy, which lies on the edge of the Philistine plain, the lowest stratum is thought by Petrie and Bliss, who excavated 1700 B. C, and the uppera period about at the site,to represent most
letters, about 400 B. C. The city is referred to in the Amarna taken by Joshua ; and, but not in the Egyptian inscriptions. It was

according
pottery

to

Chronicles,

was

fortified by

Rehoboam.

Besides

tablet and remains of walls, buildings, etc., a cuneiform written in the Babylonian language, and belonging to the fifteenth found in its ruins. century B. C, i. e., the Amarna period, was
the Egyptian on as one monuments city Gezer is mentioned III, about 1475 B. C. Three of of the cities taken by Thutmose letters were In the the Amarna Japahi. written by its governor, The

book of Joshua we are told that its king, and the men with him who to the help of Lachish, were In the excavacame slain by Joshua. tions Gezer, it is claimed that the two lowest strata are earlier at
than anything found at Tell el-Hesy, and belonged to the Neolithic Macalister, who conducted the excavations, holds that the age.

aboriginal dwellers they lived in caves.

non-Semitic, of small stature; and that He thinks that the probable date of their troglodyte dwellings is prior to 2500 B. C. The third and fourth
were

strata which

lie immediately
to belong

in them

tained above are shown by the scarabs conto the period from the XII to the XTX

Dynasties,

quently about 2000 to 1400 B. C. The city is frereferred to in the Egyptian inscriptions, and was occupied
(53)

i. e., from

54

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOKITES.

The earliest inhabitants, the troglodytes, until the Christian era. Maealister holds, practised cremation, made pottery by hand, and it. The Semitic people, who displaced the at times ornamented old inhabitants, built a great megalithic high place, practised sacrifice the firstborn and foundation sacrifice; had many varieties of

of grain for food; less by Babylonia. Ashirta, two found

strongly influenced by Egypt, but much Besides figurines, regarded as representing cuneiform tablets of the seventh century B. C. were
were

at Gezer, and belonged tributary to Assyria.

to the later period, when

Judah

was

have shows that the place may of Sellin at Ta'anach been occupied from about 2000 B. C. up to the time of Josiah, when it was The two disdestroyed by the Egyptians coveries or the Scythians. The work

besides figurines, are at Ta'anach of significance made eight cuneiform tablets, and a crude pottery altar of incense. The tablets had probably been preserved in the pottery chest, beside It will be recalled that in the time found. of them were which some

(Jer. 32 : 14) important writings of Jeremiah jars. In not a few instances jarshave been

were

kept in earthen found in Babylonia

found containing tablets. The building in which the tablets were to whom have been the residence of one, Ashirta-washur, several may Guli-Addi offers to send silver the letters are addressed. of to Ashirta-washur; and among other things calls on him to give his daughter, old enough, to the king (namely of Egypt). he received; inquires whether Ahi-Jami weapons refers to some to send a messenger proposes certain cities had been recovered;
when

Aman-hashir

(perhapsan Egyptian) ; and informs Ashirta-washur

his brothers
with the chariots, then in his hands.

all prisoners these letters, tablets containing lists of men, and other fragments, make up the eight tablets discovered. It is understood

that he will send on the morrow a horse as tribute, presents, and

Besides

that these tablets belong to the letters; and

same

general period

as

the Amarna

if that is correct, the name Ahi-Jami, which is very probably equivalent to Ahijah, is most interesting, since it contains Israel's God, written Ja-mi. the divine name In the of Murashu found at Nippur, belonging to the reigns of archives Artaxerxes is names and Darius, the divine element in Hebrew written Ja-a-ma for Jawa.

IV.

EXCAVATIONS

IN

AMTJBBTJ.

about an which is part, of ancient Megiddo, hour northwest of Tell Ta' anach, Sellin devoted two years to excavating. III ; it figures with by Thutmose Megiddo was captured At Tell Mutesellim,

fortified by Solomon; Letters; was Ta' anach in the Amarna and lost his life. Besides the place where Ahaziah died, and Josiah was buildings, walls, pottery, bronze and stone objects, etc., that were The one was a jasperseal stone found. discovered, two seals were
bearing
a

Hebrew

inscription, "to
some

Shema,

who is considered by The bore that name.

to be

one

servant of Jeroboam." kings who of the two Hebrew

of Asaph. other seal bore the name At Sebastiyah, the ancient Samaria, the expedition of Harvard during parts of three seasons. University was able to excavate found built upon Here a large palace was native rock, which is

believed

later extensively This was to be the palace of Omri. This is believed enlarged, and the walls faced with white marble. "ivory to have been the work of Ahab, who is said to have built an

home"
about

(I Kgs.
one

22:

39).

In

building
were

on

hundred

The are ostraca writing known. earliest specimens for wine and oil which had been stored, containing the memoranda name names of place whence of the sender and receiver, amounts, it came, nately and the date. The year of the reign is given, but unfortuAn old city gate of the Israelite of the king. period, ruins of other buildings of later periods, and other remains
not the
name
were

potsherds of Hebrew

found

level with this palace of the containing some

a

uncovered. More not far recently, Ain Shems, the Biblical Beth-Shemesh, from Der Aban on the railroad between Jaffa and Jerusalem, was in 1911 and 1912. The war brought to excavated by Mackenzie, being conducted at Balata, near close other excavations that were Nablus, the Biblical Shechem, and on the Ophel at Jerusalem. Besides these operations, other excavations of a private character
a

have

been conducted from time to time by scholars and travellers through which important results have been obtained. The results of these excavations that have a bearing on the present discussion belong naturally to the early period. Through them learn about the massive city walls, the plans of the houses, the kinds of weapons and utensils the people used; something about the stock they raised; about their religious their foods; and

we

56

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

beliefs and practices ; their methods of burial ; the state their art had reached; and about their intercourse with other nations. It inferences for an draw is by the help of these facts that we our

of the civilization in this part of Amurru. understanding It must be admitted, however, that if it were not for the light throw upon that contemporaneous records and the Old Testament the early period, these excavations would give us littleconception The excavations conducted of the civilization that existed in the land. important as they are in throwing in the hills of Palestine,
tact certain phases of the early life of the land, and its connations, nevertheless furnish us with with the surrounding itic littleunderstanding of the actual occupation of that region by SemThe a at Tell Mutesellim, excavations conducted peoples.

light upon

of Megiddo, for example, have not furnished materials from which it is possible to draw any adequate picture of the civilization of that city. It is only with the light that we obtain from such a list of booty taken after the fall of the fortress, as that given by
part

that district appreciate how The same is true of the tale of swarmed with life in ancient times. Sinuhe, which throws such a flood of light upon the civilization Palestine, about 2000 B. C. (seeChapter XIV). Should north of

Thutmose

III, that

we

begin

to

era or earlier, with light on Palestine of the same the fact that cave-dwellers we shall doubtless find, notwithstanding lived in the hills,and other foreign peoples were in evidence, that us

fortune

favor

the country

unto

in permanent agricultural settlements herds, and who had attained a people ; who possessed great fair civilization, exactly as the traditions of the Old a very teemed with Semites lead
any

Testament Without

to believe they possessed. desire to minimize the importance

us

the excavations, we cannot help expressing in not finding more written records of an early period, such as are found in Egypt and Babylonia. The earliest writings discovered,

of the results of great disappointment

besides the few cuneiform tablets, are the ostraca, above referred to; the so-called Calendar Inscription found at Gezer, probably the Moabite stone, the Siloam going back to the ninth century;

inscription, and

few minor

inscribed

w objectshich led many

follow in point

of time. The results of these excavations

have

scholars to

con-

IV.

EXCAVATIONS

IX

AMUKRU.

57

sessed elude that the Semitic peoples of Palestine in the early period poslow type of civilization, and were the a without only True, in the knowledge of their own. of a written language

period they admit the Babylonian language and script had been used for diplomatic and inter-commercial ; and some purposes were think that the early portions of the Old Testament even
Amarna

Although on the highway between Egypt written in this language. the one hand, and Babylonia- Assyria as well as the countries on battles and conto the north, on the other, and the scene flicting of many in a forces, Palestine was removed, and nevertheless
Even, if the great centres of the Semites. the the city Humurtu, which thrived in the third millennium, was have inferred, and was Gomorrah as some of the Old Testament, situated in this district,we have no other evidence of activity here in on the part of the early kings of the East, except the campaign
measure

isolated, from

the days
may

But of Amraphel. not have been developed

although the civilization in Palestine as that of the region to the north and
it was of
a

the northeast, unquestionably

vastly higher

that

indicated

by

the

archaeological

remains

that

order than have been

unearthed at the several sites excavated. While the Amorite empire lasted, the efforts of the Babylonian were on the Mediterranean conquerors usually concentrated and
important itic Semthe old and more the favorite regions centres of civilizationexisted. These were for invasions, as is evidenced by the inscriptions; but unfortunately,

Mesopotamian

districts, where

as

mentioned

yet been

early
sources,

undertaken. history of the country and inscriptions of

above, excavations in these parts have not as All the light that can be thrown the upon is gathered from contemporaneous in this Everywhere a later period.
can

land the ruin-hills of the past between the Lebanons, along the sea, broad
rivers, and

be

seen.

On

notably

along

in the region be numbered the Euphrates can

the plain between the

sands thou-

of sites, many will reveal the data

of which

whereby reconstructed ; and that empire of the distant past, which has been known heretofore only through descendants of those that have survived its destruction, will take its place in the galaxy of nations that belong to the dawn

when opened up to the light of day be the history of the Amorites can

of history.

V THE

RACES

OF

AMURRU

into which poured Situated in such a central position, Amurru, from all sides, and for so many different races generations, was occupied by a people which doubtless ethnologically represented a
great mixture, and among type.

whom

were

found

more

than

one

distinct

does not permit us to approach Our present knowledge with any difficult distribution of the degree of accuracy the problem of the the great parallelogram different Semites throughout which they

possible to refer at least to three distinct types, which may be called the Arabian, Canaanite, and Aramaean. to form Bedouin, according to anthropologists, seem The modern They a homogeneous mixture of strange elements. unity with little occupied.
It is however

They of an old Semitic race. regarded as pure descendants dolichocephalic, have dark complexion, and a short, small and are Penned This may be said to be the Arab type. up straight nose.
are

that did not experience so many country has changed invasions, the type of the Arab Semite, it would seem, Even if tradition is correct in makinglittle in millenniums.
as a

it were

in Arabia,

of the Semites (seeChapter II),the Arab having lived for so long an era in his land very probably represents the purest type, because the admixture could not with other races Mesopotamia the home
have

been

so

great.

the exception of the impression gathered from the Old Testament tall in stature, we are indebted that the Canaanite was for our knowledge to the Egyptian monuments of the physiognomy

With

These monuments are especially rich of the Canaanite-Amorite. From in representations of the dwellers of this part of Amurru. it a study of the characteristics observed upon these monuments that this race produced by the great mixture would seem of Amurru, from a very that existed along the Mediterranean looked upon by the artists as a clearly defined type. early era, was His head was He had broad shoulders and was tall in stature. of
races

large and dolichocephalic

or

long headed ; it was

(58)

somewhat

narrow

V.

THE

RACES

OF

AMUBRU.

59

like that of modern low and was

curve.

tribes living in the Lebanon

nose

district. The
a

forehead

Large

retreating; the brows overshadowed

distinctly aquiline The their blue or dark eyes. had

The lower high cheek bones stood out from their hollow cheeks. heavy; usually part of the face was square and somewhat and was The lips by a thick and curly beard, which was pointed. concealed
was thin, and a mustache been comparatively rarely or it was The hair of the head was worn. allowed either shaved off, in frizzed curls, hung back of the neck. long and worn to grow the largest thrown over Women wore their hair in three masses, seem

to have

the back while the other two dropped the breast.

on

either side of the face upon

At Abu-Simbel by which

the skin of the Canaanite-Amorite intended to represent the Egyptian

is painted yellow,
a

their eyes are blue, and the beard and eyebrows Habu the skin is painted rather pinker than flesh color, according Dynasty to Petrie; and in a tomb of the Eighteenth at Thebes,

white people ; red. At Medinet

it is white ; the eyes and hair being light red-brown. At Karnak the skin of the figures is alternately red and yellow. The Egyptian throw the monuments considerable light upon
of these Canaanite-Amorites. the lower class, usually represented loin cloth similar to the Egyptian, or
or

dress

The
as

peasant,

or

one

from
a

barefooted,
below

wore

either

he is found The
a

piece of cloth brought which after passing closely around the hips and chest was the shoulder, and formed a sort of cloak. This was up over made bands, of a thick rough wool material and was embroidered with lines, and circles. The color and design were Two conspicuous. large shawls, one blue, arranged so that the colors red and one would alternate, were sometimes substituted for the cloak. A soft leather belt gathered the folds about the waist. A cap and a handkerchief held by a filletwere a worn; sometimes wig, and red buskins, completed morocco the dress.1
1

yellow shirt with short sleeves, extending hem of the shirt was generally embroidered. it wore a similar shirt, but over class man

a white wearing The knees. the

noble

or

upper

long

The

Racial

above Types;

description

Sayce

Races

is based on Petrie of the Canaanite-Amorite of the Old Testament, and Early History The Struggle

of

the Hebrews

p. 20;

and

Maspero

of Natioiis p. 149 ff.

60

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

Efforts have been put forth by some to show that the Canaanite-Amorites representations
peans
;

from
were

these pictorial Indo-Euro-

others have declared the type to be distinctly Semitic, and, as above, represented at the present time by peoples in the Lebanon district. Doubtless the tallness of the stature and even other anatomical
type

characteristics resulted from the race mixture that the Taking everything, represents, and which the artist recognized. that however, into consideration, it is not at all improbable
was

the type that

itic, in this region, though partially Sempredominant foreign and perhaps aboriginal. represented much that was Syria there is found at present another type, which In Northern
a

may

be called Aramaean, also having all the heads being brachycephalic. peoples of Asia Minor show the same

striking uniformity, nearly The Armenians and other Investigations uniformity.

was race.2

have led to the conviction that in early times the country brachycephalic by a homogeneous and extremely
type

ited inhabThe

depicted

on

the

relief of Sennacherib, would hardly be possible for characteristic representation The Jewish type of today.

obelisk of Shalmaneser it would seem, portray

a

and the Lachish this race; and it

modern

also sculptor of Sheshonk but he gave Rehoboam, Israelites who were of portrayed subjects them the characteristic Canaanite features. As is known, about Since fifty per cent of Jews living at present are brachycephalic.
the home as tradition points to Aram ancient time, it is reasonable to assume

of what Egyptian

sculptor to produce a more is regarded as the well known

of the Israelites or Jews of that they are to be grouped

with what is called Aramaean. The question arises, did the dweller in the Euphrates resent region repfound in The status of the early period another type?

furnish us with material for the study of these and Akkad beards, and that the Semites wore people, but besides showing knowledge concerning their dress, little of value for the subject
Sumer
The under consideration is gained from them.3 have of a ruler designated as Amorite is that of ash, king of Mari ; but this is headless.
-

only
. .
.

statue
-um-

we

Sham-

Von

Luschan

Ausgrabungen und

in Senschirli. Semiten in Babylonien.

See Meyer

Sumerier

VI
THE

LANGUAGES
of Amurru
many

AND
was

WRITING Semitic.

OF
There
can

AMURRU
be

The language that there

were

far by
eras

as some

can

was

in spite of the opinion held scholars, it can be said that the prevailing language in all Semitic. The chief evidence of this fact is obtained
a

non-Semitic be determined at present,

languages

no question in the land, but as

through
country

elements Amorite deities fully determine compounded with of this ; in fact, our knowledge tically of the early Amorite language is pracdependent on the study of the personal names. the
names

study of the personal and geographical belonging to every period, early and late.

names

of the

The

Chiera in

recent volume
a

syllabary which contained doubtless individuals

of inscriptions published long list of Amorite names,

an

important

Babylonia

(UMBS

XI, 1 )
.

who By

had
a

migrated study of the Amorite

as

from

representing into Amurru

names contained it is

well as this syllabary possible to acquire not only considerable knowledge concerning religious ideas expressed by the people in the giving of names, also most fact, some

in the cuneiform

literature

the

but

In and philological material. have left their traces in these of the roots lost in Hebrew names, many of which become explicable by the help of the cognate languages, while others remain It is possible to undetermined. time a fair-sized vocabulary at the present of Amorite words of the early period, simply from personal names. Many in Cappadocian names tablets, with the help of this knowledge,
construct to be Amorite. The same prove Amarna letters, and even in the Egyptian

important

lexicographical

is true

in the of many inscriptions. All these

facts make it impossible to follow those who hold that not only the Philistines and Phoenicians but also the Amorites were pre-Hellenic invaders from the Aegean Islands, including Crete.

question then arises, since we are of different groups of Semitic languages,

(61)

The

familiar with to what branch

number does the

62

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

language

Assyrian,

and by many Akkadian, we know two which called branches of Semitic languages in the north, namely the Aramaic other be called the Amoraic, or the What may and the Hebrew.
are now

of the

Amorites

belong?

Besides

the Babylonian

An of the Amorites, is the parent of all these branches. of the philological material furnished us from the examination Amorite names Babylonian on tablets, prior to 2000 B. C, many language
and those from

the few tablets belonging

B. C. as well as millennium tablets found in Palestine, show that the language Hebrew.
second The language

to the early part of the letters, and the few the A mama

closely resembles

dian, of the Babylonians and Assyrians, or the Akkafrom Amurru, the writer maintains came and under Sumerian influence developed differences. This pronounced grammatical
extensively throughout has left many traces of its influence upon the It is a question whether the language used Hebrew and Aramaic. in Syria at a much earlier period was carried into Arabia and became what we now recognize as Arabic, or whether both are from
Amurru,

Akkadian

language

having

been later used

in turn

source

of which

we

have

at present

no

knowledge.

is great difference of opinion as regards the kind of script Most scholars do not admit that the "Western used by the Amorites. Semites had a script of their own prior to 1000 B. C, when the Phoenician they suppose alphabet to have been introduced.
There

Since in the middle of the second millennium language and script were used in Palestine,
Amarna letters and the Ta'anach records of the Old Testament
must

B. C. the Babylonian
as

tablets, some
have

is evident from the hold that the earliest been first written in

cuneiform. It must be admitted that writing is not mentioned in the Pentateuch Abraham instructed Eliezer what until the time of Moses.
to say to his people.

When

he bought

piece of ground,
a

the
may

sons

of Heth at the city gate as witnesses, although have been drawn Jacob sent messengers up.

he called document when he

entreated
as

the favor of Esau ; Judah in promising to make a payment, his staff and the jewel he wore on a cord about his neck gave These facts, however, do not prove that writing was pledge.
the Aramaeans
or

not practised among

Amorites.

Even

if those

VI.

THE

LANGUAGES

AND

WRITING

OF

AMUBKU.

63

that scribes need only mention referred to could not write, we hardly accompanied small nomadic groups. If the single tablet at Lachish, and the few others at Gezer and had not searched for Ta' anach had not been found, and the woman

wood
was

could not prove at present we at El-Amarna, in Palestine in the second millennium known at all

that writing B. C. As a

matter

the excavations of fact, nothing has been found through in the literary even thus far to show that the people of Israel were is it that absolutely nothing has been B. C. Why first millennium to the writings of the found in Palestine thus far contemporaneous to show that these writings actually existed in Old Testament ancient times. fact, from the antiquities discovered, that It is an acknowledged The Egypt extensively influenced the civilization of Palestine. Egyptians also conquered and ruled the land ; and their script was Nevertheless, besides such in Palestine. known as scarabs,

objects

steles, nothing has been preserved to show this. True, and know the Egyptian we princes in Palestine of the Amarna period in cuneiform; but was to their masters the language wrote of
a

few

Egypt,
monuments

of which

we

ourselves

have

so

and on papyri, not made use in Palestine? And while, as we said, we of the Biblical period from Palestine to show that any portion existed, down in Egypt at Elephantine a large of the Old Testament

the much evidence upon of by its representatives have not a scrap of evidence

number of records have been found belonging to a Jewish colony of the time of Nehemiah, which among other things refer to the temple the Jews had erected there. In Egypt, as is known, masses In Palestine not a fragment has of papyri have been preserved. been found ; but its absence among the antiquities discovered certainly does not prove that it had not been used ; for we know that the climate has not been favorable to its preservation. those who perhaps would concede that the Semitic district also used the Babylonian people of this cuneiform script for their own Amorite language, as did the Hittites, Mitannians
are

There

This, however, does people for their languages. If not seem reasonable in the absence of any proof whatsoever. Amorites in Palestine had used the cuneiform the script for thenlanguage, the excavations would certainly have yielded evidence of
and

the Vannic

64:

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

not only a littleevidence, but masses of it,in view And literary achievements. what is true of of their advanced is true of Babylonia and Assyria, Palestine and the rest of Amurru

this fact

"

and

where

have lived in many different of Amorites that they adopted Even in the time after it is assumed periods. an an ought to find evidences ; for clay was alphabetic script, we
tens of thousands
ever

ready

inexpensive

required considerable in the Amarna words

writing material, while papyrus There are many time to prepare.

letters.

or

skins Hebrew

Some

names)

are

found

in the Cappadocian
language,

but not a in the Babylonian script writer can be said to be written in Hebrew Other peoples, like the Hittites, Let us or repeat. syllabary. Vannic Mitannians, syllabary peoples used the Babylonian and the Babylonian

the personal and other tablets written in to the single tablet known

(aside from

for their languages.

which we has been have

This

was

known

throughout
a

is it that not much evidence. found as yet in Palestine, Mesopotamia,

"Why

of tablet single Babylonia or

Amurru,

is,they had a script language ? The answer written in the Hebrew perishable material; which which they used upon of their own, for early examples fact is doubtless responsible of it not being
known at present. The high literary

writings of the Hebrews, acknowledged to hold the view that it wholly unreasonable Aramaeans, makes in a comparatively short time, and that the people of such arose A written and Amurru previously had no script of their own.
long history is certainly presupposed. This great Semitic people, who have handed down an incomparable literature, and whose system of writing was adopted by the Greeks literary language

character of the earliest the earliest of the and even

having

earlier, certainly had in more perhaps A as well as their neighbors. ancient times a script of their own in the script is noted as having already taken development marked it of the writing, and makes place prior to the earliest examples
as

early

as

1200

B. C,

or

reasonable
present
was
more an can

into
had

archaeology. hieroglyphic in form, or had at least partially developed alphabetic script, as had the writing of the Egyptians, who

to conclude be shown

that it has by

much

antiquity than at TVhether the early script

greater

alphabetic characters in their system in the earliest period of their history, cannot at present be surmised.

VI.

THE

LANGUAGES

AND

WRITING

OF

AMUBBU.

65

Petrie Khadini

in his excavations temple at Serablt el of the Egyptian in the Sinaitic Peninsula found an inscription in unknown which

Gardiner and about 1500 B. C. occurs "goddess" that the word b'lt (ba'alat) Cowley conjecture in the inscription, on the basis of which they identify other characters
characters,

dates

from

words, and rebuild the old theory and read a dozen or more origin of the Semitic alphabet. of the Egyptian language as was As is known, the Babylonian used in Amurru data At present there are no B. C. early as the third millennium this upon which to base an intelligent theory as to how and when introduced in the West. language script were and the cuneiform historical period in the earliest known We know that Babylonia had already
come

Gilgamesh,
VIII

and and

Etana, into conflictwith Amurru. others of this era, invaded the land. The
resources

Shar-banda,

ters (See Chap-

of the country, as well as the inviting also to Lugal-zaggisi, loot that could be secured, were Gudea, Sargon, Xaram-Sin, the kings of the Ur Dynasty, and for the introduction But exactly what movement was responsible

IX.)

others.

into that region is not known. language of the Babylonian guage lanAs it is impossible to state exactly why the use of the Aramaic lonia, Asia, including Cappadocia, Babywestern spread all over
the diplomatic period it was impossible to determine what was responsible for the introduction the international commercial as and diplomatic of the Babylonian language in the previous and earlier millenniums. Persia, and that in the Persian
even

Egypt,

in the firstmillennium

B. C, except language, it is also

VII
THE

NAME

AMURRU

OR

URU

in the Old Testament has been as familiar The word "Amorite" to Biblical students during the past centuries as almost any other designation of ancient peoples, but with comparatively little standing underThis is largely due to the fact the term meant. as to what
that the imperial

history of the people

came

to

close prior to

2000 B. C.
The who
two

for a people used in the Old Testament lived in Palestine and the region east of the Jordan, as is generally only with the gentilic ending and with understood, appears
term

"Amorite,"

"the Amorite."1 exceptions always with the article,hd'amori inscriptions, the name In the cuneiform of the land is written A-mu-ri, A-mu-ur-ri-iki , A-mur-ri-e, """A-mur-ri, phonetically Marki and """Mar-Tit." In A-mur-ra, etc., and with the ideograms

the time of Seti I the land is called be vocalized Amor, and refers to the district or which can (seeChapter XIV). called Beka', between the Lebanons valley now distinction between the u and o Since the cuneiform no made the Egyptian
'mr,

inscriptions from

vowels,

in Josephus, of the name of the pronunciation Greek, and (Ant. and that of the Hebrew, 'A(ioP(e)ia I: 13, 1 f.), Syriac versions of the Old Testament, it is certain that the vowel in view
u

written

The doubling in cuneiform was o, i. e. Amor. pronounced of the forms is due to the long vowel of the r found in many In other words, Amurru=Amuru. Although the which precedes.
vowel
1
2

was

pronounced

instead

of the English
'Afwppu,
'

u,

Amurru

will

The

LXX

transliterated

'Afioppaioi,

A/xappaiot,

'Ap.p,opeLO, etc.

phonetically Ammi-zaduga there is ABP

42: 1,

Other

orthographic
near

21).

a place In the Amarna

In the time of : A-mu-ur-ri-i (Meissner called is written """ A-mur-ri, tablets the name examples

follow

Sippar

matdti A-mur-ri, and mdtdti A-mu-ri is written In the time of the Assyrian period the name also """Mar-Tu. 1908 29 ff.) A-mur-ri, A-mur-ri-e, etc. Tofteen AJSL (See
"""A-mu-ri, alA-mu-ur-ra, """A-mur-ra,

(66)

VII.

THE

NAME

AMURRU

OR

UEU.

67

be used here instead of Amor (u),because the name and Amorro is thus written in cuneiform, from which most of our material for discussion is drawn. difficultiesattending etymologies of ancient geographical fully appreciated, for they may belong to an era far names are happen to have evidence that remote from the one in which we may they had been used, a notable example of which is the name under
They have to former belonged may consideration. perchance invaders of the land, who were of another race, and who spoke a different language ; in this instance, however, this is not probable. The

signified 'the mountaineer,' since in dwelt in hills. This was the Amorites the Old Testament supported by reference to the Hebrew but this means 'amir, word Others have endeavored to show "summit," not "mountain."
name

Some

have

held that the

that the word was of Sumerian or Assyrian origin ; but in the light of the facts of this discussion, this does not appear plausible.3 We know the origin of the geographical name Ashur (Assyria); how

"We are familiar the city Ashur gave to the country its name. in Babylonia, how Akkad with the history of early kingdoms became dominant among the principalities, and the whole land was
called Akkad
;

It can empire which instances that countries received their names through the ascendancy Moreover, like every other empire, ancient of city states. was governed from a centre, and this, as we and modern, Amurru the country which it ruled its name (seeChapter X). not only the name of the country, but also the name Ashur, Tilla, Mash, and of the chief deity of the land, as were the name (seeChapter XI). In consequence perhaps Anu of the
shall see, gave Amurru was

and how later Babylon bore the same name.

became

the centre be shown

of a great in many

god and the country

3

will be discussed at the

Langdon

same

time, but in each

for the

is regarded by "land "West land, hur-amur

Amurru

as

an

early

Sumerian

term

= mat abubi. of storms," written kur-mar-ur He holds that ma'Mar-TU is to be read ma'mar-rii, a confusion of signs for """a-mar-ru as an {BabyloniacaVI p. 55). Haupt regards Amurru ancient

Assyrian

name

for the Mediterranean

Assyrian

like yam tdmertu

in the Hebrew. "reservoir." and

He
ammaru

connects

it with "abundance"

(JAOS

amiranu and 38, p. 336).

68

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

instance it will be indicated to which the weak 'alef and mem consonants

suffer phonetic changes, the name it had not been for this fact, the writer would not have had the privilege of presenting this work, for much of what is here offered long ago. would have been known Amor The
goes

Owing to reference is made. in the word, which readily If in variant forms. appears

back to

an

deflection of the a early and late Babylonian

original Amar, to o is a very common

as

Ashur

is from

Ashar.

In phonetic change. inscriptions there are Amorite names

In the early period, cf. Amar. with the deity's name compounded for Amel-dElbe the Sumerian Galu-dAmar-Dingir which may Amar-a-pa-', in the late Babylonian period,cf.^f ""fl/-rfl-;jfl-', Amar; Amar-na-ta-nu, Ama
texts, Amar; r-sa-al-ti and in the Assyrian is equated with dAmarBecause the deity 'Amaru it (II R 54: 52g), and for many other reasons
"

ma-'-a-di, etc.4 Utug (Marduk)

seems

is found in Amar highly probable that the form of the name has arisen. This this syncretistic formation from which Marduk has been recognized long ago (seeAmurru p. 120 f.).

is well known, """Mar-tu and MarM are ideograms resent of or repdMar-tu and dMar are also ideograms Amurru; the name to indicate that Amar This would seem for the deity Amurru. and is the fact. As stated above, Amar-Utug Mar are related; and this That the names became Marada. became Marduk of and Amar-da As the deity, dMar
d Amurru are also identical, is conclusively and which shown by a tablet recently published by Scheil (RA 14, 140), Sar dMar in two is a parallel text to one published by Virolleaud.

passages

by sar A-mu-ri-im "king of the former text is reproduced it seems in the latter text. And certain reasonably of Amuri" in the Biblical is reproduced that the shortened form of the name for which the Syriac version gives Amoriah, as well as the 2 Chron. 3: 1 (see below). It seems Septuagint in the passage therefore that no other conclusion can be reached but that Mar and is the older or origWhich Amar name. are inal, variants of the same

Moriah,

it is impossible to say. The vowel of Mar is variously written in the deity's

4

name,

the

See Amurru

p. 101.

In

name

books the

name

is generally written with

the ideogram

dSVR.

VII.

THE

NAME

AMURRU

OR

CRU.

69

Besides Mar, the Ashar, Ashir, and Ashur. is written Mer, Me-ir, and Mar. name frequently in Mar (which, as above, =Amurru) is found very in dMarki and dXiu-Mar'!i; i. e. the god and goddess as early names used in late (see Chapter X). This form was of the city Mar meanmar be the origin of the Aramaic Amorite names, ing and may
same as

in the

name

"lord".5

lonia Mir was carried to Babyof the god written Mer and in the earliest known of the early period, cf. En-Me-ir-har the nanus In the obelisk of Manishtusu, dynasty. Erechian found in It is commonly Anum-pi-Me-ir and Il-ka-Me-ir occur. comare pounded the Ur Dynasty, about thirty different names where it is In the First Dynasty with it, as Mer-ka-gi-na, etc. IH-i-madWe-ir-a-bu-su, Warad-dWe-ir, found in such names as
The
name

Tukulti-Me-ir , king of Hana dWe-ir,* etc. It is found in the name I-tur{TSBA 8, 35"2). It also is found in the syncretistic name Me-ir (see Chapter XI). In the syllabaries such forms with prefixed
/7w "god" The form dMur where,
occur,
seems

like I-H-Me-ir?
to be confined to the syllabaries of deities, it is equated with the of the deity's name,

like other forms Moreover, sign dlM, indicating that it is a storm-deity like Adad. in the light of the above, the writer has no hesitation in asserting
that Mar,
5

Mer, Mur8

which

are

largely confined to the syllabaries,

texts,

Cf. the Amorite rim-me, etc. Other

the Assyrian Mar-se-te-',
names

names

in Assyrian

Ma-ri-la-rim
name

with

Mar-lain

occurrences
are

of the deity's
etc.

in Amorite

names

inscriptions

Mur-bi-'-di. Mar-ia-kin, Ma-ri-id-di, Mar-sam-si,

Mar(TUR)-su-ri,
West

from

in the personal Cf. also the occurrences Semitic inscriptions like Mar-barak Mar-j" (^"13~)!3), h"n
etc. ("]OD"lD),

('mO),
demon,
or

Mar-samak rather
a

Note

also the

name

depotentized

deity written

NH^NIE

of a god (seeAmurru

or

p.

162).
15

See Holma
See CT

Acta
:

Societates Scientiarum

Fennicae

45 3, 1: 13, IT.

7 ; also I-lu-Mi-ir, CT 24 18 : R2 ; and I-lu-Me-ir = dIM, CT 29 45 : 24. Probably Tl'?N of the Zakir inscription should be considered = in connection with Mer instead of Uru (seebelow). Cf. also "11~l3 Pir'Lidzbarski letter, time of Ashurbanipal, Mer or Pir'-f'ru in an Aramaic
7

25 20

ZA
8

31.

Cf. Mu-ur

and

Mu-rn

dIM

(CT 24 32: 119;

29 45:

21-22); and

also

70

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

deity's name, that of the storm-god variant forms of the same which had been brought into Babylonia ; and that they of Amurru9 in turn are variant forms of Amar. The phonetic change of 'Amur(ru) = 'Awur= 'tfr,ecognition r
are

of which 'Awuru

followed the writer's discovery that Amurru 'Uru, in Aramaic, i e., 'wr or (TIN),needs

was no

written discussion,

since it is generally accepted by scholars. That is, 'Amur and identical. This is illustrated in the Talmudic are word
"west,"

'Ur
for

namely

'Ur

"twilight, evening"; These terms "night."

where

means 'Oria (NH1N), which also and 'Urta (WHIN) meaning and the feminine

doubtless

Jews

experienced

their origin in Babylonia, in difficulty trying to understand how 'Ur

had

("HN)which

ness, "dark"light" should also mean ordinarily meant is the question is asked, 'Why etc. In the Talmud west," The answer the West called 'Uria and 'Ur?' given is, because it Palestine.10 "divine (variant, "light"), meaning meant air" There
can amurru

was

be littledoubt, since the Babylonian word because the (alsowritten

for

"west"

martu),

country adjoining

represented that direction, that the origin of the Talmudic words 'Ur and 'Uria "west," 'Urta "night," have etymologically also
to be explained
as

coming

from

Amurru

or

'Uru.

In the early periods of Babylonian history, by the association of sounds, scribes used different signs having a similar pronunciation to represent the name Following are some of the god Uru. of the signs used, all of which have the value been used for the deity's name.
dMu-u-ru-u
=

uru,

and all of which

have

dIM

with the sign d niNIN-IMmuru interesting identification of it will be necessary later

remains 9 That
to be
seen.

is identified each instance Mur Amorite Cf. also that represents the chief storm-deity. ki (CT 25 1:7). CT 25 20:7 furnishes us with a very

(CT

25

17:28).

In

d
on

""'""'

"-"UM with
read
dIM, dIM

d
=

"^-'^IM.
dM
ur or

to

To what extent dIM-ra = Mur-ra

the storm-god, is clear from such CT 29 45 : 20 ; 24 32 : 120 ; 25 20 : 8, etc. In CT 25 20 : 8 as passages d is equated with d "u*-m*+ilM 4- IM. Perhaps a-do-adTM this form of the is found in the Old Testament name Meri-ba'al name written

Mer(Me-ir) is a reading of

(^DHO)

Mepi/3aaXin the Septuagint

10

(see 1 Chron. 8:34, etc.).

Dictionary
p. 34.

See Jastrow

Talmudic

VII.

THE

NAME

AMURRU

OR

UBU.

"1

is in strict accordance with our knowledge of the expedients ter scribes (see also under shar. Chapresorted to by the Babylonian "servant" is used XVII). The sign for uru or ur meaning

This

as

an

ideogram
or

meaning in writing the latter name Uru-gal.11 The is employed the sign ur13 meaning "irrigation"; "liver." sign urn1'2 meaning the ordinary sign uru meaning "city." {Amurru p. 113); the sign
p.
uru14

and Ur-ra "brother"

and also Ur-ra-gal

as

phonogram

in the deity's

names.

Uru,

{Amurru

113).

The

sign

uru

meaning

"whirlwind,

city;"

the

sign

BUR-BUR

uri

(Amurru p. 113), etc., are god Uru (=Amurru). In

Uru or pronunciation literature, and also in the late syllabaries, where such obsolete deities' names the past were represented preserved, unquestionably of the name the god under consideration. of
"While the
name

the name of the all used to represent short, these many signs standing for the Ur as the name of a god in early Babylonian

Amurru,
names

clature of the deity is found so extensively in the nomenit is seldom found after the fall of Babylonia, of early in the Amorite It occurs to 2000 B. C. or subsequent

U-ru-mil-ki, time of Sennacherib (I R 38: 50),U-ri-im-me-i (III R 9: 51), and perhaps in a few other Assyrian inscriptions. As would be expected, it is more commonly used in the land
Amurru,

for in the Old Testament

are

Uri, Uriah,
in the
name

Urijah,Uriel,
Melchior

Shede-Ur
Amarna

found,

and

it

occurs

tablets, written Mil-ki-U-ri and Mil-ku-ru. U-ru-sa-Um the name (Jerusalem) (see Amurru p. 175). It is found in one of the earliest Aramaic inscriptions, the stele which Zakir

and of the It is found in

of Hamath

and

La'ash

dedicated

to El-Ur

pV?K),15i. e.

11

12
13

Cf. also Uruu"-ma "sMas (CT 24 10: 8). Cf d "-rumUrum (CT 25 11: 26). d Cf. "Nin-vUr (CT 25 1: 8).
Cf. Uru" '""-Tab The name

14

(CT 25 20:17).
in
a

15

found "^tDIN

Phoenician

inscription at Byblos

as

has

been suggested is the same as 'firi-milki (= "I^OTIN)defectively written but it contains the name of the deity. It is not improbable that the names

72 Aloros. But

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

in this connection than familiarly known of the capital of Amurru, else, it is the name " " Ur of the Chaldees (seeChapter X )

what

is

more

important

all
as

be difficult to those unfamiliar with Semitic philology it may how this name could appear in these variants, but when comprehend it is recalled that the Aramaic was written without vowels, and To

that

some

Semites
that
a

used
weak

w readily unites with a forms a long vowel, the phonetic changes sound and intelligible. Then also it must be borne in mind that most become niums of our data are found in the cuneiform script, and that for millenAmorites taking with poured into Babylonia from Amurru

sound,18 and homogeneous

others w like consonant and

to represent

the

same

them

written differently in (lifof this deity, which was erent by different guilds of scribes (seeChapter I). centres Amar, Mar Uru being an Amorite or god, it is reasonable to

the

name

expect
or

that his consort's name would Ur-tu, like Ashir and Ashirtu, Anu

be written Amar-tu, Mar-tu, and Antu, Mash and Mashtu,

etc. Recently

the writer revived the explanation suggested long ago ideogram for Amurru, is the feminine of that Mar-tu, the common Mar.17 usual explanation is that it is Sumerian, and means "the entering in of Mar" (thesign TU meaning erebu "to enter"). It is not impossible that Mar-Tu was selected by the Babylonian
Areli
name

The

(,l?N1N)and Ariel (^XHN) of p. 157). of 'tlru (see Amurru

=

the Old Testament Ari

=

also contain the

to

Amurru,

ancient Babylonian scribe, cf. SAI the value Uri = Akkad and Ari

No. 5328. Amurru.

a

The

according ideogram BUR-BUR

the
has

Whether

Uri and

Ari

must

related question; be regarded as unscientific, as per See also the discussion in the following chapter on Ar-data and Ar-ivada, also written El-data and Uri-wada respectively. 10 Cf. Amurru ~HN (above referred to), Simanu with with JVD, Shamash tJ'IC, arahshamna with with pJHN, with ptrmD, argamanu question
cannot

be considered

as

is of

course

the raising of the Bohl, Kanaanacr, 39 f.

but

Nabu-rimannu
as

with

p"11DJetc.,
,

the complete well omission 17 The Biblical for Moriah

a

change well established, as in Assyrian. it had become w of the after to show that Martu seems actually represents
a

phonetic

Olmstead has called the writer's attention to the classical pronunciation. Marathias and 'Ami-it, which seem to show the same.

VII.

THE

NAME

AMURRU

OK

URU.

73

scribes

As for the word representing the "west." 'Crta had a related meaning, and is above noted the Talmudic perhaps the feminine of 'tTria. Some scratched and years ago the writer found endorsements
as an

ideogram

written

with

ink

on

Babylonian the
name

contract

period, which
'most

contained

Nin-IB
it
was

tablets of the Persian in the Aramaic ters, charac-

to read Enmastu. proposed Fully a score of different explanations have since been offered by different scholars.115 nearly as many Recently the writer had the good fortune to find also the reading

(ntPUX), for

which

of the

name

in

Syllabary

in the Yale
was

Babylonian

Collection,
and also that [MI 53:

which confirms it is connected

his view that the deity Amurru. with Mar-tit

=

Amorite,
The

syllabary

288) reads
This
means

as

follows
'

ur-ta

IB

| u-ra-su

i sa JXin-IB

su-ma

that it is

"a

is to be read that the sign IB, called urasu, This seems name (or of dXi"i-IB.""

ur-ta, and

sign)

to

mean

that the complete

18

name

is to be read

see (N)irwtrta*0

JAOS

37

pretations, collection of the different readings and interhe regarded an where the writer suggested additional and what based on the syllabary : preferable explanation,
a

See Amurru

p. 196 for

7na-as

|MAS

\ ma-a-su
were

j dXin-IB,

(B. 1778). and

More
urasa)
recent
; Pognon

the fact that there follow: 1913

views

{JA

(K 6335). and Mastu gods Masu Liturgies 147 reads Enursat (NinXI p. 81) 411) and Thureau-Dangin (RA p.
Langdon

Anusat;
Maynard
or

Hommel

(in Krausz Gottemamen p. 59, n. 2) Nin-Numusda Ninurud (AJSL 34 29 f.) Ur-ru-da; Albright (JAOS 38 197 ff.)
which
or as

Ninurut

may

become

Ninurtu

and

Ninurta, is explained

as

'Lord

of Armenia'

'Lord

35 59 f.), who inquires Mastu cuneiform pronounced,

usually
we

The latest is that of Luckenbill {AJSL of Iron.' it isn't clear "that JIB'IJN renders the whether however. That is "the sign Anu-Mastuf for deity is to be pronounced, just as The writer cannot follow Luckenbill etc.
in Sumerian.
and

regarded as find it rendered by il in Il-Ba" in this since an means 'high,' 'heaven'

determinative

dingir

means

'god.'
In spite of all Luckenbill has written for reason modifying his view on this ; 20 The view was by the writer advanced
18

(AJSL
see

no

also Chapter

35 59 f.). the writer XVII.

sees

(JAOS

28 135 f.) that the first

74

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOKITES.

like Isin to have been dropped; but the initialn appears p. 328), Inurta, "who was from Nisin. Although unquestionably a goddess ing originally, became a god in later Babylonia, traces are found showfound in the In a letter that her former sex was recognized.

British Museum of the University repeats the name; the latter dMAS
are u

(Harper ABL

358:

of Pennsylvania in the former dNin-IB

6),and in one in the Museum (HAV p. 424) the salutation

dXin-IB

showing Additional proof that dNin-IB or Inurta is to be addressed. Uru is to be found in the explanatory identified with Amurru or listof deities.21 letters there is a place Bit Nin-IB mentioned In the Amarna and Jerusalem showing called "'Bit dNin-IB: also a temple in or near One scholar had in that region. that the deity was worshipped and that suggested that Nin-IB is here an ideogram for Shamash,

dMAS,

is written, and in that both the god and the goddess

Another has suggested that the place referred to is Beth-Shemesh. The only basis is Beth-Anath. it stands for Antum, and the name for these suggestions is that such shrines are known to have existed in Palestine ; but this does not appear to have much force. Since Antu
was

the consort

of Anu,

Ashirtu

etc., it seems

reasonable, as mentioned Uru. have been the consort of the Amorite

was

of Mash, of Ashir, Mashtu above, that Urtu(a) should Since the

name

salem Jeru-

in the
two

written Nabataean

Uru-saUm

tablets and the same reason inscriptions (pb"TW:),there is every

Sunierian
:

in the Amarna

the represented characters of the Aramaic En-Ur-ta {CT 24, 25 This finds support in the name

en

ba'al.

101) ; but, in the light

find, the prefixed element probably must be regarded as being masculinized although after the deity was originally {n)in i. e., la'alat "lady," as en it may have been construed the initial n dropped, and into s, In-arta "lord"; then since in the late period r frequently passes of the recent could 'most
2i

be pronounced
"

In-usta,

which

would

be

reproduced

in Aramaic

shows Amurru,

(ntrox). Nin-IB sa al-li,CT u-rHmjjru(pi]sr) CT that dNin-uru{PIN) =dNin-IB,

dMar
=

25 11:26. 25

Another

passage

written doubt but that Nin-Mar*

dNin-IB,

III R

57

(of. Mn-Mar^-ra,
was name. so

12:20; and again that There can be little 81 cd. Allotte de la Fuye Doc. Presar:

goniques
another

55:1, writing

7). who
of the

prominently (On Marki see

at Lagash. worshipped Chapter X.) also

was

VH.

THE

NAME

AMUKKU

OR

URU.

"D

to think that it contains the name of the deity Uru (seeAmurru 175 ff.), and it seems reasonable to propose that Bit dNin-IB is the

cuneiform representation the city. That it appears

of a shrine of his consort, which was ideogram which in the Babylonian

of the Babylonian

near means

ba'alat TJrta, is simply due to the use and script at that time in Palestine.
The question whose name his consort

language

arises, where is the habitat of the deity Amurru, Mar, Mer, Mir, 'TJr,and or Amur, was written Amar to this question Martu (Mashtu) or Urtu. The answer

will doubtless point to the imperial city of the great

land Amurru

(see Chapter X).

VIII

AMORITES
Since
we
are

IN

BABYLONIA
upon

entirely dependent records of Babylonia history and down

existence of Amorite
The Amorites

data gathered from contemporane for our knowledge the early of these are first considered. civilization,
a

corresponding called Chaldean

list of ten antediluvian kings, to the ten antediluvian patriarchs. True, they are kings, but
they

have handed

Amorite, the are nevertheless into Babylonia legend doubtless having been brought with the Berossus, who lived in the people who migrated from the West. first half of the third century B. C, wrote three books which he

dedicated

Unfortunately, with the of Syria. exception of a few fragments copied by Apollodorus and Polyhistor, and which were quoted by Eusebius and Syncellus, his important work has been lost. The antediluvian kings mentioned
are as

to Antiochus,

king

in these fragments
1 2 3

follows.1
10 Saren
; films Alori

'AXcopo?, Aloros ; e'/e Ha/3u\ci"vo"; Xa\8"io? 'AXcnrapos, Alaparus, Alaporus, Alapaurus 'AfnjXoiv, 'AfiiWapos,

(36000years)
3 Saren

Almelon ; 6 7ro'\e""9 naim/3t/3\ia?, ex Pantibiblon

; 6 XaXSaios,

e"

e" nauTi/3i/3\a"i/,

Chaldaeis

civitate
13 Saren

'A/x/Aeva"v, Ammenon

ex

Chaldaeis

Par12 Saren

mihiblon (Pautihiblon) MeyaXavos, MeyaXapos, Amegalarus

iroXews

cat

YlavjiftiftXcov
18 Saren
10 Saren ; ix

AacoTO?, Aa")?,

Da(v)onus ;

irot^-qv

e/c

HavTi/3i/3\aiv
Edoreschus

EueScopa^o?, Eue"upecr^o?, Edoranchus,

TlavTt{3i/3\a"v
8

18 Saren

Amemphsinus; 'A^e/i-v/rizw,

HaXSalo*;

sk

Aapayxw, 10 Saren

Chaldaeus

Lancliaris (Chancharis)
Zimrnern KATS
(76) p. 531.

The

list is taken

from

VIII.

AMOEITES

IX

BABYLONIA.

'Q,TiapT7]";. 'A/jSot?;?,Otiartes ; Xo\8"to?

sk

Aapay^av, 8 Saren

Chaldaeus
10

Lancharis
: vto";

X "Zicridpos, isuthrus sicrovdpos, '2icrov8po"!,

rov

'ilTiap18 Saren

Sayco, Kittel and others, as mentioned in Amitrni 63 ft'., were that several of the names consider translated into Hebrew, archs and form the list of antediluvian patriOld Testament, while others are considered equivalent of the has been generally Aloros to Babylonian names. the regarded
Zimrnern, Honmiel,

Jeremias,

assisted in the The chief reason work of creation. why this goddess is considered the same as the first Chaldean king is because she is the 'fashioner
same as

the Babylonian

mother-goddess

Arurur

who

considered to be a corruption of is thought to be the original of Adam. Amillaros is said to be the Babylonian or Almelon amelu, "man," which was "man." into the Hebrew, Ammenon is Enosh, translated, of mankind. Adapa, which
regarded the into Qenan or
ummanu
same

'

Alaporus

has been

Hommel

as although no such personal name is known. is considered by Megalaros Amegalarus or Edoranchus, to be Amel-Aruru. the seventh king corresponding

unnndnu, Cain, "smith,"

as

"workman,"

which

was

translated

regarded king of Sippar, who as the a mythological from his deity, and ruled 365 years, the same received revelations lived. The king Edoranchus, however, that Enoch number ruled 64,800 years according to the list of Berossus. Otiartes has been
same

to Enoch,

seventh

in the Hebrew

list,has been

En-me-dur-an-Tci,

regarded the same A " B 271). The

as

Ubar-Twbu,

and

as

Atar-hasis

(seealso

ton Bar-

writer believes that these scholars are mistaken in their supposition that the Hebrew the antediluvian patriarchs names of in this way. Although both lists contain ten names, originated and the tenth in both is in
common
a

diluvian hero, they 63

seem

to have

(seeAmurru
Enoch

f.).

The

lived, and the Sippar of years En-Me-Dur-An-Ki, written in Sumerian

2

coincidence king ruled, whose is name is the same, is striking,

with LAL-ur-

nothing else that the number

Poebel, however, of Xippur.

alim-ma

has proposed identification of this VMBS IV 1, 110.

name

78

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

but any
scarcely
names are

relation between to be regarded

the two
as

individuals

or

their

names

is

in

possible. Moreover, Semitic form, it (EueSwpaxos) would

since the other be preferable to

Ebed-'Ur the ahu, i. e., "Ebed-'Ur, read it also Semitic, perhaps Following in the second brother," namely of the preceding king. and identifications or equivalents that column are the comparisons
have been proposed by different scholars, and offered by the writer :
1
'AAwpos,

in the third, those

Aloros
Alaparus
'A/utjAcdv,Alnielon

'AAaTrapos,

3
4

'AfuAAapos,
'A/u/iow,

Ammenon

5 6 7

MtyaAapos,
Aawvos,

Amegalarus Davonus

Aaws,

EveSwpaxos,

Edoranc'lius

8 9
10

Ameinphsinus ,A/xEjtn/'ii'05,
QnapTtjs,

'ApSaras, Otiartes

5 Htcrouflpos,"roi^pos, Xisuthrus

The which

fact that the of Amorite

names

the Babylonians
name

of these Chaldean antediluvian kings, posed recognized as their progenitors, are comelements besides five or six of them being

compounded
Amurru

with the

name

striking proof his original home. as Amurru From there went forth peoples who settled Babylonia it came of Genesis : "And at a very early time. We are reminded

deity, IJru, is certainly of the chief Amorite looked upon that the Semitic Babylonian

There
see

can

be littledoubt
p. 64, spring

that Aloros

is El-Uru

(seeChapter

VII, etc.,

also
4

Amurru

Friend

Samaria
5

of Uru : cf. or of Ostraca ; A-ga-al-Marduk Ox

is needed
1 Chron. 8
name on
:

1909).
a

efiitplace
BA VI

name

(Josh. 18:28)

J^y

5 p. 83 ; Im-me-ir-i-li,ibid. 98.

No

comment
.

this identification.

Cf Cf

With wa-da

mentioned along the coast of the Mediterranean, letters, once times in the Amarna written El-da-ta (139:5). several 1 this name , cf alAr-wa-da {ibid.01 : 13, etc.)once written alVri(URU)
.

iTftpO
the place

32 etc.

Ar-data

(104:42).

VIII.

AMOEITES

IN

BABYLONIA.

' "

to pass, as
a

they

journeyedeast (or from Qedems)

that they found

plain in the land of Shin'ar and they dwelt there" (Gen. 11: 2). foreign Babylonia was ruled during its long history by many peoples, the Amorites, Elamites, Cassites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, ites from what follows that the AmorPersians, Greeks, etc.9 It seems in more than one period conquered and ruled Babylonia.
More
was

than

published
20,

of a tablet ago the obverse of a fragment containing the rulers of the Ur and Nisin dynasties decade
The
reverse

(BE

47).
in
a

by Poebel. Nippur

of this tablet has since been published This, together with two other tablets, also found at fragmentary condition, contain It is supposed that when The
one

rulers of Babylonia. all the kings from enumerated they

were

the earliest known complete the tablets

inscribed.

the time of the deluge to the time written apparently in the which was

reign of Enlil-bani, the eleventh king of the Nisin dynasty, records that king as the one-hundred and thirty-fourth from the deluge. The
other tablet, it is thought, was written in the time of Damiqilishu,the last king of that dynasty. (UMBS V 2, 3 and 5.) The

been preserved on these fragments Kish, Erech, Ur, and Awan. Unfortunately none are of the have been preserved. Prior rulers' names of the last mentioned
to the discovery

firstfour kingdoms

that have

the existence of the dynasties of these tablets, even The rulers' names that have been preserved was unknown. of the firstthree, including variants, follow:
8

There

are

those

who

hold

that

they

came

Babel. "toward

Most

of Gen. 13:11. Sinuhe legend shows that the country east of Byblos of the Egyptian was as the called Qedem ; and it is not unlikely that this region is meant the Semites referred to came, into Shinar. quarter whence who moved
the east,"

scholars, because

however,

translate

the country east of "eastward" or miqqedem A recently discovered fragment

from

In the period of 1902 years prior to the time of Alexander, Berossus kings, 49 Chaldean, 9 Arabian, refers to dynasties consisting of 8 Median two others of 11 and 45 kings each (seeMeyer, Geschichte des Alterand
tums

I 2,

320) ; but there is no

existence of these dynasties. the fact that in the Armenian

ultimately
to which

corroboration from the inscriptions of the Olmstead has called the writer's attention to
translation

goes back

Schnable

of Eusebius, which, as is known, is used in place of the usual Medes, recently referred (OLZ 1911, 19 f.).
to Berossus, Mar

80

the

empire

of

the

amorites.

Kingdom

op

Kish
900 years 840
a

9. Ka-lu-mu-un
10. Zu-ga-gi-ib
11. Ar-wu-u

(Ga-lu-mu-un)
muskinu

12. E-ta-na

(Zu-ga-ki-ib) A (Ar'-wi,r-bu-um), son of (dE4a-na), the shepherd

son

720 635
410
"
"

13. Pi-li-qam,

14. En-Me-Nun-na 15. Me-Lam-Kiski,

(En-Men-Nun-na)
son son

611

900
1.200

"

"

16. Mas-Sal-Nun-na,

17.

Mes-Zdr-Mug{1), son
Kingdom
of

Eanna

(Erech)
priest and king
325 420 1,200 100
years
"

1. Mes-ki-in-ga-se-ir,son 2. En-Me-ir-Kar,
son

of Shamash,

high

3. dShar-bdn-da, the shepherd 4. dDumu-zi, the hunter from HA-A

5. dGis-bil-ga-Mesh,
son

of the high
Kingdom

priest of Kullab
of

126

Ur
80 years 30
25 36
"

1. Mes-An-Ni-Pad-da
2. Mcs-Ki-Ag-Nun-na,
son

3. E-lu 4. Ba-lu

"

written in a Semitic be said of All that can form; while the rest are in Sumerian. Kalumun "lamb," the first two names, and Z tigagib "scorpion," The
first five
names,
as

well

as

others,

are

is that

they

are

Semitic. Syllabary,

Ar-wi-u

(Ar-bu-um), according
Poebel regards
e

to

Chiera's
name

Amorite
as

is Amorite.

the

Etana

Sumerian,
anna, name

and ascender," for the meaning

and suggests as its meaning IV 1. p. "heaven" (UMBS

a

(d), "the 112). As a

be without parallel. a title or Moreover, this would of a epithet, and not the name is unquestionably the to the writer that the name It seems man. Etan, mentioned a number the Old Testament same as of times in of be human, this would

Chronicles
Psalm.10

and

Kings

and

in the

heading

of

the

eighty-ninth

This has been anticipated years 376. p.

10

ago

by Professor

Jastrow,

see

BA

III

VIH.

AMORITES

IX

BABYLONIA.

not of royal origin, for lie was called "the apparently was " pret "He ruled all lands" ; which it is reasonable to intershepherd. In the epic in which Etana is the hero, as including- Amurru. inscribed in the Assyrian period, there are no earmarks which was

Etana

The been written originally in Sumerian. of its having early in the library of Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan Babylonian fragment in the epic, to Further, the remark shows the same. of Shamash,
as well and take the road to the mountain," the part played by the eagle, point at least to a mountainous as Etana, who was Perhaps district in which the myth originated. a

the serpent,

"go

now

usurper,

hailed from is West

the West.

Moreover,

as

mentioned

above,

his

name name

Semitic. which Barton

is read by Barton

The
qam

of his son and successor, (gam), is also West Semitic.

Pi-lias

being As
a

Sumerian,

meaning

"with
name,

explained the name intelligence to build" (AB

267).

for a personal meaning It would seem that

as

Testament
names

in the Casperiod, Bu-la-aq-qu site, and Be-la-qu of the First Dynasty, that can properly be compared. "axe"; These words may but this would mean scarcely be an appropriate for a child's name. The root palag meaning
"to means separate, and Aramaic split." Peleg, is a branch "canal," stream, which is separated from the main body of water. A child could be referred to as a " branch " or " offspring"

be most would Pi-la-qu in the Assyrian

this also would be without parallel. a comparison with Peleg of the Old There are several other reasonable.11

in Hebrew

of the deity. Names like Pir''-Amurru, "offspring

are with parallel meanings Amurru," Bana-sa-Addu, of

common,

"creature

Apil-Nergal, "child of Nergal," etc. of Addu," It is to be noted that it is highly probable that the names of all the known rulers up to this time, including the ten antediluvian, Semitic, and also that most of them are West Semitic or Amorare ite. Following these, most of the known in appear rulers' names
a

Sumerian

dress;
were

but

proof
11

that they

stated in the introduction, this is no thus pronounced. In fact, there are many
as

writer's attention has been called by Olmstead to Phaliga on the Euphrates, by Isidore, and the Pallacopas canal, with its survival mentioned in Faluja,west of Bagdad.

The

82

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOKITES.

considerations also Semites.

The last two

that lead

us

to believe that these early rulers

are

of the Kish Dynasty, as well following two dynasties, are compounded with the deity whose (or Mash). This is the name of a
names

as name

three in the

of Mesh
was

brought

from

Amurru
name

(see Chapters
En-Me-ir-Kar

XII

and

worship XVII). The

deity
to be

En-Me-ir another

in the
form

appears

to the writer

(see Chapter of Ba'al Mer or Amurru for god is prefixed to the names of the VII). The last three rulers of the Erech Dynasty, #dio, as is well known, appear as deities in later periods.
of the name determinative
The
name as

Shar-bdn-da Sumerian.
. .

regarded
in
a

is generally Such names

read
as

Lugal-Bdn-Da,

and

(Ta'anach 3: 13),
tablet bought

.-ban-arhdu in Aleppo {PSBA

to show

4 (ibid.:

1907,

Ja-wi(mi)-ba-an-da 13),dMar-tu-ba-an-da 97),Su-ba-an-du(di)

Semitic.12
The

(Amarna Letters)seem

that it is West

"son" fact that the sign meaning was selected to represent the figures as the sound ban would alone suggest this. Shar-banda hero in the legend concerning the tablets of fate which the Zu bird tain, stole from the palace of the god Enlil. There is a distant moun-

also prominently The two fragments

time of Shar-banda (Aleppo) to the north, and Tidnum east, Halma (UMBS V 20 and 21). In the early period Tidnum

in this myth, called Sabu. mentioned of inscriptions dealing with events of the the on with Elam refer to wars and Dumu-Zi
on was a

the west
name

of

is to be identified as Aleppo the country Amurru; (see and Halma Chapter XII). This may be the earliest reference to an invasion conquered probably above, Etana of the "West, although, as mentioned Amurru. Dumu-Zi,
the
same

regarded rian form, the

muz

kingdom, is considered the fourth ruler of the Eanna in later periods was the Semitic Tammuz, as who lover of Ishtar. Besides this Smnethe husband or as
name

is written Ta-mu-zu, Thammoza

Du-'u-zu, Du-u-zu,
etc.

Tain-

(Hebrew),
12

(Syriac), Bc^ovs,
seem

The

general

frequently
nu

If this is correct, it would found in Sumerian

have

that the

documents,
=

may

been

determinative

amelu

name of an official nu-ban-da, is also Semitic ; in which case (CT 12, 35: 1 b).

Vni.

AMORITES

IN

BABYLONIA.

83

is that the Sumerian Dumu-Zi, understanding faithful son," is the original form of the or form of the name as Dumi-Zi-Ab-Zu, appears deep," which
some

which
name.

means

' '

true

An

"faithful

son

enlarged of the

think has been suggested by the picture of the It is not improbable however, sun that rising out of the ocean. is composed, the two Sumerian signs, of which Dumu-Zi represent the pronunciation of a Semitic name.
mother is written dSir-du, and in the emeof Tammuz' like Sartu or sal dialect, dZe-ir-tu; which might represent a name Moreover Sarah. the dynastic text shows that he was a usurper.

The

name

'He

is called a hunter or fisherman from the city HA-A, probably In the Gilgamesh a the land Shubaru.13 city of epic, which is muz; pre-eminently Semitic, the goddess Ishtar fell in love with Tam-

was and after his death, which perhaps premature, she decreed a yearly wailing for him. In the epic, ' Ishtar 's descent into Hades,' the goddess, in her efforts to restore her youthful lover to life,descends into the underworld. He is referred to also

in the Adapa

legend

as

living in the heavenly

to be
an

unlikely that Adapa also will be found who had been deified.

It is not early Semitic king place.

The

worship

of the youthful

god

who

personifies the dying

of

has called attention to the name being written AHA in BA 25, and in SBH SO : 25, 26 ; that the city is mentioned in the two : texts above referred to, as being destroyed Shar-banda at the time of and Dumu-Zi (UMBS IV 1, p. 117) ; that in an incantation text (CT 15 : 6) the

13

Poebel

VI, p. 675

ideogram
BA

Shu-ba-ri, and Shu-'a-a-ra in the above two texts (in Shuwari (for and SBH) which apparently point to the pronunciation Shubari) ; that in II R 57, IV, the ideogram is glossed tuba; and that in
IV R ideogram, 36, 1 col. 1 : 26-28 there which in each case was
was
are

is rendered

that the city referred to

a city of Sumer but it is altogether possible that another whose written the three cities mentioned above, perhaps called Shubaru, is here referred of to, as indicating the origin of the ruler. Moreover, the city would scarcely have been mentioned, in this connection, if it had been one close by Erech.
name

tablets of the Ur dynasty a Eridu and Ur, and in the above incantation text together T'MBS IV 1, p. 121). It is not impossible that there was
was

concludes in the southwestern Sumer, since in part of HA-A is mentioned together with Erech, city with Eridu

cities written with differently. He pronounced

three

the

same

(see

HA-A;

84

THE

EMPIRE

OP

THE

AMORITES.

vegetation under the summer in the spring time brings

heat each year, and who in the rising forth life with him to the fields and

is known to have existed from an early period among meadows, The yearly observance of the feast of Adonis at such the Semites. the ancient centres as Byblos, in fact, it can be said, throughout

Semitic world, has led scholars in former decades to look upon Adonis myth originated. Syria as the region in which the Tammuzis Sumerian, as stated, as well as True, the early form of the name
that of his father dNin-Gis-Zi-Da (eme-saldUmun-Mu(s)-Zi-Da), but this is no criterion. The fact his sister dGestin-An-na; and

in the Semitic world ; that Tammuz from the city HA-A a usurper was ; that he figures in so many (seeChapter other Semitic epics, and legends, as well as in Egypt XIV p. 120),favors a Semitic origin, with the and Miiller EM that the myth
is
a common
one

further possibility of a confusion of tales of several individuals to form the Tammuz myth. to show In Amurru, p. 79, and MI, p. 3, the writer endeavored Semitic name, that Gis-bil-ga-Mes (Gilgamesh)was a West which Mash that of the god Mesh or and that the epic was district. More recent peculiarly identified with the Lebanon this, and point to the fact that the mortal combat researches confirm Enkidu Gilgamesh Western a (also Semite) had and which contains
took place in Amurru (seebelow). with Humbaba, It has been surmised for some an years that Gilgamesh was early The early dynastic list,above referred to, proves king of Erech. Animalium 12: this conclusively. Aelian in a fable (De Natura

21)

gives the

He was supposed cf. Semak-Jau14 of the Old Testament. to be the son of a priest of Kullab, a part of Erech, and Ninis later deified. Unfortunately the name Nin-Sun Sun, who was is correctly given by in a Sumerian form, but if her father's name Aelian, she doubtless also bore reproduced by this ideogram. It was
a

side, namely, Semitic name,

of Gilgamesh's grandfather, on his mother's Semachoros a West (%"mx"p0^) which is Semak-Ur,

name

West

Semitic

name,

which
was
some

was

recognized years ago that the epic in the Assyrian Naturally it is not impossible that composite character.
14

of

of

That

is liT30D;

cf. also liTDBD*

"

Vm.

AMOKITES

IN

BABYLONIA.

N""

into the epic were the tales embodied origin, although of Sumerian to be the case, as at the present time this cannot be determined there is nothing in the epic to show that it was originally Sumerian. True,

there

are

few

names

like Gilgamesh,
to be written

En-ki-du,

Dumu-Zi, but this

represent

Ubara-Tutu,
alone is not

etc., that appear

a

in Sumerian;

criterion,

as

mentioned 'double'

above, that they

has heretofore

Sumerians.
The
name

of Gilgamesh namely,

's

been read

as

if Semitic, but

dEa(En-Ki)-bani{Dii) and

dEa-tabu(Dug) ;

more recently scholars have been inclined to consider the name dE"i-ki-du. This reading has been influenced by the Sumerian,

word

en-gi-du, which

occurs

considerations which make Semitic, like the rulers'

which Enkidu lived. to how the name came

There syllabary.15 it appear that the name

in
a
names

are, was

however,

of the Erechian
an

originally during dynasty

as

This being true,

to have

been

explanation is in order in Sumerian. pronounced

to
a

The discovery of two tablets belonging

epic, written about Ninevite version, which Babylonian

fifteen hundred
are now

mesh version of the Gilgayears earlier than the and Yale

on

in the Pennsylvania important light

several phases by the The former, as shown the question under discussion. of ably colophon, is the second tablet of the series, and the latter presumthe third.10

Collections, throws

writing is dEn-Ki-Dug,

The

which must have been culty, This offers no diffiread dEn-l;i-du, in view of the other readings. In in Sumerian. the apocopation as of a final g is common is written dEn-Ki-Du the late Ninevite version the name which
or

of the name i.e., "En-Ki

in the Yale Ea

and

Pennsylvania

tablets

is good",

means

"En-Ki,

or

Ea,

is the builder."
was
a

Both and

are

common

name

formations.

If the hero

Sumerian

bore

Sumerian

15

See CT

18, 30

10

3R

Poebel, who published

was an

1 p. 126 ; and Amurru p. 81. instrumental in the Pennsylvania tablet being purchased, it in OLZ, 1914, col. i. Langdon advanced notice of
;

also UMBS

IV

X 3. The subsequently published the text and a translation of it UMBS Yale tablet, as well as a translation of the Pennsylvania, will shortly be by Jastrow Old Babylonian Version published and Clay, in An of the Gilgamesh Epic.

86

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

name,

we were

have handed down to us a peculiar mixunquestionably ture If, on the other hand, different meanings. of elements with that he was assume a Semite, and lived at a time when names
we

ideograms, written with Sumerian and that later, perhaps following dark period of literary inactivity, the legend was a were revived when the original meaning and reading of the name lost sight of, we how this confusion took place. can understand
There
are reasons

for believing that Enkidu

from
came

(or Ea-tabu)
In

was

not only a Semite but that he came Enkidu The country whence

Amurru.
was

mountainous.
occurs

the

Pennsylvania The

"Some

one,

kidu. Enconcerning says: mother of Gilgarnesh, in speaking of Enkidu, in the plain, and 0 Gilgamesh, who like thee is born
passage

tablet the following

' ' In the Yale tablet this passage reared him, etc. "Enkidu occurs: opened his mouth and spake to Gilgamesh, 'Know, my friend, in the mountain when I moved about with the cattle to a distance of one double mile of the territory of the forest, ' ' I penetrated into its interior to Huwawa, Several passages etc.

the mountain

hath

in the Ninevite version also show "Ere thou earnest down

that Enkidu

came

from

the mountains.

from

beheld
home

thee
was

in

dream."

Again,

Gilgamesh the mountains Enkidu, whose "Then came

The the mountains, who with gazelles ate herbs, etc." fragments of the Ninevite recension which King published (PSBA is in 1914, 64 ff.), which Gilgamesh, who was apparently wounded,
's guidance through the cedar advised to entrust himself to Enkidu forest, read: "Let Enkidu He knows the path go before thee. through the cedar forest. He is full of battle, he shows fight. Let

Enkidu

protect his friend ; let him

and other passages show district,which contained cedar forests. It is interesting to note that Dr. William of the art as and Enkidu
memory

keep his comrade hailed from that Enkidu Hayes

' '

safe.
a

These

mountainous

but in

of land of hills and a observed that Gilgamesh animal of the mountains

studies by the seal cylinders depicting Gilgamesh to believe that the myth the led him preserved its origin, not in the low swamps of Babylonia, displayed
forests

Ward's

(SealCylinders,

62 ff., 414). He

in the early cylinders fights a bison, an formidable than the lion, but and more

that later the Babvlonian

artists affected the water

buffalo of their

VHI.

AMORITES

IN

BABYLONIA.

^7

he also noted, always retained the horns region. Enkidu, In one cylinder (No. 177) containing the Gilgamesh of the bison. on a mounmotif, Ward tain. called attention to a cypress tree growing The art therefore as well as the passages above quoted
own

indicate that Enkidu

had

come

In this connection, it might the seal cylinders, Enkidu

always represented illustrated by
as
a a

district. mountainous be mentioned also that in the art of is though tall in stature, as not
from
a

Collection (see Art

seem

This is admirably of Gilgamesh. terra cotta relief found in the Yale Babylonian it p. 73). This would make and Archaeology duplicate
a

scarcely probable that one was Moreover, they both have merian.

which
art.

and the other a Subeards, curly hair, and wear in Babylonian is characteristic of the Semites as portrayed

Semite

made of the long journey that Gilgamesh and Enkidu the stronghold of IJumbaba, to the cedar forest, which surrounded The reason has been supposed by most scholars to refer to Elam.

The

story

for this view has not been that cedar forests existed in that region, but because the name

are

known

to have

identified with the Elamite god Rumba Humman, JJmman, Umba, Amba, etc.). This spite of the fact that the name Hubaba, only slightly resembles for in every instance known the

IJumbaba had been (also written Humban,

has
been

done

in

or of the individual Humbaba, the name of the Elamitic deity; name

of the former doubled, while the latter is not. the final consonant is Amorite, The name IJumbaba unquestionably This

is written with Elamitic.

by the form is definitely shown on a name of lection. Coltablet belonging to the Gilgamesh epic in the Yale Babylonian In the Amorite Syllabary published by Chiera, there is

and the

not

This name written Hu-ira-ica (HU-PI-PI). in an tablets.16 And it also occurs the Ur Dynasty
a
name

occurs
omen,

also in following

Hu-um-ba-ba (CT 28 6: 3-4). In the Yale mentions in is written Hu-wa-wa, tablet the name the same as This as well as other reasons it perthe Amorite Syllabary. make fectly
one

which Gilgamesh

reasonable
16

to conclude
147

that the cedars referred to

1, 22, 26, etc., in Omen
texts, CT

are

those
8

BE

3 11:12;

5, HLC

28, 21

etc.

88

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AM0RITES.

of the Lebanon and which

district, which
that the
as

has
name

frequently is the

been
as

also prove

same

suggested;17 Kombabos

of Queen Stratonike in the legend concerning the construction of the sanctuary at Hierhas Humbaba name apolis (Lucan De dea Syria), with which

(Koft8a/?o";),appears who

the guardian

frequently been compared. Moreover, Hobab,18 the also in the Old Testament Judg. 4: 11, In the

the
son

is actually found of Eeuel (Numb. 10 : 29,

name
a

etc.).
the
name

of birth to a Huwawa, the king and the omens a women read : gives leave the city. If a sheep gives birth to a lion with his sons will the prince will be without a rival, and will a face of a Huwawa, In the epic the name destroy the land of the enemy."20 of this
"

omens,

Huwawa

suggests

monster.1"

Two

If

Amorite

despot,

"whose

has the determinative

deluge, whose breath is death," Gilgamesh for deity, the same the name as
roar

is

(which is written dGis) and

Since it is reasonably
were

Enkidu.

those of Amurru, it is highly probable

can

certain that the cedar forests of Humbaba and this is the region whence Enkidu came, This Amorite. that the latter also was an

form of be littlequestion that the Sumerian his name, as above, represented a Semitic name, which may have been Ea-tob. This would very reasonable, especially if appear
being true, there the contention

Semitic god should of Chiera that Ea is a West the reading Ba'al-tob Jastrow would now prove correct. propose as the Semitic original of the name "lord of land" ; that is,En-Ki represents the West Semitic Ba' al.
As

ments elestated, the epic is not only Semitic, but there are many Semites, such as the Western which show connections with

the gods Girra, Urra, Adad, Irnini, Antu, etc., and personal names Gilgamesh, who etc. Whether such as Atrahasis, Buzur- Amurru,
17

Gressinan,

Das

Gilgamesh-Epos,

p. Ill, f. 1 ; Poebel

UMBS

IV

1, p.

224 ; and Jastrow, Sacred Books and Early Literature, 18 = = = Hombaba Hobbaba Hobaba. Eubaba
19

of the East I, p. 193.

21

:
20

it occurs CT 28, 3 : 17, 4 : 89, 6 : 3-4, 14 : 12, are where 28. I am indebted to Professor Jastrow for these references. In the passage CT 28, 6 : 3-4, both the early and late forms of the name The
passages

appear.

VIII.

AMOKITES

IN

BABYLONIA.

89

was

mined. to be deternot, remains If he were, the question arises, what was his western name ? In Amurru, p. 79, the endeavor was made to show that the name
a

usurper,

was

from

the West,

or

which

"the axe of Mash" contracted into Gilgamesh means however, (see also MI p. 3 n.). Such a name, would scarcely be for a child. How is it to be explained ? It is possible appropriate to let the following ; but offer several suffice.

became

conjectures

Piligor originally have been Bilga-Mash tions Such formaMash, and meant "the offshoot of the god Mash." are (seethe discussion on Peleg, very common and meanings In later years, after he had become the legendary hero, The

hero's

name

may

above).
to

whom
as

were

others,

attributed the exploits of Enkidu, and perhaps is shown from the Pennsylvania tablet,21 his name was
interpreted

etymologically had acquired

of It is only necessary to read the epic to see and others. how frequently the axe is it doubtless (or spear)22 mentioned; In consequence, played an important role as his weapon. when in Abram
to writing it was essary merely neccommitted Still another, to place the determinative gis before Bilga. might be, that it and perhaps more simple explanation of the name Unfortunately the signifimeans "Gish is an offshoot of Mash." cance

justas

in accordance with the reputation is done in the Old Testament in the case

he

later times the legend

was

of Gish which

figures

is not altogether clear; a point of departure.23

reserve.

as prominently though the equivalent

so

an

element in idlu "hero,"

names,

offers

Moreover, which

these
are

are

only tentative explanations

name, of this difficult

offered with considerable

by king, who earliest Amorite that he had conquered Babylonia, is

The

his inscription informs

.
.

us

Mari,

and

Patesi-gal

of Enlil, which

means

-um-Shamash, that he was

king of

suzerain

21

See Jastrow
Epic.

in the forthcoming

An

Old

Babylonian

Version

of

the

Gilgamesh
22

Cf. the instruments

on

held

by

two

Enkidu,
see
23

the terra-cotta Archaeology

element

Art

and
the

relief found V p. 73. Mesh,

etc.,

figures supposedly Gilgamesh and in the Yale Babylonian Collection,

On

Mash,

see

also Chapter

XVII.

90

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

over see

the land.

His

inscription belongs X.

to

very

early period;

further Chapter A

in the very early dynasties are number of the rulers' names Amorite ; for example, I-su-il of the Opis dynasty, El-muti of the Kish. Doubtless whose ancestors Lagash, records Amorite city Mari defeated ; see
as

Semites all the rulers of these two dynasties were Eannatum, had come from Amurru. patesi of in one his inscriptions the coalition of the of

mentioned,
on

with Kish and Opis against him, which he Lugal-zaggisi, the son of Ukush, further Chapter X. The tradition to be a Semite. is considered by some
origin is that he was the bank of the Euphrates." Barahsu, born The
an

concerning which lies

of The
an

Sargon's

in

"Azupiranu
conqueror
name.

great

Elam

and

Uru-mush,

bears

Amorite
dynasty They

obelisk of Manishtusu especially large number

of the Kish-Akkad names. of Amorite

contains
are compounded

Mir-Shar, I-lu-Me-ir, of Adda, Mir-Dadu, are Ba'al, Malik, etc. Contracts of this era language being generally the known, but unfortunately Sumerian are in which they appear, most of the names written with Sumerian impossible to determine it in most cases ideograms, which make
with the names Bar-ra, perhaps ment, Such a docuSemitic names. or whether they represent Sumerian however, as the Obelisk, which is written in Semitic, gives lived in the land. Amorites for believing that many reasons Recently

Scheil published a cylinder seal belonging to the period dynasty, which bears the name of the firstkings of the Kish-Akkad son of Is-re-il, of Rish-Zuni, and which he equates with the Hebrew Israel. name the idea that the More than a decade ago the writer advanced
of of the Nisin dynasty seemed to show that many rulers' names The name the founder, Amorites them were (JAOS 1907, p. 8). of deity, namely, namely, Isbi-Urra, also another containing the same Dagan with the names others compounded Recently Barton published and Ishtar, pointed to this conclusion. an oracle which shows that Ishbi-Urra, the founder of the dynasty, Urra-imitti,
as

well

as

came

from

Mari

on

the Euphrates
were

(MB I 9:
Semitic.

4,

22),thus
As

confirming

the view that the rulers (note 9), the Armenian

West

translation

of Eusebius

above mentioned the eight calls

VIII.

AMOKITES

IN

BABYLONIA.

91

Amorite rulers of this period ' ' Median. A date formula of Libit-Ishtar of the Nisin dynasty
' '

{Mar), instead
a

of

the

usual

tablet belonging
seems

to the reign
an

to point to

of interruption UR-In-

of the dynasty
urta.24

of Ishbi-Urra

by

another

Amorite

named

founded time as about the same which was the Nisin dynasty (see MI p. 41),was also Amorite, as is shown by the names of the rulers. The Larsa dynastic tablet recently in the Yale Babylonian discovered in the ruins of that city, and now The Larsa

dynasty,

Collection, reads

21

years

Xa-ap-la-nv.-um E-mi-su

28 years
35
years

Sa-mu-um
Za-ba-a-a

9 years

27 years 11 years 29 years 16 years

Ghi-un-gu-nu-um
A-bi-sa^ri-e Su-mn-ilu
Nu-ur-dImm"
r

7(?)

years

dSin-i-din-nam

2 years dSin-i-ri-ba-mn 6 ( 1 ) years d Sin-i-qi-sa-am

1 year

8ili-(li)-dImmer
WaraddBi-im-

12 years 61 years

12(?)

years

dHa-am-mu-ra-bi
king

12 years Sa-am-su-i~lu-na, 289 years.

24

This

date

formula

(CT

4. 22)
sa

has

discussion. "The

read drove out Libit-Ishtar" (OLZ 1907, 109 in which the Amurru year drove ff.). Meissuer translated it: "The year in which the city Amuruni it, "The Libit-Ishtar" 109 ff.). Ungnad translated {ibid. out year when Lipit-Ishtar, the

Ranke

it: Mu

the subjectof considerable it-ru-du-us Li-bi-it-Istar A-mu-ru-um

been

Amorite,

was

banished."
's successor

From did
not

the

Ur-Nisin
to

dynastic
the ruling overthrew

list it is clear that Libit-Ishtar family. King suggests the date

the king his
own were

belong

means

that the Amorites

who

dislodged
upon

by IIE-Inurta, who

family

the throne
was an

maintain
than

that UR-Inurta

retook the city and established to {SA p. 315). It is not unreasonable from another quarter Amorite, perhaps

that whence

Ishbi-Urra, the founder

of the dynasty,

came.

92

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOKITES.

Thureau-Dangin

in

recent

number

of the Revue

d'Assyriologie

in the Louvre, has published an important rectangular prism, now have duplicated almost completely the which, if perfect, would ning time the formulae for all the years beginabove, giving at the same with Gungunu. of years The above list fortunately from which are broken away supplies the names of the rulers with reigned from Abi-sare to Warad-Sin.25 gives the number the Louvre prism, and it the number of years they
,

interesting observations are possible in connection with had no We these dynastic lists and what has been said above.

Some

knowledge

of the firstfour reigns, and also of others in the listfrom source any records, prior to the discovery of these important Naplanum 35, and 28, Samum ruled 21 years, Emisu although Zabaia 9. These names, Amorite. as well as others that follow, are
fore, time they ruled, namely, almost a century in length, is, thereone above. of those dark periods of inactivity, mentioned Even the date formulae apparently were the Louvre unknown when The

inscribed, for they begin with the reign of Gungunu. prism was in the date formulae of the contracts that This king is mentioned have thus far been published ; and he is also the firstof the dynasty
who

inscriptions. Enannatum, in other known a son chief priest at the city of Ur, of Nisin, who was of Ishme-Dagan inscribed clay cones, in which he records the has handed down tion rebuilding of the temple of the sun-god at Larsa for the preservaking of Ur (8A his own life and that of Gungunu, the of is mentioned
310

f.).

Larsa

orates ruler, in a brick inscription, in which he commemthe building of a great wall at Larsa, calls himself king of The cones as show that he well as of Sumer and Akkad.

This

also ruled Ur.

25

Yale tablet contained the the exception of a few characters

The

same on

inscription the
reverse,

both sides, but with to be very which happen

on

in restoring the figures on the obverse, that side is broken away. on the obverse also have suffered, yet it can Unfortunately the numbers on the be restored nearly completely remained with the aid of what important
reverse.

For
BA XV

Dangin 4, part

full discussion of the Larsa 1 ff. and Grice Chronology

date

formulae

see

Thureau-

of

the Larsa

Dynasty

(YOR

1).

VIII.

AMORITES

IN

BABYLONIA.

93

Since the first four rulers of this dynasty have left no traces of their rule, except in the dynastic tablet and prism, perhaps they from Larsa, somewhere the far removed on thrones sat on Euphrates.
shows It has fact that their reigns were that they were not feeble rulers. The been
not of short duration

held for many that there was years by Hilprecht the part of Elam at this time, on active hostility against Babylonia UR-Inurta (dXin-IB) usurped the throne of Nisin. But when
there is time.
no

for justification supposing

Haynes,

an

Elamite

invasion

at this

It is,however,

which

highly probable that the evidences of vandalism Xippur, had observed beneath who excavated

in the temple the pavement were caused by the of UR-Inurta Amorites, the dynasty was established or possibly either when displaced those who had preceded when a fresh invasion of Amorites Amorite, as Gungunu was an them. of the Larsa Dynasty His reign synchronizes with Syllabary shows. It is not impossible that both were the long one of UR-Inurta. fresh influx of Amorites. Decades a usurpers and represented lowed follater the Elamites did appear on the scene, when Warad-Sin, the Amorite Name

by Rim-Sin,
at Larsa,

sons

to a close. and brought The dynasty of Babylon, usually known the First Dynasty, as 's began to rule shortly after the close of Gungunu reign (MI p. 41). The kings of this dynasty, as mentioned above (Chapter II) were

of Kudur-Mabug, the Nisin dynasty

displaced the Amorites

also Amorite. Not only is the nomenclature of this period full of Amorite but many bearing Semitic Babylonian devotees names, names were

of Amorite deities, as is shown by the impressions of the seals the tablets. This would imply that many names of the Amorite
were

on

very

likely Babylonized,
a

which
very

instances it only involved that the Amorites were But

much is especially significant is the large shows. what El-Uru, Adad, Nergal and other the devotees of Amurru, number of Amorite gods, as indicated by the seals, not only from one site,but from all whence tablets have come, Babylon, Sippar, Larsa, etc. From the seal impressions on recently published texts coming from Larsa, it would almost
seem as

is understandable, as in many This would indicate slight change. than the nomenmore numerous clature

if the chief deity of the people

was

9-4

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

Uru

or

Amurru.

Even

Rim-Sin,

the Elamite,

has handed

down

he acknowledges doing obeisance to El-Uru a votive tablet in which the god of the Amorites, in dedicating a votive inscription to him Collection, No. 7232). In short, the land was (Yale Babylonian

filledwith Amorites. Ishki-Bal and others in the Sea-land dynasty may also The name does not seem to have prove to be Amorite ; but thereafter Amurru in the affairs of Babylonia, except as a figured very prominently field for gathering tribute. Doubtless, the brief Elamitic suzerainty the West, followed by that of Babylon, was responsible of for the disorganization which ensued.

IX

EARLY
The

BABYLONIANS

IN

AMURRU

kings which show contact records of Babylonian and Assyrian for the reconstruction are naturally important with Amurru These show us that already in the of the history of that land. history the great rulers of period of Babylonian earliest known that land from what
were

preying

upon

the Amorites.

has preceded and what especially from the middle Mesopotamian in such undertakings. turn Etana,

is evident also follows, the people of Amurru,

As

district, also had

their

the twelfth king of Kish, as referred to in the last chapter, is said to have subdued lands. This expression, (ruled)all is found in a tablet written in the time of the Nisin dynasty, which

included. It were of the West seems reasonable, therefore, to look upon Etana as the first known into contact with Amurru. is true as The same ruler who came tablets, dealing with events in the regards the two fragmentary
doubtless
meant

that the lands

time of Shar-banda and Dumu-Zi, which refer to wars against Elam in the west. below, Halma Also the conflict above, and Tidnum has been Enkidu with Humbaba and his companion of Gilgamesh

noted.

is perhaps the earliest Amorite known by name, except the legendary antediluvian rulers handed down by Berossus. Lugal-zaggisi, king of Erech, informs us that he conquered the "from

Humbaba

lands
sea,

the

sea,

known

e., the upper (i. from late omen

to the the lower, the Tigris and Euphrates the Mediterranean)." For years it has been

texts that Sargon,

subdued the land of the Amorites, and In an inscription recently published (UMBS the Syrian coast. on IV 1, 177 b),which gives legends from monuments in Nippur, seen

after several campaigns, set up an image of himself

the god, presumably Enlil, is credited with having given unto Sargon "the upper land Mari, Iarmuti, and Ibla even unto the Cedar ' ' Forest and the Silver mountains. The city or kingdom of Mari the Euphrates on was (seeChapter X ) ; Iarmuti, as shown by the

Amarna

letters, was

seaport

town
(95)

on

the Phoenician

coast ; and

96

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

Ibla, mentioned further north.

tbe district and also by Gudea, was it would seem from the description, The cedar forests, were north of Ibla, and therefore likely refer to the cedars of in his inscriptions. district, which Gudea the Amanus mentions

by Naram-Sin

The

range, the silver mountains, it is thought, are in the Taurus same referred to on the obelisk of Shalmaneser.1 frequently quoted In the omens of Sargon there is a passage

which has been which reads: "the sea of the West he crossed," But a chronicle more interpreted as meaning the Mediterranean. recently published by King proves that the eastern sea is meant. in the East he crossed, and in the sea reads: "The eleventh year the country of the West in its full extent his hand (Chron.II, p. 4). The above inscriptions taken from his subdued" monuments show the extent of the West land which he conquered. The
passage

(Y8 XII, 193), clay tablet recently discovered at Amarna the translation of which was published by Sayce (PSBA 1915, 227 's ff.), successful invasion of a distant contains a legend of Sargon
A
country

Sayce
Minor.
Amarna

separated by a barrier of trackless forests and mountains. in the Hittite region in eastern Asia holds that this was

The

tablet he

thinks belonged

belong.

of the period to which the In a date of Shargani-Sharri, Amurru.

Amurru
on

Hittite resident of tablets so-called Amarna

to
a

we

learn

that ruler conquered

conquered Gudea

It reads : "In the year in which in Basar."2

as an

Shargani-Sharri

architect informs us of his extensive building operations, and how he secured his materials from mountains From in Amurru, Arabia, and the country north of Amurru. From he brought Amanus Mount wood. cedars, and urkarinu his statue in the mountain of Ibla, he brought the mountains and plane trees. From Basalla (perhaps Mt. Bazara mentioned

Ursu

zabalu, and asuhu wood, in Menua, Umanu and in by Shargani-Sharri)

he made stelae.
at Bulghar

Amurru,

he brought

stones, out
Ohnstead

of which

From

See Poebel, ibid. 224 f.

thinks the mines

Mad

en

here referred to (AJSL 33, 311). This place has been identified with Mt. 124. Cf. Thureau-Dangin BTC Buzera near in Ashur-nasir-pal, III 9 ff.and the modern Bisuru, mentioned Circesium. If this is correct, it would indicate that in this period this part
are
2

of the land

was

included

in Amurru.

IX.

EARLY

BABYLONIANS

IX

AMTTBRTJ.

'""'

the mountain

Tidanu

iu Amurru, of Ki-Mash of Meluhha,

he

brought

Kagalad,
From

mountain

(Damascus),
he brought

and from marble; he brought copper.

the mountains dust from the mountains

wood; and gold in Gubin, he Hahu. Prom a mountain of from Madga huluppu wood; tain asphalt, and from the mounsecured From Barshib, nalua stone. the lands of the lower country by
the Persian

usu

Sea, Gulf to the upper countiy of the Mediterranean as well as other places, he transported materials for his building In the absence of any military records of operations and statues. in Gudea, we know only what the contributions of these lands were
building materials. Dungi in his year dates commemorates ent the devastation of differ(probably Gomorrah), Ki-Mash cities in the west, as Humurti (Damascus), etc. Unfortunately, many of the cities which Dungi be identified. Together

with the other rulers of followed, namely, Amar-Sin, Gimil-Sin, and IbiSin, he used the title "king of the four quarters of the world," included Amurru. On the seal impression which it is understood
cannot conquered the dynasty who

bearing Ibi-Sin's XIII.

Elam

name

found

on

Cappadocian for

tablet, see

Chapter

held the suzerainty of Amurru the father of Warad-Sin and Rim-Sin,

tu, "Suzerain

time.

Kudur-Mabug,

is confirmed of Genesis, which

That of Amurru." by the tradition handed informs

us

used the titleAd-da k"rMarElam held sway in Palestine down in the fourteenth

ter Chap-

that in the days

Chedorlaomer
It would seem about the time

(Kudur-Lagamar), king of Elam,

that Elam it did
over

of Amraphel, invaded Palestine.

had

in this region gained ascendancy Larsa in Babylonia following a when

Warad-Sin succession of short reigns the sons of Kudur-Mabug, and Rim-Sin, were placed on the throne of Larsa. Hammurabi in conquering Elam in his thirty-firstyear, and Mari in his thirty-fifth year, acquired the title to Amurru (see Chapter

X). In a stele found at Diarbekr in Southern Armenia {L1H I Whether 66) he calls himself "King at this time of Amurru."
Amurru included this part of the Near East
cannot

at present

be

detennined.
Hammurabi's

Samsu-iluna, in the date formula and successor, for his thirty-sixth year, refers to the great mountains of
son

98

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

Amurru

(CT

2, 27

18). Only

one

other ruler of the

same

dynasty,

Ammi-ditana,
term

the great-grandson of Hammurabi, in his title"king da-ga-mu of the land Amurru"

refers to the land {LIE I 100: 6),

which

lowed, In the Cassite period, which folis not understood. is unknown, except the bringing back contact with Amurru from Hani of the images of Marduk and Sarpanitum. Contact on the part of the kings of Babylonia with Amurru
seems

invasions reigns. When with highly prosperous Elam and Subartu took place, it was or conquests of Amurru, These strong and vigorous. usually at a time when Babylonia was were dence. much in eviperiods when art nourished, and the scribe was to be the Monumental records or victory steles seemed to the all the lands, or the lands from the lower sea order. When conquered, including Elam, the ruler used the title, upper, were
to synchronize

The title of the four quarters of the world." enjoyed by quently following such, is freor kings in reigns immediately preceding "king of Sinner and Akkad," simply the which embraced
"king

northern and southern part of Babylonia. Between these periods which offer evidence of high water marks times, there are dark periods regarded as prosperous of what were Even temple the civilization was at a low ebb. apparently when records in these periods evidences that there were do not
seem

to have

been kept;

in fact,

of these eras are almost scribes in some naturally this could scarcely have completely wanting, though Prior to the time of Lugal-zaggisi, and the period been the case. following the reign of Shargani-Sharri, there are great gaps in the history.
the overthrow of the Ur Dynasty, when Amoa apparently rites began to reign in different centres, there was chaotic state of affairs for nearly a century, as the almost complete In the firsthalf of the Cassite rule, as absence of records shows.

Following

far

as

is known

at present,

is true during the greater dominant. were

again such a lull. The same portion of the period when the Assyrians there
was

As

as

rule the monuments to what was the

these periods. of the native dynasty. before the conquered

tion of Babylonia throw no light on the queslow tide of civilization in cause of the did not record what led to the overThe conqueror throw
not in a position to flaunt them. people the fact that he had subjugated

He

was

IS.

EARLY

BABYLONIANS

IN

AMUEBU.

99

of foreigners upon the thrones must explain for us The kings who sat on the thrones being Amorites, what happened. Elamites, Gutians, Cassites, etc., we can only infer that the tables
The
presence

had
are

been

turned

for the time

being

upon

the Babylonians.

We

often dependent, for what we know of them, upon the effort of the later scribe who handed down to us dynastic lists; but many of these are unfortunately so fragmentary, especially for the early
as to the length of many periods, that we are stillin the dark even An occasional historical reference as of these eras of depression. be found in later periods, as for example, to what occurred may

brought chronicle that Agum-kakrime Hani from back to Babylon the cult-images and of Marduk Sarpanitum, and installed them in their shrines ; or Ashurbanipal, in recording his defeat of Elam, celebrates his return of the statue
we are

informed

in

to her shrine in Erech, which he informs us was of Nana carried Elam by Kudur-Nahundi, but additional 1635 years earlier, off to invasions is wanting. knowledge of the

the records of the powers able to delve among whose the throne of Babylonia, we representatives sat upon perhaps would know more about the state of affairs that led to the overthrow
we were

If

of the rule. The resurrection of Elam's royal records, those Guti, Shubartu, etc.,will enable us to fill of Amurru, up some of the They, doubtless, will also gaps in the early history of Babylonia. Babylonia these countries held sway over at times of A country like which at present we have no intimation whatever. Amurru, overrun times throughout which was and plundered many
show the millenniums how

period,

was

of its history, certainly, especially in the early to strike back. The divination texts strong enough

would alone be sufficientto show that the fear and dread of this being done were before the peoples of Babylonia. It is only ever to examine these texts to ascertain how deeply seated necessary this fear. Since the Amorites were was quiescent after 2000 B. C,
we

must conclude from this quarter

that the divination formulae

came

from

an

evidence we trouble from

to

already possess, question but that the West occurred repeatedly ; and it is certainly reasonable infer that when fuller dynastic records have been
more

earlier period. be no there can

portending trouble Moreover from the

recovered

this fact will become

and

more

evident.

UR

THE

CAPITAL

OF

AMURRU

to look upon the political life of Ainurru, It has been customary less devoid of cohesion or especially of the early period, as more is generally regarded as made up of The fact is,Amurru or unity. petty princedoms of semi-enlightened people, or tribes of a semi-

This conception has been favorable for the character. ' development theories, and for the view that of the pan-Babylonists for the early period all Semites are Arabs ; but this is erroneous, barbarous

The country embraced the late, and must be abandoned. such peoples who had a low order of culture, especially in certain Palestine, which, with its varied geographregions, as for example ical being more a home or less isolated, was lithic of neocharacter and
as

well

as

man

as

Nevertheless

well as there

harbor

are

for representatives of many nations. for believing that even reasons abundant regards proceed that it to that civilization comparable
;

this region had its large quota of civilized people the country as a as we whole, it will be shown
politically and enjoyed,

and

as

otherwise,

of its neighbors. light is thrown Whenever

Amorite
we

e. period (i. learn of kingdoms

upon the political situation in the postafter 2000 B. C.) by contemporaneous records,

III of Thutmose with the earliest in this post-Amorite knowledge of political affairs in Amurru is either the head of an At this time, the king of Kadesh period. alliance of Amorites which included Palestine, or he is suzerain this region Ashirta, who was
over

greater (1501-1447B.

of

less extent. C.) furnish us

or

The

inscriptions

period, Abdinon as an recognized by Egypt overlord of the LebaAmorites, and Aziru his son, created with the assistance of the Hittites an Amorite kingdom edge (seeChapter XII). We have knowlAmorites. and Sihon, kings of the East Jordan A few centuries later the Hebrews under Saul aspired to found a kingdom; and Solomon which under David embraced, with the
(100)

(seeChapter XIV).

In the Amarna

also of Og

X.

UR

THE

CAPITAL

OF

AMURRU.

101

exception of Phoenicia
reaching kingdom
we

know

the territory coastal cities, and the Lebanon There was Euphrates. unto the upper also an Aramaean its capital. In the Assyrian as period with Damascus In the Mesopotamian or coalitions. of great alliances

known. In short, whenever the veil is are region, other kingdoms lifted and we obtain a glimpse of political affairs, we learn of the existence of kingdoms, small and large, or of aspirations to found such kingdoms.
in "Western Amurru that is political ascendancy in post-Amorite before the known times was that of Jerusalem lonia. kingdom divided and fell a prey to Assyria and later to Babywas The
greatest

Without
we

the indigenous

record that

we

have

tament, in the Old Tes-

and the Jews

were

should know Egypt, Solomon.

founded

of David absolutely nothing of the kingdom Assyria, and Babylonia, at the time when their kingdom, were comparatively weak,1 and
at home,

absorbed with their own problems to develop their kingdom. the Hebrews

which
were

permitted

many such in the history of Babylonia, especially in the earlier millenniums, periods kings could have the length and when powerful ruled

There

breadth

shall learn as little in the even annals when all have been brought to light, as have in later times of Solomon Early Egypt we and David. also had its periods of decline, for which it is not at all improbable that
;

of Aniurru of Babylonia,

and

of whom

we

some

mighty
on

Amorite

and powerful periods

are

rulers were hegemony in Amurru

contemporary

which

In short, a great responsible. could have existed in the very records in Egypt and Babylonia
were

perhaps of a the study of the personal names, that it can be ascertained that the due to the encroachments cause of the decline was powerof some ful It would be reasonable to infer, having alone the neighbor. knowledge
1

silent, or in which no annals the help of isolated statements,

produced

and it is only by later period, or by

;

of

these

kingdoms,

alliances, and

coalitions, that

the basis of 1 Kgs. 9 : 16, that Solomon was evidently an Egyptian vassal, who possibly received in marriage a daughter of the Pharaoh, and whose territory his Egyptian suzerain extended by the thinks,
on

Breasted, however,

gift of Gezer. which the Canaanites had burned and presented to Solomon.

not

conquered, HE p. 529.

but which

he captured,

102

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

so favorable for an which land was advanced civilization, to Elam and Babylon, played prior to the time that it succumbed important role among its neighbors. But there is no need to an

Amurru,

rely upon fact.

The

inferences for this view, since there is proof

that it is

like every other kingdom had a centre from In searching for this imperial city it seems which it was governed. In the firstplace that certain considerations must be kept in mind. it would seem name reasonable to look for a city that bore the same
as

land Amurru

the kingdom,

having
etc.

Tilla, Babylon,

in mind It would

existed at being used occupied dominance

so a

early era for the land in the early periods. The city doubtless position rather centrally located to have maintained its lonia this wide area, over and also to have influenced Babyvery

such lands as Ashur, Mash, Akkad, that the city should have appear Martu=Amurru to account for the name

extensively.

surrounding position, must have practically passed known about it in the late centuries. home

all the

city it would seem, kingdoms, and occupied

Such

having such
a

conquered

prominent out of existence, for littleis The city probably was the Amar,

of the god

whose

name

was

who With the Babylonians. nomenclature of the latter part of the third millennium
upon

El-Ur

(Aloros), etc., and

written Mar, Mer, figured so prominently

Uru,

in the early the loss of its prestige in influence B. C, Amorite

Babylonia

waned, Amorite
rare

practically ceased; the city's religion must have for subsequent to the time of the First Dynasty of Babylon,
names

compounded

with Mer,

Mar,

Amurru

or

Uru

are

to earlier periods ; in fact some in comparison of the writings totally disappear in personal names, although they are of the name in the late period in the syllabaries. preserved

which is written in Aramaic writer has shown that Amurru, is home, Ur Uru pltf). identical with the name of Abraham's Its position in history, like of the Chaldees, i. e. Ur plN) that of the kingdom was practically lost sight of. So of Amurru, The
.-

littlewas
2

known

of the city that the Jews

167 ff. Since the
name

in Babylon
Uru
a

in Talmudic

See Amurru
as

Amurru

or

same as

Ur, the writer proposed the identification of the site of the city ; this view is now abandoned.

regarded the Sippar place near

was

X.

ITR

THE

CAPITAL

OF

AMURRU.

103

times and Gen. 10:

writer

some

later Arabian
as

writers
now

10)

the city.

It

Warka (or Erech, regarded to the highly probable seems

city,
or

that the centre sought for as the imperial is the place known as Ur of the Chaldees.

Amurru,

Recently

Olmstead
as

Henry view,
appears

Rawlinson namely
on

revived an having made

he credits identification which from a topographical point of

that the
sea

of the
coast

city

Amurru

opposite

Marathus, with which Olmstead, Arvad.: regarding

this the capital, sees the name of Eustaalso in the river Marathias 38 249). 'Amrit thias, ad Dionys. 914, and in the modern (JAGS in this formed by Abdi-Ashirta Letters the kingdom In the Amarna
The Boghaz-koi archival tablets, as well region is called Amurru. inscriptions of this period, also use the old name as the Egyptian have Probably Marathias the name and 'Amrit of the empire.
come

down

from

this period.

Ramses

III (1198-1167) may to have been confined to this district ; and it is perAmurru seems fectly in fact, to look for the old capital in this region; natural the present writer has heretofore investigations, however, recent region

by "city of Amor" mentioned be this city. In the Assyrian period The

inclined toward
seem

this view.

More

of the old capital which gave cities in references to the Mediterranean since we have many the early inscriptions of Babylonia (see Chapters IX and Egypt and XIV), but not the slightest evidence of the city in question in the period when the empire B. C. Such millenniums

to point elsewhere as the its name, the land cially and espe-

existed, namely, in the third and fourth is always an argument precarious, but to the writer that it nevertheless until evidence is found it appears is reasonable to look elsewhere, in the light of other facts, for the powerful ancient and important city which was enough to rule the land from The the Mediterranean
to Babylonia.

in the Mesopotamian earliest kingdom region of which at have knowledge is that of Mari Meri, along the or present we Euphrates. The city played an important role in the early history of Babylonia, and very probably of the entire Xorth Semitic world.
3

Rawlinson

says:

""In the Khorsabad

Inscription, for Akarra of

or

Acre

is

often
aPXata

is of course Mapatfo? substituted Maratha which QoivIkw' Lib. 16: 518." (JRAS OS 12, 430 n. 1.

Strabo

'roAw

104

THE

EMPIRE

OP

THE

AMORITES.

reference to the city is on a votive statuette earliest known in the British Museum written in archaic script, which reads as " king of Mari, great patesi of Enlil, follows : -uni-Shamash, to Shamash presented as a gift" (CT 5, 2). The title patesiat suzerain over gal dEnlil shows that this early king of Mari was The
. . . ...

It seems to the writer that this scarcely least part of Babylonia. in that it is the earliest noticed text is of the greatest importance known to one inscription of an Amorite, and refers unquestionably

in Amurru the dominant was power of those early periods when The style of the sculpture, which is archaic, points to Babylonia. the earliest age, probably as early as the statue found by Banks (King SA 97). The character of the writing also at Bismaya points to
a

very
a

early age.

but
Eannatum, Mari VI:
was

photograph

The writer finds no of the statuette

reference has been

to its provenance,

published

{ibid. 102). p.
early patesi of Lagash, informs us that in his day (Opis) against him (VB I 22, allied with Kish and Kesh The coalition of these cities with Mari is interesting in
an

22).

Eannatum Semitic centres. because they are this connection defeat to the confederacy a crushing claims to have administered led by Zuzu of Kesh, at the Antasurra of Ningirsu, and to have them to their own pursued city. He does not mention, however,

Mari. that he conquered Sargon, king of the Kish-Akkad

of Mari.

He

informs

probably Enlil, "gave Ibla as far as the cedar forest and the silver mountains" (UMBS IV 7, 179 f ) In an oracle of Ishbi-Urra, as noted in Chapter VIII,
. .

refers to the capture is missing, deity whose name that some us unto him the upper land, Mari, Iarmuti and

dynasty,

Dynasty, that king is twice called "the of the Msin ' ' We have also seen that not only the Nisin rulers man of Mari. but those of the contemporaneous dynasties, bear Amorite names, Larsa and Babylon; namely which, considered in connection with the founder the fact that the nomenclature at this time is filledwith Amorite names, show great influence from this quarter (seeChapter VIII).

To this period very probably belongs a votive tablet, now in the Louvre, which had been inscribed by a king whose name has also unfortunately son of Ja-ahbeen
. . .

injured. It
king

reads

as

follows

"Zi-i[m-.
. . .

of Mari, and

the country

who

built

.]

X.

UK

THE

CAPITAL

OF

AMURRU.

105

brought. on the bank of the ., the bit kt-ri-b[i] ., in Tirq[a], the beloved of the Euphrates], " 11 134 ff.). The script, which is (See Herzfeld RA god that of the Ur Dynasty or we earlier, and the knowledge possess of
. .

the temple

.,

who

from

of Mari and the collapse of its political position (see below),make it highly probable that it belongs to a period not later than the B. C. Moreover, learn from we middle of the third millennium the inscription the fragmentary and Jah-. being
Mari,
name

of

Mari

king, Zim-.

that
.

of

his

.,

who,
we

true,

also only partially it is reasonable to assume was know fragmentary names the
. .

father,

preserved, also
a

namely ruler. This

the earliest being ,-um-Shamash. very who was rite kings, we know of Humbaba district in the time of Gilgamesh the Lebanon

of three kings of Besides these Amoprobably

a

king in

and an early patesi of Ki-Mash Hunnini. To these should be added the names of the four local Amorite kings mentioned in the fourteenth chapter of Genesis; but these ruled about the time the empire was dissolved, or even
later.

(see Chapter VIII), (very probably Damascus), named

local city-rulers of Western Amurru. In the latter part of the third millennium Elam entered help of its vassals, conquered Western arena, and with the
were

They

the the
us

Amorite how

world. in the Hammurabi territory

on

The

fourteenth

chapter
era,

(Amraphel)

of Genesis informs Elam had invaded

the

Amorite

Sea.
Mari

became Adda of Elam Martu "Suzerain (YB 210, 6:4). It is not unlikely of Amurru" date for Hammurabi's tenth year refers to that the fragmentary
up, when

It is not finally broken was

the west side of the Jordan and the Dead improbable that this is the time the hegemony of the king

this invasion, probably he

as

for

in it the been

population
away.

having thrown Mari

had

destroyed

carried the yoke off and Malgu.

is mentioned, of Malgu murabi A few years after Ham-

in his thirty-fifth year, of Elam The date reads: "The year in

the walls of Mari and which Hammurabi after having destroyed Malgu, As this event at the command etc. of Anu and Enlil," followed closely upon his contest for supremacy it with Elam, would
status.
seem

that probably Mari and Malgu

the part

Mari

had

attempted

to regain

its former

doubtless

efforts

on

of Hammurabi,

than ordinary required more because of which their over-

106

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

throw

giver In his Code the lawcelebrated in the date formula. the settlements who subdued speaks of himself as the one
was

"the warrior of Dagan, his creator, who protected ' ' The Code probably refers the people of Marl and Tutul. Mari to a time subsequent to the destruction of the city's walls. in Western thereafter ceased to be an important political power
along

the Euphrates,

Asia. inscriptions to Mari subsequent references in the Babylonian In known to the writer. to the ascendancy are of Babylon ernor calls himself govrelief of the later period, Shamash-resh-usur
Only
two

of Suhi

is mentioned 2r: 20). In brief, the city Mari ceased to be a factor in the political Asia after the time of Hammurabi. Western affairs of

(Weissbach Miscln. 9 f.) and the city ; and Mari being in proximity to Suhi (CT 4, in a document as

Mari

must

be recognized

as

name goddess whose Dungi Marki, to whom erected

The

the city Mar is written

or

tions. of the early inscripideographically Xiiia

restored
or

temple

in Girsu, is

the ba'alat of Mar. From this centre, namely gods named

Mari

Mar,

there

went

forth the

Shar-Urra

Gal

(=Nergal)

two and Mesh-Lam-Ta-e, The equation the god of Cutha.

names

of Ne-UrudNin-IB Marki
=

identifies Urta

with the city. The absolute identification of Mar with Mar-tw=Amu)iu=Uru the previous chapter, gives see and the other forms of this name, for identifying the city Mari as the centre we are us every reason looking
the to weld together enough powerful Semitic peoples of this region into a great nation and to give it Amurru even the name ; this it retained for millenniums, quent subse-

for, which

was

to the time the hegemony

was

destroyed.

Yet, it was

in all

antediluvian mythological of the Chaldean probability the home lowed kings at the head of which stands El-'Ur (Aloros), and who Avas folby five other kings whose names also contain the city-god's Alap-'Ur name, (Amillaros),Megal-'Ur (Alaparos), Amel-'Ur

ancestral Ishbi-Urra and Imitti-Urra of the Nisin Dynasty; and of Abraham. it is highly probable that it was the home moreover of from the inscriptions, and Taking into account all that is known

Ebed-'Ur, the brother (Euedorachos), (Megaloros), and the 'Ar-data (Ardates)(seeChapter IX). This also was

perhaps

home

X.

I'R

THE

CAPITAL,

OF

AMUREU.

'""

in the identification of the the conditions that we could propose imperial centre, no city in Amnrru fulfillsthe conditions as does Mari or Merra on the Euphrates. Further St. Stephen says Ur in Mesopotamia (Acts 7: 2, 4). of the Chaldees was In this connection the question arises, when did Merra Ur or to the entire land; establish the hegemony which gave its name
it dissolved.' Naturally was and when before the time of Sargon, but whether Gilgamesh, Etana, Shar-banda or when
cannot it
as
was

established long early as the time of

lived,
or

Humbaba

not,

be surmised.

in turn humiliated Mari. Sargon ruled Babylonia. He captured the city and invaded the region beyond, as far as Ibla Erech Guti Dynasties, the Kish (see above). Following and
but Guti in turn by Erech. was overthrown ruled Babylonia; be determined Another dark period followed, the length of which cannot The status of Mari in the West during the at present.4

empire was king of Mari,

It is reasonable to infer perhaps that the established prior to the time when um-Shamash,
. . .

time of the Ur Dynasty,

that, these
conquerors its fortified position

followed, is not known, but the fact no mention of the city is proof that made too strong for them; was yet they carried which

doms their practice of looting and gathering tribute from the kingDuring Mari beyond. the Ur Dynasty, certainly did not have a dominant kings, assumed the position, for the Ur Dynasty
on

title "king the time

came

of the four when

regions,"

which

included

Amurru.

But

lost, but was not only Ur's control of Amurru Mari actually overthrew the dynasty and ruled the land, for "Ishfrom Mari" bi-Urra a man the Nisrn throne. was placed upon

the origin of Xaplanum of determining who took the throne of Larsa, his name and those of his dynasty it is to be noted that the Larsa and Xisin Moreover Amorite. are Although
we

have

no

way

Sargon

of those who have writer is one is now than generally accepted. 1911 6061) and Poebel (Comptes Rendus
The

clung to a greater antiquity for The by Seheil tablets published have restored some (VMBS V) of

the dynasties

and the Ur Dynasty, and he feels that more investigations proceed. It will probably as not be poswill become known sible to return to the former early date, but the present indications are that
a

between

Sargon

much

greater

antiquity

than

now

acceded, will have

to

be granted.

108

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

the same time (seeChapter established at or near IX). One of those dark periods in the history of Surner and Akkad, which has left us few or no inscriptions, follows ; although the length of the reigns would not imply disintegration in this Dynasties
were

instance, but perhaps above. rather foreign control, as mentioned later established a dynasty at Babylon; Amorites a little and as As time passed the far as is known they ruled the whole land. Amorite dynasty The Babylonized. Amorite at rulers became

Larsa
became

was

subject.

overthrown Elam

by

the Elamites, Amurru.

to whom

invaded

also Babylon rabi HammuSubsequently

out of the land, and a few years later holds conquered Mari, destroyed its walls, and also those of other strongthe imperial history of Mari or ; when along the Euphrates Amurru was closed.

drove

the Elamites

Uri for the (p. 103),concerning the name said in Amurru Babylonia, Akkad, that it is not improbable or northern country dominated the peoples that in some of Amurru period, when
It
was

Akkad,

the

name

geographically

land Uri of the broad Amorite to include it. The more extended

(=A"mrru)
recent

was

gations investi-

rites confirm this idea, especially since we know that the AmoIf this is not correct, Babylonia several times. conquered to that two countries, adjacent each other, and can we only assume inhabited by Semitic peoples who were closely related, had the
same name,

which

in both instances

BUR-BUR,
Western thrones

and yet the names Semites at times

written with the ideogram Since the had nothing in common.

was

invaded
seems

Babylonia,
as some

and

sat
as

on

the

of the land, this scarcely was that the name given to Akkad

reasonable

in

the view the early period when

it. peoples from Uri dominated Recently the writer proposed the identification of the city whose "a fortified place, is written 3Ia-riki and Marki with Merra name in his Parthian Stations by a mentioned walled city," which was

Isidore of Charax of the firstcentury B. C. fifteen schoeni to Isidore there was

(seeMI
between Merra

ing f.) Accordthe

Aburas

(Habur) and
5

Merra,

and twenty-two
Isidore informs
a us,

between
it

and Anatho.5

Prom
Dura

the Aburas,

was

to

Nieanoris, five to Merra,

fortified place,

four schoeni to Asich, six a walled village, five to

X.

VR

THE

CAPITAL

OF

AMURRU.

in!)

The

latter city, as is understood Merra island in the Euphrates.

(seebelow), was
therefore

by 'Ana

on

an

should be less than half

the distance from The

the Habur

to 'Ana.

of a low range ruins of Irzi situated on a bluff or headland of rocky hills reaching the river on its north bank, although about between the Habur and 'Ana, have been considered by midway These picturMerra. Peters,'5 Schoff,7 and others, to represent esque

from be seen ruins, which can by all travellers who have mentioned
either side of the Euphrates. El Baus 1872-3, gives the name

great

distance, have

been

noted the different sites on Oernik, in his Studien Expedition

to the city.

says the ruins larger in extent than Cairo, and appeared in 1579 occupied a city to be the massive walls and lofty towers of a great city. This led by Xenophon Rennell8 to identify Corsote mentioned (see below)

Balbi

Ainsworth commenting with the site which he called Erzi or Irsah. 's description Balbi "the jagged and on thinks he mistook for the fragments broken masses of gypsum of an endless city"

{Euphrates Expedition
examined

389). Also Miss Gertrude

L. Bell, who

the ruins, says she did not find bastioned walls, as she expected, but a number of isolated tower-tombs, round the edge of She the whole extent of the high rocky plateau. the bluff and over
saw
no

traces of houses,

nor

means

of a near-by Whether beneath the or second century of the Christian era/' tombs seen by Miss Bell belonging to recent centuries, ruins of an are ancient walled city will be found if excavations conducted,
was

it

the necropolis

of obtaining water; she thinks dates from the first town, and

remains to be seen. Olmstead seems Euphrates

to

think
'

that
as

Isidore
exactly
an

located
as
one

Merra

on
a

the
city
to

at the town

Isharah

can

locate

Giddan,
Thilabus,
6

seven

to Belesi Biblada,

six to

island, four to Anatho,

or

two

twelve
or

Nippur, Parthian

to Izan, and sixteen to Aipolis Explorations on and Adventures

Hit.

the Euphrates

I 311 if.

Stations

by Isidore

Illustrations
Amurath

of

the Retreat 83

of of the Ten Thousand

Since Ainsworth

Charax

p. 24.

p. 103.

to Amurath

ff.

ibid. p. 387

says

the

by the Arabs, the name cliffsof Irzi were also called Al Wurdi of the city further up the stream, it may be possible that Irzi was the necropolis of that city.

110

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

on

the hour A

hasis

(AJT

p.

284);
on

hut 'Isharah

stream.

little above

Irzi

the Euphrates

is too far up the is the site of an

(also"Wurdi). This ancient city which at present is called Werdi to site is less than half way between the Habur and 'Ana, and seems
be
was nearer

to the position given

for Merra,

by Isidore, than Irzi ; it

to 'Ana. Werdi and twenty-two who referred to it as also is thought to be the Corsote of Xenophon, by the Masca, was a large deserted city, which entirely surrounded

fifteen hours

from

the Habur

and
erxes

Cyrus passed three days on his inarch against Artaxwhere his brother (Anabasis I 5, 9). No other ancient writer is
to have

known

Doubtless in Corsote. referred to the city named 's time the in Xenophon still evidence. ruins of the ancient city were Ainsworth, however, says he saw no tion remains of a city. The posithis ; the of the city naturally makes it possible to understand is understood to be the loop canal by Xenophon Masca mentioned stood. This which encloses the bend of the river on which Werdi Since Mar and Mer frequently canal is now called Werdiyeh.10 interchange with We-ir, it is reasonable to suggest that Werdi perhaps is from site actually
appear most

Werti,

and

represents

reasonable. times again seems vator appropriate here, the spade of the excaseveral determine whether Werdi the city in can represents easily

If the is to be identified with Martu. Ur, this will the ancient city Merra or Moreover, the remark previously made

question.

10

Bell Amurath

to Amurath

p. 82.

XI

OTHER
The

MESOPOTAMIAN

KINGDOMS

tes, Euphraa district of the middle of liana embraced including the country in the region of the mouth of the Habur The discovery of a few inscriptions in this district above Merra.

kingdom

fortunately

throws

civilization. One tions Tirqa ; with which place four of the few inscripof Hana, was be definitely identified. The site of the city is supposed can found, Tell 'Isharah, where several of the tablets were to lie near
a

considerable light upon of the chief towns, perhaps

the character of the at one time the capital

town

This

situated between identification seems

Ed-Der

(or Der

Ez-Z6r) and

Salihiya.

that site of a votive records the restoration

by the discovery also at corroborated inscription of Shamshi-Adad, in which he

of a temple in that city (seebelow). The earliest reference to the city Tirqa is in the inscription of Zi-i[m ] king of Mari, referred to in the previous chapter, who
.

in the bit su-ri-b[i] that city. The inscription cannot be definitely dated, but the script and other considerations point to
restored

B. C, when Mari was the middle of the third millennium stillprobably the imperial city of Amurru. The inscription of Shamshi-Ailad to above referred reads: ' Shamshi-Adad, king of the universe, the ruler of Enlil, the worshipper
*

the patesi of Ashur, the builder of Ekisigga, of Dagan, in Tirqa".1 the temple of his assistance, the temple of Dagan In this inscription Shamshi-Adad "the priest-king of calls himself
Tlic god Ashur,"

of Enlil," which "the worshipper

patron

which means implies he

he
was

the king of Assyria; "ruler the suzerain over Babylon; and

was

of Tirqa district, and by his "pious

There

's

by which he regarded of Dagan," deity. Doubtless he had conquered

himself

the

deeds" king

attempted
named

the city and to placate the inhabitants.

was

an

Assyrian

Shamshi-Adad

who

lived

Condamin

ZA

21, 247 ff.

(Hi)

112

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

name in the time of Hammurabi; ruled another bearing- the same 1600 B. C. and in the ninth about 1850 B. C, and others about III, who ruled about 1600 B. C, used the Shamshi-Adad century. title "king of the universe" same (sarkissati), informs us and

the Tigris and the solicitous for the land between 2: 1 ff.). It would seem Euphrates (KTA reasonable to regard him as the one who rebuilt the temple in Tirqa referred to in the that he
was

above

or

inscription. mentioned covered. Besides this votive inscription, three contracts have been disThe firstis a deed of gift which was granted by Isharlim is identified by some Isarlim (which name who with 'Israel'),
king of Hana, the tablet, The

was
on

the city Tirqa, Dagan, and Itur-Mer,

by the impression of the royal seal shown deed conveys a house in Al-eshshum, a part of the property of the gods, Shamash, which was
as

in the These names occur of the king. lim, The date reads "In the year when Isharoath formula (LC237). the king, built the great gate of the palace in the city of Kashand

dah." second is a deed of gift of several plots of land in the towns by Ammi-bail, Ja'mu-Dagan and Tirqa, to his servant Pagirum, '-ranunu, district (VS 7, 204). king of the same the son of Shunu deities,Shamash, The oath formula includes the names of the same
The

Dagan

and Itur-Mer, and that of the king Annni-bail, in whose is dated; i. e., "in the year when Ammi-bail, reign the document the king, ascended the throne in his father's house." The third tablet is also a deed of land, in Tirqa, which is dated Kashtiliashu established righteousness" "in the year when (LC The oath formula is similar to that of the other two deeds. 238). is the one who lived the Cassite king bearing this name Whether in the thirteenth, or even in the eighteenth century, or the one another, it is impossible to say. this part of the country is a marriage is unknown, but it certainly came Its exact provenance contract. It is dated "in the year when Hammufrom the same region.
Another inscription from

from the city rabih, the king, opened the canal Habur-ibal-Bugash " to show Dur-Isharlim This would seem to the city Diir-Igitlim. to Dur-Igitthe Habur on that a canal passed from Dur-Isharlim lim.

Since

Dur-Isharlim

apparently

was

royal

palace, Dur-

XI.

OTHEE

MESOPOTAMIAN

KINGDOMS.

113

Igitlim may also have been the castle of Igitlim, another ruler of Hana. These two names which have been so frequently quoted, incorrectly read Zakku-Isharlim were (Johns and Zakku-Igitlim

PSBA
Morgan's

1907, 177

Johns

which is in Mr. J. Pierpont library, clearly reads Dur-Isharlim and Dur-Igitlim. law-giver; but identified the king with the Babylonian

ff.).The original,

besides the date of the tablet not being a known which fact he recognized, there are other reasons tablet
was

date of the ruler, for believing the

that written in the Cassite period, unless it is assumed time, had already influenced the Cassites, prior to Hammurabi's in an extensive manner. Besides the name Mesopotamia of the

with that of the Cassite god Bugash, canal, which is compounded in the tablet, Kikkiwu,2 one of the four personal names mentioned influence. The other three names shows Mitannian of the contract, fBi-it-ti-dDa-gan,Pa-gi-rum, ther, Furand A-ba-ia, are West-Semitic. the seal impression on the tablet, which has not as yet been to the writer, peculiar to the Cassite published, is, as far as is known
period.3 These

facts point either to the conclusion that the Cassites conquered time, and this region prior to Hammurabi's that this great ruler recognized their deity in naming the caual he dug, which he did not do in any inscriptions known from Babylonia, different date formulae and that he employed outside of Babylonia ; or else the tablet was in the reign of another written later ruler. and
The

orthography
the
name

Hammurabih*
Ki-ik-ki-nu

has

no

bearing

on

the question,
Ei-ik-Tesup
in the

With

we

can

compare

Ei-ki-Tesup,

(dIM), Ei-ik-ia, Ei-ik-ku-li and fEi-ik-ki-ia-en-ni(seeClay PN).

3

The

text will be republished

in Part

IV

of Babylonian

Records

Library
*

of J. Pierpont

Morgan.

It seems unfortunate that there should be so much confusion introduced into the spelling of the Babylonian lawgiver's name, for besides Hammurabi there have been introduced Hammurabih, Hammurapi, Hammurawi,
and

Hammu-rawih.
to accommodate

In

changing

trying

themselves

the pronunciation, scholars have been to four facts: the Assyrian translation

kimta rapastum, in of the name offered by a late scribe; to Amraphel, Genesis ; the form Am-mu-ra-pi, in an Assyrian letter ; and Ha-am-mu-rabi-ih in the Hana To these cases marriage contract. should be added the
occurrence

of the

name

written

dAm-mu-ra-pi

(YBC

4362), Am-mu-ra-bi

114:

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

murabi for the signs ih and i' were used interchangeably both in the Hamin the Amarna There is a name and in the Cassite period.5 letters El-ra-bi-ih (alsowritten I-li-ra-[bi-ili] ) which doubtless
represents
' '

the

same

element

rabi' from

the root meaning

"to

be

great.

Besides
of Zim
.

these four legal documents

.

.,

and

and the votive inscriptions that of Shamshi-Adad, which throw most wel-

(YBC

6270),and Ha-am-mu-um-ra-pi
have been

(YBC 6496, 6508) on First Dynasty

by Dr. Grice of the Yale Babylonian

records, which Seminary.

That

discovered

should be written occasionally with rapi instead of the of rabi, and especially in Assyria, where the harder pronunciation There is some labial is frequently found, is not surprising. justification
this foreign
name

for the reading rapi from N2~) ' to heal, advanced by Prince, cf Nabubut the element can scarcely be the Arabic raft', ra-pa-' {BE 10:57) ; from the Arabic 1908 93 ), nor with Hommel OLZ high (Thureau-Dangin
'
.

' '

' '

' '

roots
were

rabaha, rabagha, etc. {OLZ 1907 235 f.). Evidence is necessary to make used in Arabic or Amorite names

that these roots the suggestions or "the family assumption of is still wide," well as the Yale

is wide" as "Amm convincing; and further, such a meaning The is without is broad" parallel for personal names. "to be airy, roomy, Luckenbill, who makes the root ITO less convincing Gilgamesh

{JAOS

37, 252).

Chiera's Amorite

list, as

tablet, show that the signs pi, bi, mi, and bu, mu, etc., represent Amorite but the statement that in Old Babylonian the word similar sounds, "son," "son" is not aplu but maru, for must and that names read abil,

be changed to awil, "man" {VMBS XI 1, 37 f.), which Luckenbill accepts Cf. ab-lim 31:54, Ab-lu-tim 37, 252), is difficult to understand. {JAOS 5, and cf. 28:19. etc., of the Code; a-bil 17:1, a-bi-il 210:10, etc., VAB

A-bil{TTJB)-Samas,etc. (Eanke PN).

this root
appear

Moreover,
;

in personal names instead of rawi or rah,

rm

is wanting rawih. not found

evidence of the and besides the element

use

of

would

rawi, rawih, rafi "to be great," is very common. root It Amorite names of Cappadocia.
how the Assyrian

While

or

are

in Amorite

names,

This element
seems

is

even

rabi from the found in the

easy to understand comparatively Amm of an earlier age for scribe, mistaking the element In short, "family," translated rabi with rapaMum. the word meaning 's library to was this royal scribe of Ashurbanipal sufficiently educated know at least the pronunciation of the name, which he wrote ra-bi; and bi

in the Assyrian

period

cannot

be read

loi or

pi.

The

same

is true

of the

XI.

OTHER

MESOPOTAMIA^

KINGDOMS.

115

district, especially in the civilization of the Hana B. C, there should be menthe early part of the second millennium tioned document the early period which has been of also another
come

light upon

published by Pinches (CT 4, 1),concerning a certain Sin-iqisham, It would the sabir of Suhi, who dwelt in Halis of Suhi. appear Shamash-reshfrom this document that Suhi bordered on Mari.
shaknu of Suhi and Mari. of a later period (seebelow), was the mouth Suhi has been placed above Mari near of the Habur (EB p. 260, n),and it has been localized below, near 'Ana, although 38 p. it is recognized as a very indefinite place (Olmstead JAOS
usur

241). If Anat, Hanat, and Anatho (seebelow),it would city's name

below Mari. These

are

different forms

seem

of the same that Suhi must have been

language, with the show that the Babylonian formulae, was used for the legal documents ; yet usual Sumerian the terminology was peculiar to the district. Doubtless, back of is a different code of laws. in the For example, the documents

documents

of any infraction of the rights bestowed by the king, there was to be a fine of ten manehs of silver, and in addition the guilty party to have his head tarred with hot tar. was The nomenclature is especially of these few contracts found in Hana
case

rich in important They Among contain an them are many

characteristics of the Amorite civilization. large number names. unusually of Amorite

dDa-gan,

Semitic verbal forms, like Ja-as-ma-'Ja-ri-ib-dAdad, etc. Of special importance is the frequent West
in the names, of the god Dagan about a dozen of compounded with that of the deity ; and besides, several

occurrence

which

are

for the library a copy made of the Code of Hammurabi And kings was (CT 13:47). surely the chronicler of early sufficiently intelligent to know The same is true of the royal scribe of this name. Nabonidus, King he referred to Hammurabi living as of Babylon, when
ro.yal scribe who

700 years
was

Even though the foreign name prior to Burna-Buriash. in a few instances written differently, these facts should ruler to prompt to hold to the pronunciation us these scribes deemed
namely,
5

of this be sufficient
correct,

Hammurabi.
BE

Cf. Ranke

Ki-sa-ah-bu-ut
with

1, Sign No. 198. Cf. also Ba-ah-lu-ti with Ba-'-lu-ti, Ei-sa-'-bu-ut, etc. (Clay PN) ; and ma~ah-du-ti 191:8 with letters. ma-'-du-ti 3 : 10, etc., Amarna

VI

116

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

On the seal of of Dagan." Isharlim, king of Hana, he calls himself "the beloved of Shamash In these few tablets several names contain that of and Dagan." individuals bear
the title "priest 'Ammu, Hammu,
as

Jakun-Amniu,

Bina-Ammi,

Ammi-bail

the king, Jasdi-

his son. Two witand perhaps Abilama nesses, Zimri-Hanata Guri and Igitlim, and a man are named designated as akil of the god Amurru, so commonly which titlewas used by the Amorites in Babylonia in the time of the First Dynasty. In this connection should be mentioned and Sarpanitum of the images of Marduk site king Babylon. during Agum-kakrime, and again the bringing back from Hani by the Cas-

Zimri-Hammu,

their reinstallation in Esagila at It has been suggested that they had been carried off the Hittite invasion in the time of Samsu-ditana (HB p. and
seem

210) ; but if Hani

identical, it would

the kingdom

Hana

of invasions, for the Hittites, if they had carthe early Amorite ried them away, would scarcely have left them in this region. In 1885 Pinches published an inscription found by Rassam at is an The inscribed Sippar, which also refers to Hana.

that they had been

to be regarded during one removed

are

as

object

partially of green stone, fixed into an ornamental head, the bronze socket which is in the shape of a ram's On one of eyes of which are inlaid with some white composition. Shamash, king of heaven the broad surfaces is inscribed: "To oblong king son and earth, Tukulti(-ti)-Me-ir, of the country Hana, Hana, for [the safety Ilu-shaba, king of of] his land and his

instrument

of
own

rian protection he has presented it." The text is printed with AssyPinches published the inscription in 1883 he type, but when considered that the script pointed to the time of the king then II. He mentions, however, that it contains a called Shalmaneser few archaic forms {TSBA 8, 351 ff.). About fifty miles below the city Merra on It is regarded the present city 'Ana. the Euphrates
as

is situated being indescribably

picturesque, and perhaps the most delightful city on the Euphrates. Xeno'Ana has long been identified with the ancient 'Anatho. Isidore of Charax mentioned phon called the city Charmande. Anatho of four stadia." The emperor Julian, of the fourth century, mentioned Anatha as being a city of importance, situated both on the islands of the river
as on

being

"an

island in the Euphrates

XI.

OTHER

MESOPOTAMIA^

KINGDOMS.

11"

Yakut, and on the shore. fortress on an island. The

about

1225, refers to 'Anath

as

strong

is doubtless to be identified with the city city 'Anatho6 Hanatki mentioned in the tablet published by Pinches (CT 4, 1, see and Anat of Suhi, referred to by Ashur-nasir-pal as a city above), island in the Euphrates on an (I R 23: 15). the on cities, called 'Ana, perhaps bank of the river, and 'Anatu on the chief island, now called Lubhanded down, remains to bad, to account for the different names

Whether

there

were

twin

be

seen.

Yakut

in regarding

'Anat

poetical form

of the plural

mistaken. of 'Ana, is apparently have Unquestionably these names the god and goddess Anu and it is highly probable

been

worship
even

whence to Egypt.

it was

This

the chief centre of their carried into the region lying east and west, Amorite being true, 'Anu and 'Antu were
was

and Antu that this

correctly associated with by Peters (Nippur I 144 ff.),

gods, as the writer further Chapter see

seems

has

heretofore

XVTI).

assumed If Hanat and Anat

(Amurru
are

142
same,

f. ;

the

it

Hana, written in cuneiform reasonable also that the name Ha-na, the name of the district,should be identified with the name of the god written Ana, Anu, Anna, Ani, and especially since the Semitic ayin which the name by the A contains, as is shown

Semitic forms, is very frequently reproduced bahlu, yadah, etc., all reproducing cf. hammu, in Amorite names.
The deity Hana
occur

by

h in cuneiform; especially

the ayin, and

as

and Census and the Harran which of Assyrian texts. Babylonian This deity presided over other and an by the discovery advanced civilization in the "West, as is determined Code, prototype of the ancient Sumerian of the Hammurabi Han,

is very probably in Amorite names

the

same

Hanu,

Hani,

in the Yale single tablet of which has been preserved and is now Babylonian Collection. The colophon "the of the tablet reads
a
8

On

'Ana
The

worth
on

and 'Anatho, see Cernik Studien Expedition Euphrates Expedition I 401 ff.; Peters Nippur I 144
24;
5 and

1872-73
or

Ains-

Explorations

the Euphrates
pp.

Charax
Amurath

ff. and Schoff Parthian ; Scheil Annates de Tukulti

and

Stations of Isidore of Ninip II p. 42; Bell

38 p. 241.

to Amurath

p. 97;

Ohnstead

JAOS

118

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

law "the

of Nisaba
patroness

and

Hani"

of writing"

(MI p. 19 f.). The goddess Nisaba, (RA 8, 110),who wielded the stylus

to Gudea, together with Hani who was and gave understanding "the god of the scribes" and "lord of the seal," are thus credited Perhaps Nisaba (or Nidaba), with being the givers of the laws.

the consort but whose

a

deity, of Hani, will prove to have been also a Western like Marduk name, and Nergal having been written with

cuneiform

ideogram,

in its transmission

It may prove pronunciation. From these considerations it appears because been credited to the Sumerians
very probably the country was

suffered to be the Sumerian

as

change

in the

name

if the laws

of Antu. which have

written in their language And had their origin among the Amorites. since murabi Semites during the Hamfilledwith these Western

Amorite, it is not improbable period, and that dynasty was Code drew extensively from Amorite sources. that the Hammurabi in for the fact that actions of Abraham This may are account
of Hagar, his adoption with the Code, e. g., his treatment accordance of his slave and steward Eliezer, etc. identical, the quesIf the name are tion of the city 'Ana and Hana Hana known this the centre of the hegemony as was arises

including the mouth the region of the Euphrates which embraced Hana It is probable that the kingdom was ruled by of the Habur. But is 'Ana, with its twin city Anatho on a city and deity Hana.
an

island, whose

few

tion? and Hanat, the city in quesIf this should prove correct, it must be conceded that not As above, Suhi in the difficulties remain to be explained.
name

is written Anat

time of Ashur-nasir-pal the region in which embraced located; Shamash-resh-usur was supposed Anatho, was of Suhi and Mari;

Anat,

the

governor

and as mentioned, in the tablet published by Pinches (CT 4:1), which belongs to the early period, Suhi borders it would In other words Mari. if 'Ana on seem 'Anat or as

in these periods to Suhi. Naturally the second millennium intervened, to which belong. contracts period the Hana Then also if the city 'Ana was the capital of the kingdom, the question arises did Isharlim, king of Hana, and perhaps also belonged Ammi-bail,
live in 'Ana
or near

Tirqa.
well
were as

contract above referred to, as to indicate that these kings

date of the marriage the land deeds, would seem identified with
the

The

intimately

XI.

OTHER

MESOPOTAMIAN

KINGDOMS.

119

region

in which

Tirqa

was

calls himself governor of Suhi and Mari, the restoration of a canal of Suhi and the building of a mentions Tiglath-pileser I says in one day he Gabbari-ibni. city named from raided the country Several other important

answered until we have Shamash-resh-usur, who

situated. These questions additional light on the

cannot

be

subject.

Suhi to Carchemish
cities of Hammurabi
as were

(Annals V:

44

ff.).

located

date for the fourth year the destruction of Malga

this district,which
may

in this region. The referred to above, records city in Mar-

well

prove

Tutul is another to be Thilutha of Ammianus

as

Mari.

cellinus, now informs us The

called Telbeis a little below 'Ana,7 fortress. impregnable there was an

where

Julian

lay north of liana, in the region which of Harran There is an Arabic saying Naharaim. Aram or was called Aram to the effect that the first two cities rebuilt after the deluge were

kingdom

Damascus
upon
was as

and
very
so

Harran,

implying
The
name

that

these

cities
means

were

looked "road,"

ancient.

Harran,

which

called because In short, it would seem route. important cities in Mesopotamia doubtless

it was

situated on that Harran was

the great trade one of the most

literature are references The earliest reference to the district and city singularly wanting. found in the Biblical traditions concerning the home of Abram. are letters and the Egyptian inscriptions throw Even the Amarna

Unfortunately,

in ancient times. to the city in early

little light

on

the
had

Mitanni

then

due to the fact that region, unquestionably kings possession of the land.. The Assyrian

the time of Adadclaimed to have controlled the region from From rated incorpothis time it was nirari I of the fourteenth century. in the Assyrian kingdom.

Valuable

information

concerning

the

district, however,

is

taken in the seventh century.8 obtained from an Assyrian census Though from the one under discussion, this period is far removed connevertheless it is highly probable that much of the knowledge cerning the culture can be applied also to the early period.

In this
7 8

census

of the district about

Harran,

such details of each

Identified by Scheil Tukulti Ninip Johns ABB.

II p. 49.

120

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

form

of arable The recorded.

the
women are was

land
names

merely

etc., are vineyards, orchards, gardens, and his sons are given ; of the pater familias eimmerated, as are also the live stock. The
as

kingdom
as

divided Dur-Nabu,

up

Harran,

into units, called qani. Certain cities, The the centres of these qani. etc., were

included the towns 'Atnu, Badani, qani, for example, Ianata, Saidi and Han-siiri, and the villages Arrizu and Kaparu. The large list of cities,towns, and villages that are named in the
Harran

tance different qani of the kingdom will prove of the greatest imporwhen this region is explored, and excavations are conducted. Attempts have been made, as for example at identifying some

Sarugi, which
is thought
is thought

name

is compared

to be represented to be on the river bearing

with Serug by the present that

an

ancestor of Abram, town Serudj. Balihi

name,

tance of great imporin throwing light upon the cults of the district, for they inform us what gods were The list of gods embraces worshipped. Adad, Ata, Atar, Aja,Alia, Ashirta, Hani, Nabii, Xashhu, Shamshi,
are

Til-Nahiri is associated with Nahor, another The personal names found in these tablets

south of Harran ; ancestor of Abram.9

Ser, Si'
are

Sin, Ter, etc. The elements with which these names instances Aramaic. Besides the use constituted are in many
or

of the generic term for god, namely ilu, the deities occurring most frequently are Si' and Nashhu Nashuh. Harran known to or was be the great centre of the worship of the moon-god Sin; and we here learn that the city was perhaps also the original habitat of Nashhu,
Doubtless,

who
as

became

Nushu

in Babylonia

(see Chapter

XVII).

Mesopotamian

investigations continue other important region will become known.

states in this

See Johns

ibid., and

also Kraeling

Aram

and

Israel 25 f.

XII THE The MEDITERRANEAN

KINGDOMS

lands in the western or part of Amurru various kingdoms in different periods ; also some bore different names of the names time one people differed from those used at the same used among
by another.
was

it

was

trict disinscriptions, the Lebanon In the early Egyptian inscriptions called Retenu, while in the early Babylonian In the time of Gudea, Tidnu, Tidnu. or called Tidanu

district designations of a' mountainous with Basalla, were inscriptions, Phoenicia In the early Egyptian of this country. letters this region including the In the Amarna was called Zahi. tian Lebanon district was as well as in the late Egypcalled Amurru,
together

inscriptions; which name, as noted already, was used in Babylonia for the entire land west of that country. GIRThe name Tidnu was written with the cuneiform ideogram

G1R.

This ideogram

also stood

tricts of the disWinckler, probably of Palestine is called Gavi(ma:Ga-ri).2 Homruel Weber and Steuernagel located it in the Negeb. seemed
one

also represented the for Amurru.1 In the Amarna

name

Amurru.

GIR-ra

letters

{Amarna-Tafeln mistake for ma'Ga-{az-)-ri fact that Gazri is eight times referred p. 1319). In view of the to in the letters as a city and not as a country, this does not seem
to think
was
a

that it

Niebuhr, followed by Knudtzon, have the probable. suggested identification of the name with the present El-Ghor, the Jordan plain. In Ta'annek No 2, there is a city Gur-ra1". It is to be noted in Babylonian that Gir figures prominently place or geographical names, which in the light of other facts gives rise to the question, there is any connection;3 and especially as the worship whether
1

Cf. the equation

i"tin
"

GlR-ra

A-mur"din-ni

(II R,

45

59e;

R,

8:85).
Cf. Amarna-Tafeln 256 : 23. A name as of Akkad, noted before, is Uri, which Amurru (see Chapter VII). It is, to say the least,
3
2

is the
an

also of interesting coinci-

name

(121)

122

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

of the West

Semitic god

Gir

was

carried to Babylonia

ter (seeChap-

XVII).
to the western which properly belonged region of Amurru is that which embraced The name the city of Damascus. letters and the name of of the district is called Ubi in the Amarna its chief principality is alDi-mas-qa, alDu-ma-as-qa alTi-maand to Egypt. In the Old The region at this time was as-gi.

kingdom

subject
to

Testament,
eastern

of Abram .expedition allies unto Hobah, which is

the

on

Lot, pursued the the left hand of Damascus.

secure

In the-thne of David, a city is mentioned Zobah as the principality This later established himself in Damascus. of Rezin, who lasted for over two centuries. The history of kingdom Aramaean Rezin in this kingdom, when which lost its political importance Hobah
has beeen identified with Ubi. between Hamath and Damascus
concert with well known.

Pekah,

king

of Israel, rebelled against is not

more

Assyria,

is

in the mentioned inscriptions of the early period is not due to the fact that it did The "eye of the world," as Julian importance. not possess much called it, could hardly have been other than a city of the greatest
The fact that Damascus frequently in the earliest period of the land's history. The plain regarded as the fairest of the four earthly paradises of Damascus, by the Arab, a rich and beautiful oasis, irrigated by the cold and

importance

waters of the Barada, through which also flows the clear mountain Pharphar, and adorned with a wealth of parks and gardens, is a But it was not only a great city veritable "pearl of the East."

in the latter half of the second

dence
that

millennium
part

B. C.

Such

natural

component

For

gi(n),
becomes

years "land

has as its chief of Babylonia name. also an element similar to another Amorite geographical it has been held that Shin'ar (or Sumer) is derived from Ein-

the

name

for the southern

"IPJC

the palatisation of the k, which of the reed," by assuming becomes r ; i. e., Kin-gin = Kin-gir = Singir = s before i, and n It seems This explanation has been adopted by certain scholars.

to the writer, however,

since

we

have

no

for justification

is gir, as shown gi{n),that the second element in the name (SBH 130, obv. 24:25, 26:27),Ei-en-gi(r)-rd(DV)(Gudea cyl. A 11:16; is well known. 21:25; B, 22:22). The apocopation of r in Sumerian

the reading Einby Ei-in-gi(r)-ra

XII.

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

KINGDOMS.

123

inevitably site in the very heart of the ancient Semitic world was Such a site on the border of the desert, settled in the hoary past. have ceased to be inhabited, and a veritable harbor, would never would by reason of its situation be a city of craftsmen and a mart

Such of the Semitic world. considerations the writer to look for the city mentioned among the earliprompted est Babylonia, in the identification of which resulted records of
a area

for

large

Mashki

or

Ei-Mashki

of the Ur

in the inscriptions of Gudea Dynasty, the ancient name as

also in asserting that it is highly probable Testament (Gen. 15: 2), is the same, namely words, Mesheq Damascus.'"

mulae and in date forof the city; and in the Old that Mesheq

Mash-qi.

in the passage is explained by the gloss There is a seal-cylinder in the Hermitage

In other "that is

Petrograd
governor

of an ancient king, "Hu-un-ni-nl of Madqa which apparently .,"

. .

at patesi of El-Mash1", belonged to an early

period.5 If the identification of the mountain Mashu of the Gilgamesh (Damascus) epic with Hermon, and the city Ei-Mashki with Mesheq is correct (see Amurru highly probable that then it seems 126), the early name "a with Mash,
name

of the country son" of Aram

ma'Bar by
some,

which is to be identified (Gen. 10: 23 )6 This being true, the

was

Mash,

for the Syrian read

desert found

in the Assyrian

inscriptions,

although

word mldbar, Joktanites (Arabian tribes) dwelt in the land "from

goest

is preferably

and associated with the Hebrew to be read with others, """Mash. The Mesha
as

thou

the mountain (Gen. 10: 30). of the East" Sephar has not been located, but it seems that the direction in the description of the land, occupied by these descendants of Eber, was

towards

Sephar,

north to the southeast; and that Mesha referred to. On the deity Mash and Mashtu
4

from

is probably
see

the city Chapter XVTI.

The

verse
me,
"

would

thou

give is Damascus
5

Abram read: "And said, 0 Lord God, what I go childless and my family is a son of Mesheq seeing Eliezer." See Amurru 129 ff. and Miscl. Inscr. p. 2.
then
"

wilt
that

Cf. Sayce ZA
The

VI, 161 ; and VB I 176. parallel passage 1 Chron. 1 : 17, reads Meshek
Moaox.

and

the Septuagint

in both passages

124:

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

There

is

city Me-is-tu

This may prove a city dedicated to the goddess.7 In the far north of the Mediterranean there is a Semitic region important role in the earliest period of hisan tory, centre which played

25).

mentioned to have been

in the Amarna

Letters

(256:

It is long time, namely Aleppo. has been identified since that Hallapu, probably also written Halman, Its great distance, however, from by scholars with Aleppo.s
as
even

it does

at the present

Babylonia,
on

as

well

as

the part of some features of the city make it another be sought by people ; and this, it would of the identification. Two fragments
of
a

other reasons, in accepting

is responsible for hesitation this identification.9 The natural location that would early seem, ableness adds to the reason-

the time of Shar-banda known, earliest era refer to

historical epic which deals with events of two kings who ruled in the and Tammuz,
wars

in the West above, and Tidnum identified as another form of the name A text which has justbeen published importance

below, Halma against Elam is (see Chapter VIII). Halma

Halman. by Barton

he maintains, about the time of Sargon the founder of the dynasty of Akkad, who earlier than the ruled, the present writer inclines to think, much Barton reads the paslate date now sage generally assigned to him.
as

in this connection (MBI 1). It was text known. probably written,

is of the greatest It is the earliest religious

ki za-ba-unu-su and translates: "To Ishtar from the land of Haleb." This text identifies the goddess Ashirta, as the present writer prefers to write the name, with the in the prologue We then recall the passage of the city Halabu. Code of Hammurabi (III 50 f.)which reads: "Who put into execution laws of Aleppo, who makes the heart of Ashirta the
the illustrious prince, the lifting up
7

in the text: Tispak-ra

rejoice,
recog-

of whose

hands

Adad

for the Aramaic If the writer's reading En-Mashtu transcription of dNin-IB, namely njJ'UN, is correct (see above and Amurru p. 200), the Letters. town a'Me-is-tu inay be the clNin-lB of the Amarna
8
'"'

See Delitzsch Parodies

The

p. 275 ; KAT*

47 etc.

fact that Halabu

to the Hammurabi
were was a

Code

Babylonian

cities; Babylon, as has been inferred, part of

are and Bit Karkara mentioned in the prologue is suggestive that they between Girsu and Adab but this is by no means conclusive. That this city seems

impossible.

XII.

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

KINGDOMS.

L25

nizes;

the warrior in Karkar, the heart of Adad appeases of the temple S-ud-gal-gal." who reestablishes the appointments tant These two passages point to the fact that this is the most imporknown; and also, together centre of Ashirta-Ishtar worship one indicate that the city was of with the firstmentioned passage, Babylonian history. in the early period of great prominence by some has been regarded versal Ashirta-Ishtar scholars as a unilands. deity in some became a male Semitic goddess, who in the Her worship, however, originally had a centre somewhere who The texts from the Mesopotamian Semitic world. region would had been there. The view that her habitat not lead us to suppose that Ashirta-Ishtar

from

the male god In the light of the fact that the cult of Ashirta from Babylonia. and was paratively carried comprevailed so extensively in Western Amurru, somewhere that her habitat was seem early to Egypt, it would in the Mediterranean district. Surely the two texts

had her origin in Arabia Athtar has littlein it;

and is a development was nor she borrowed

referred to, the one belonging to the early Semitic period, and the lead us to believe not only that other to the time of Hammurabi,

is the most important centre of her worship known, but also that it was probably her original habitat. This fact may throw light upon the Cappadocian tablets, which furnish names ably Probus compounded with many with Ashir and Ashirta.
Halabu,
or

Aleppo,

the home

of each

was

in this northwestern

region

of the

Semitic world. Halabu was have also a centre of Adad worship, of which we several indications in the inscriptions. The Code of Hammurabi in the passage above referred to, as well as the syllabaries, point to this fact. In CT 25 16: 22 dll-Ha-al-la-bu=dIM. Naturally it is possible that another of the many names of the storm-god may be implied, as Ashir, Uru, etc., but for the present Adad is stood.10 underPrefixing and pronouncing the word "god" besides the determinative for deity are West Semitic customs, to writing which the writer has previously referred. In short, it is highly
probable that when excavations are conducted in this region, light that will show not only that this is a very will be forthcoming
10

Cf

also eqli dSin tHaAaJxiF

VS

7, 95

4.

126

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

of the Ashirta cult ancient seat of Semitic culture but the home (seealso Chapter XVII). inscriptions it is ascertained that at least From the Egyptian in existence in several of the coastal cities,notably Byblos, were for B. C, and, as stated, there is reason the third millennium believing the city had a much greater antiquity (seeChapter XIV). in the Amarna texts, Simyra, another city on the coast mentioned
in the texts of the third millenSunira, is also known the modern nium in the B. C, having been identified with Simuru mentioned date formula of the 55th year of Dungi, king of Ur, about 2400 B. C.

district situated in the mountainous to the east of the Tigris, because the o subjectionf the four cities Urbillu, Simuru, Lulubu, and Ganhar formed the object a single of This does not seem (SA, p. 287). conclusive, for it is campaign Some
hold

that Simuru

was

chastised at the beginning or at the quite possible that Lulubu was have been a city Urbillum may ending of the year's campaign. Dungi On his following campaign, in the vicinity of Simuru. destroyed Humurti
some name

identified by of that

has long since been Humurti and Ki-Mashki. being a good transcript with the Biblical Gomorrah, in cuneiform ; and Ki-Mashki, as noted above,

in gaining the Certainly Dungi is very Damascus. probably had at least conquered part of title "king of the four quarters," kingdom Here Amurru. the Amorite of the Lebanon properly

region

can

second language The letters written in the Babylonian and script to IV by kings and III and Amenhotep Amenhotep princes, subject including copies of letters sent from Egypt, in the fifteenth century
B. C, enable us to liftthe curtain and get an intimate acquaintance Western Amurru that time. at with the political situation of Hittite archives at Boghaz-koi, an ancient discovery of the

be referred to, which B. C. millennium

belonged

to the latter half of the

The

language and script, capital of the Hittites, written in the same knowledge our supplements of this period from a different source in a most remarkable than manner ; and also throws light on more These documents times. of years following the Amarna include treaties made by the Hittites with kingdoms and states in
a

century

Amurru

(see MDOG

35).

For

years

the

Amarna

tablets have
tablets has

been discussed and the light offered by the Boghaz-koi

XII.

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

KINGDOMS.

127

also been incorporated knowledge When more through

in the histories of the ancient Near East. is forthcoming of the early peoples of Amurru

excavations and research, these inscriptions will in a comprehensive figure prominently reconstruction of the land's history. I (1547M501), the Mitanni nation, In the reign of Thutmose having taken people, is found occupying Aram, probably an Aryan previous period. possession of the old Semitic centre in some had great influence a strong Mitanni apparently was nation, and
Though the Cassites were ruling at and Babylonia. land contains a great find the nomenclature Babylon, we of the letters, many In the Amarna Mitannian names. many of tbe city
upon

Amurru

princes of Amurru for? Did Mitanni the Mediterranean?

also bear
at
some

them.

How

Three

previous or four decades

is this to be accounted time control Amurru along

were after the Hyksos contesting the supremacy

I is found driven out of Egypt, Thutmose Probably we shall later on of Mitanni.

a

find that Mitanni the Hyksos

role in the movement Thutmose IV, a century Mitanni,

that

brought

played into Egypt.

with for his son

later, desiring to establish friendly relations the daughter of Artatama, the king, secured

in marriage. She is thought to be the mother of his Amenhotep III. The two kings of Mitanni who followed, son, Shuttarna and Dushratta, also sought alliance with Egypt. In the Amarna seemed
were 's was power period, however, Mitanni waning to give way to the Hittites. Internal troubles probably

and

responsible for this, for we find Itakama, prince of the city Kinza, who belonged to the ruling house of Mitanni, in league their king, having previously with the Hittites. Shubbiluliuma, suffered at the hands his opportunity to push further of Mitanni, saw inroads upon districts and the Egyptian south and make Mitanni. In league also with Abdi-Ashirta and Aziru, Amorite district who
a were

princes in the Lebanon in stirring up

to subject

Egypt,

princes worked the Hittites and yet maintained their relations with Egypt of by a duplicity that is almost incredible. The Phoenician prince Rib-Addi Byblos insistently made to open the eyes of of efforts the Pbaraoh, but in this he failed. When he had asked why taken

revolt.

These

he succeeded in the interests

Simyra,

Abdi-Ashirta

pleaded

that he had

done

so

because

128

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

asked to deliver the city from the Shehlal. At last the insistent declarations of Eib-Addi and other loyal princes had an clear; whereupon effect, and the prince's treachery became he
was

army

under

the Egyptian

Amanappa Naharin,

was was

sent, and

Simyra

was

retaken,

and

with

the land

restored

to Egyptian

authority. Shubbiluliuma, Itakama

not wishing

to force matters

at this time, abandoned

"When the Egyptians had of Kinza and withdrew. districts of Mitanni, and without meeting retired he fell upon Some princes resisted ; Dushratta, marched in force into Naharin. the people of Qatna and the land of were carried off to the Hittite region. Itakama, who had in the meantime reestablished his relations with the Pharaoh,
cities were Nuhashshi captured;

and

together with his father Shutarna, defeated, and carried away. were On the accession of Amenhotep

attacked the Hittites ; but they IV

to the throne, the kings of his on of their sympathy

and Babylonia sent assurances father's death; and Shubbiluliuma

Mitanni

his sovereignty
overt .any

in Asia. might

At

also wrote him, recognizing this time he refrained from doing

acts which

arouse

him.

The

Pharaoh,

however,

the situation, had no desire to continue relations understanding Later the Hittite king wrote asking why he had not with him. continued the correspondence which had been kept up by his father.

Hittite embassy even at the new appeared capital, which had been created by Amenhotep ; but he abandoned relations with the Hittites, for they had encroached upon his land. Abdi-Ashirta his
son,

who in inspiring the princes of Ubi, the district about Damascus, to he attacked revolt. With the assistance of the men of Arvad Simyra, which with Byblos alone had held out, for Irkata, Ullaza,

taken by Aziru, been killed,his place was had already assisted the Hittites in taking Qatna,and

having

Sidon, Beirut, and other cities had been defeated, and had gone to him, while many During over other cities had been captured. the time this had transpired, the faithful vassal, Bib -Addi of Byblos, continued to write beseechingly many times to his king, exposing the treachery of Aziru and begging for help; but his
efforts
were

futile; in the end he

was

killed, and

his city taken.

XII.

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

KINGDOMS.

1 "-""'

Phoenicia,
" (routes

and

the Lebanon
as

valley, about

far

as

region north of it, including the ship the leaderAntioch, acknowledged

Aziru. of the Amorite had its effect upon Amorites The disaffection of the northern Zimrida and Several, as Milkili, Labaya, the Canaanite princes. that Abdi-Ashirta course of treachery others, followed the same of the southern princes, Biridiya faithful and others remained of Megiddo, Abdi-Hiba of Jerusalem for help, to to Egypt and insistently appealed, as did Rib-Addi,
and Aziru

had indulged

in.

Some

stem

the tide of the Habiri

and

Sutu;

but finally the land

succumbed.

Aziru

was

summoned

to appear

before the Pharaoh

after he had

Abi-milki, and cities and killed Rib-Addi, delay he appeared at the Egyptian princes. After some influence, in convincing Amenhotep and succeeded, through
captured
the

other
court,

that

he

Egyptian loyal ; and Inning acknowledged suzerainty, was as a of Egypt, returned to his land and reinstated, by the grace But his allegiance to ruler of a kingdom of considerable extent. biluliuma ShubEgypt, if he was actually sincere, was of short duration.
was

capturing vassal.

his mercenaries, the Habiri, to assist him in the cities,and he had regarded him in consequence as his had
sent

defeated Aziru, who cast himself He was to enter at his feet, and swore allegiance. compelled into a treaty; and an annual tribute of 300 shekels in gold was him. Aziru in the treaty is named as "the king of placed upon Although the Amorites." the Habiri had assisted the northern
therefore

He

attacked

and

as

well

is not
treaty

the southern princes to throw off the yoke of Egypt, it 's kingdom included Canaan. Prom the clear that Aziru
as

drawn

up

in the time
an

Pharaoh

had concluded in possession of Amurru.

II, it would seem that the leaving him alliance with Shubbiluliuma, With Aziru 's grandson, Abbi-Teshshub,

of Ramses

the terms

of the Amorite vassalage were renewed in a treaty which Mursil, the son of Shubbiluliuma, made with him. The Hittites continued to maintain their authority in the district for four or five decades, until the stupor that enveloped Egypt, had been
came

which When

brought

on

by

Amenhotep

IV, had through

disappeared. Palestine
into

Seti I

to the throne, he pushed

130

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

restoration of Egyptian He crossed the Jordan and probably welcomed. On a later campaign stele in the Hauran. Phoenicia, where

the

supremacy set up

was

his boundary
met

he

Hittite

he only succeeded in reestablishforces farther north, but it seems ing During Egypt's the time boundary the Lebanons. south of active in Aniurru, the Amorites under PutAhi threw off their allegiance to the Hittites ; but this king was terms of vassalage, and Gashuliawi, later reinstated on the same
when

Ramses

II

was

The Hittite king Hittite princess, was given him in marriage. stipulated in the treaty that the sovereignty of the land should 35, (seeMDOG pass to the son of his daughter and descendants

43

ff.).
In the treaty later drawn
up

by Ramses is not

boundary
was

between

the two

lands

II and Hattusil II, the it Probably mentioned. by his father;

Beirut, in his

not

although

beyond the point established advanced this is also indefinite. In the rocks near

he had carved a stele ; at this time he carved two more, This being mark the extreme point of his supremacy. which may true, the Lebanon country north of Phoenicia, ruled by Put-Ahi,
early years

continued
embrace

to be

Hittite.

Since the Solomonic

kingdom

and the coastal cities further unlikely that this kingdom continued to maintain but probably, several centuries; not only in quasi-independence, the suzerainty of other at least for part of the time, free from kings who ruled on the east and west On the Amorite nations.
side of the Jordan
see

Phoenicia

did not north, it is not its identity for

Chapter

XV.

XIII

AMORITES
As

IN

CAPPADOCIA

in early as 1881 Pinches called attention to two tablets, one he conthe British Museum, sidered and the other in the Louvre, which in an unfamiliar language, and which because were written from the neighborhood tablets had come the of Caesarea, he called

Cappadocian
Win.
M.

(PSBA

Nov.

1881

11

ff.).A littlelater Professor

of Professor

Sayce, searched in the bazaars of Caesarea for additional specimens lets, of these tabSubsequently M. Chantre, five of which he was able to secure. Eyuk "the black mound", the French explorer, excavated Kara
Ramsay,
at the suggestion

of charred and burnt remains, about called because it is a mass fifteen miles to the north-east of Caesarea, where the inscriptions Besides tablets, considerable were said to have been found.
so

pottery
en

and other antiquities 71 ff.) Cappadoce

M.

were

discovered

at the site.

sion (Mis-

published from the same tablets coming twenty-four group quarter, of he secured in the bazaars at Caesarea, Constantinople, and which Cairo. He determined that they were lect; written in an Assyrian diaa

In

1889

Golenischeff, the Russian

Egyptologist,

Later Delitzsch able to read most of the names. published an important philological study of these tablets ; which followed by a discussion of them on the part of Jensen. was sequently Suband
was

lations published transliterations and transof a selection of the texts. Other tablets have since been by Pinches, Sayce, Scheil, and Thureau-Dangin.1 It published was early pointed out by Sayce and others that the people of this district observed a week of five days (hamustum), and reckoned

Sayce

and

Peiser

succession of officerscalled eponyms (limmu), a custom which we know the Assyrians observed in the firstmillennium B. C. These facts considered in connection with the use in names of the
a
1

time by

For

bibliography
1912

of the Cappadocian

literature,

see

Johns

Schweich

Lectures

88 f.

(131)

132

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

god

Ashir

or

Asliur

were

a people represented More recently Sayce has proposed that the tablets show that the lonian worked for Babysilver, copper and lead mines of the Taurus were firms; that roads and walled cities had been built in that

responsible for the assertion colony from Assyria.

that the

region

mainly

lonian order for the Babyand their agents ; and that the soldiers were merchants lonia.2 drafted from Assyria, which was then a province of BabyAssyrians, The view that the names represent and that
in order that troops could maintain
are

the tablets

dated

also by Meyer.3 tablets shows that the Babylonians against the Hittites ; that they are

according It is Jastrow's

to Assyrian

is shared idea that the discovery of these had established an outpost here
epcnyms

between
they
are

the Euphrates

actions proof of active business transvalley and Asia Minor ; and that

of the greatest value in illustration of trade routes that must have been established through the heart of Asia Minor at this It is not impossible that these observations will early period.4 for the to be fact; but nevertheless they must ultimately prove
present be considered as wholly hypothetical. found on The only connection with Babylonia one the impression of them of a seal found upon

the tablets is in

(RA VIII 142) ;

the inscription of which

Ibi-Sin
The mighty king

reads

Ur-dShar-banda Scribe
Son
quarters

King King

of Ur of the four

of Ur-Nigin-Gar
servant

thy

The design of the seal portrays a seated deity, before whom stands This has its demigod leading the worshipper. a seal which is in every way an exact counterinscription written in Sumerian part belonging to the Ur found in Babylonia seals of many is of a type altogether different from other seal impressions dual the tablet. It also should be added that the indivion bearing the name that is on the seal is not found in the text.
Dynasty;

and

"With the exception

2

of this seal the art of the others

p. 149.

on

the tablet

Museum

Journal Eultur

IX

Reich The

und War and

der Chetiter p. 51. Railway p. 40. the Bagdad

XIII.

AMORITES

IX

CAPPADOCIA.

1 ^o

that have been published characteristics which

as
are

Syro-Hittite.

different type, and shows has designated peculiar to the seals that Ward The inscriptions of eight seal impressions
seems
a

to be of

of different tablets published mentioned

an

by

Thureau-Dangin, lines, written

with

the

one

above,

are

example

of which

composed is :

of two

phonetically,

Ib-ni-JAdad
son

of I-ti-A-sur.

The
so

art,

as

shown
one

clear as from what

in the reproductions of the seals, which are not to show that it also is different could desire, seems with Assyria
on

is recognized as Babylonian. to be the only actual connection "What appears be shown is to be found in a seal impression can
from Kara

that

Eyuk,

published

by

Sayce, which
dA-sir

another tablet ing bears the followmar

inscriptions:

Sarru-kewu(f) pa-te-si

"Sar[gon], priest-king or Ashir, son pa-te-sidA-[sir] (Babyloniaca TV 66 ff.).A priest-king of Ashir"

of the
inscription has been

I-[ku-num] of I[kunum],
transcription

published, but not a photographic Whether pany any images accomreproduction of the seal impression. inscription is not stated. the

Sayce restored the name I-[ku-num], and ingeniously suggested Sar-ken-kata-Asir, that Sarru-kenu is an abbreviation of the name follows Ikunum as an ancestor of Ashir-rim-nisheshu whose name

(KTA

63:

6)

on

the supposition

that in this inscription they

are

father and son; although close relationship cannot exist between the other three kings or patesis who restored the wall of Ashur during a period of about seven hundred years.

In the advanced notice of the Ashur excavations reference is to a Sharru-ki-in son in a newly discovered made of Ikunum inscription (MDOG 38 p. 33, also 49 p. 50). It would seem, fore, therethat Sayce 's suggestion is probably it is correct, although Shar-ken-kata- Ashir. a later ruler named possible that there was Moreover, the inscription of the seal found on the Cappadocian tablet refers to Sargon, son both patesis of I[kunum], who were
of Ashur. This seal, besides the employment of the five-day week (hamustwm), the dating by archons for reckoning time (limmu),and the deity Ashir found in personal names, the points of conrepresent

134

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

tact with Assyria

that have

been pointed out ; and

above is the only point of contact The working except that the Babylonian syllabary is used. of firms, the building of roads and fortresses as by Babylonian mines outposts against the Hittites, the drafting of soldiers from discussed Assyria, the business relations between the Euphrates Asia Minor, although possible, are purely Valley ideas.
and In

sion the seal impreswith Babylonia,

conjectural

Cappadocian tablets published the writer sees no basis the many for any of these statements. On the contrary, they are business known as contracts such as are commonly and legal documents and decisions, as well as letters of the character usually found in Babylonian
local The transactions archives. referred to are business affairs ; and indicate a state of society quite independent Assyria. or of far-off Babylonia temple

tablet with the Babylonian seal gives the names of three and mentions their seals. witnesses, Zilulu, Asur-dan, and Ikunum, On the tablet, however, are five seal impressions, three of which Ikunum, bear names Amur-Asir and the Ur-dSar-banda the royal
The two impressions without names the seal in question. could be those of Zilulu and Asur-dan, and that of the other, the the seal of scribe who wrote the tablet, But in what capacity was

The

scribe

on

used, as his name The seal of Ur-dShar-banda who drew up the document; Amur-Asir

is not in the text?

may

royal scribe in which case the tablet was written in the time of Ibi-Sin, King of Ur. It of course have been may later time by one of the contracting parties of the document used at a into possession of it. The occura witness or rence who had come

have

belonged

to

Amur-Asir must be explained of the seal bearing the name in this way ; for as stated, no individual of that name is mentioned in the document. However, since we know that the control of the Ur kings very probably reached into this region, and because
the script of the tablet can be said to belong to this general period, it is possible that the scribe was a representative of the crown. in the tablets This being true, how is the existence of the names

which are compounded with that of the deity Ashir or Ashur, and the observance of the hamustum and limmu to be explained, if what that these are importations from scholars assert is true, namely Assyria?
If that is correct, it follows that they
are

indications

XIII.

AMOEITES

IX

CATPADOt'IA.

L35

ent civilization than is at presantiquity for the Assyrian But it scarcely seems that Assyrian reasonable recognized. in the control and service of Babylonia would have had soldiers the culture of the district as the introduction such influence upon

of

greater

and of such institutions as the hamustum, dated according to Assyrian be reckoning.

that documents Rather

would
-it trict the disat present
seem,

does

if these in

are

actually importations,

that Assyria
also
we

dominated do not have

earlier period, of which the slightest indication. The

some

tablet with the Assyrian seal discovered in Cappadocia, dialect, raises questions even more and written in the Cappadocian Is it actually a seal of the patesi; and if so, to answer. difficult it used by some he present in person; or was was officialto give Ilu-shuma If there was one ruler named authority to his action? in the early period who was the a contemporary of Sumu-abu, dynasty, Sargon would have ruled about founder of the Babylon If, as Meyer proposes, the time of the grandfather of Hammurabi. there then

Ilu-shuma (Geschichte $463), early rulers named rabi. Sargon could have ruled perhaps the time of Hammuafter Moreover, the question is, did the jurisdiction Assyria of
were

two

extend to this far away district of Asia Minor also in this period? If the kings of the Ur Dynasty controlled this region at an earlier into possesUr lost its supremacy, come time, did Assyria, when sion of it? If so, Assyria must have played a role in the overthrow

of the Ur Dynasty, of which also there is at present in the time of Hammurabi, indication. Moreover, know Babylon Assyria. the suzerain over was At Yuzgat
a

not the slightest

as

above,

we

but

script, in another dialect, probably the same as the tablets from Arzawa in the Amarna collection. This tablet is in possession of Another, purchased the University of Liverpool. at Aleppo, now written

large tablet

was

found

in the

same

in the possession 1907 91 (PSBA

northern Syria. discovered were

of Mr.

Berens,

which
came

was

ff.), probably
In the spring

from

published Hittite a

by
source

Sayce
in

which are now the Bodleian

yet been

somewhere in the British Museum,

at Oxford.

of 1914 about two thousand tablets in Cappadocia, large number a of

the Ashmolean Museum these have and
not

Library
or

Unfortunately

published

deciphered.

136

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

The

tablets written by princes throughout of the Amarna lonian Western Asia has shown how extended was the use of the Babyin the middle of the second syllabary and also the language discovery

Some that the script was used millennium. of the letters show is demonstrated The same by the disfor other languages. covery also
Kara not far from of the Hittite archives at Boghaz-koi, In other words, we Eyuk the other side of the Halys. are on language familiar with an extensive use and of the Babylonian in the second millennium B. C. in this part of the ancient script civilized world. The Kara Eyuk tablets, we

are

led to believe, belong to the third largely upon The question

the script

millennium, which supposition is based being as early Babylonian. regarded

arises, how much earlier was what we call the Babylonian in this part of the ancient world? It is known that Babylonian use kings a millennium earlier than the Ur Dynasty exploited this introduced ? Were their language and script then region.
Scarcely of what

therefore script in

gained Boghaz-koi,

Most the surface has been scratched in this vast region. know at present of the peoples who lived there has been we Kara is called surface research. Eyuk, through what
and
a

examined, but what revelations wUl excavations at other sites in Lycia, Phrygia, Ciliin antibring forth. A civilization comparable quity cia or Pamphylia
other sites have

few

been

doubtless and development with that of Egypt and Babylonia The discovery of the Minoan existed in Asia Minor. civilization in Crete dating about 2800 B. C. offers a foretaste of what is to be ruin hills of Asia Minor when excavated will yield materials not only for the solution of innumerable problems, but also for knowledge of undreamed of peoples and civilizations prior

expected.

The

Not many years ago nothing was of the Greek period. known of the Hittites save what is contained in the Old Testament. To-day largely through contemporaneous records from other lands,
to

the dawn

know considerable about we and also through some of their own, the Hittite empire which played such an important the role among Presumably through excavations other peoples of great nations. district will become known, the knowledge comthis may of whom pel radical readjustment our of Asia. early history of Western
a

ideas concerning

origins and the

XIII.

AMORITES

IN

CAPPADOCIA.

!.",:

While,

as

is what we handwriting

tablets above, the syllabary used in these Cappadocian it must be kept in mind that the call early Babylonian,

padocian of these inscriptions is peculiar to the district. Captablets can usually be recognized by their general appearance. The script has peculiarities, and as mentioned, they are written in what is regarded as a dialect, under the influence of the The tablet with the Hittite or some other tongue of the region.
lonian scarcely written by the royal BabyNor is it likely that the seal seal it bore. scribe whose belonged to a local scribe, for the names of the seal are inscribed in Babylonian
seal impression
was

mentioned, the art of this seal is typical In short, the character ments, Babylonian. of the docuand contents the forms used in the contracts, the language, the script, etc.,
Sumerian.
Then also,
as

Assyrians, do not show that they were or written by Babylonians in the interests of Babylonians Assyrians ; but imply rather or or have existed that they are the products of a civUization that may
for
a

long

according

in this region. Further, the custom to eponyms shows that there was already a time
an

of dating

provincial
are

advanced order. organization of in the Cappadocian Among the personal names Hittite or some that have been recognized as
most

tablets there

of them

are

West

Semitic

or

Amorite. Amurru, Not

but non-Semitic; The deities that Ashir

in the names figure prominently Ashirta, Anu, Adad, Shamash,

that the people
are

are

(or Ashur),

Amorite,

are gods' names compounded. lonized, owing to the use of that language

only do the deities show but also the elements with which the Not a few of these have been Baliyetc.

and

script, but the

mass

into Asia Minor moved known. It would seem that the mines in the vicinity of Kara Whence would have been as attractive to them as to others. the cultural elements had in common these people which Assyrians is
a

of them clearly show their Amorite To what extent Western Semites

origin. is not
Eyuk
came

with

we more question. of the early history of the intermediate country, prior to the occupation the Mitanni people, we have light on this problem, of would for reasons which given awaits solution.

Probably

if

had

knowledge

XIV

EGYPT
Egyptian
scholars

AND

AMURRU

vigorously asserted The language

that a Semitic element agree that there was itself in the beginnings of Egyptian tion. civilizaEgypt lexicographically and grammatically of

ern shows this. Also craniological research has shown that the northin the early period, in contrast with the southern, Egyptian shows what is called a decidedly Semitic or Semite-Libyan type, the

representation of a Bedouin is also from the First Cataract. The introduction of sun-worship credited to this Semitic element, because it is generally supposed
same as

found

on

First Dynasty

to have

emanated

from

Western

Asia.

the dark period of several centuries from about 2350 B. C, when Memphis was given up as the capital, was historic and the kingdom split up into petty principalities as in preintroduced.1 It is Semitic loan words were times, many

It is recognized

that during

this very period that the Amorites invaded Babylonia and established the dynasties of Nisin, Larsa (See Chapter VIII.) and Babylon.
to be noted

that it was

during

In the firsthalf of the second millennium B. C, an Asiatic people Egypt for a century, or, completely dominated called the Hyksos
as some

hold,
or

"Asiatics" call them

longer much "barbarians." and

Arabians

called them The late traditions of Manetho tribe Phoenicians, while Josephus, in his diatime.

Contemporaries

I (1580Ahmose When against Apion, calls them Hebrews. 1557 B. C.) captured Avaris in the eastern part of the Delta, he into Amurru. He even them as drove them northward pursued far
a as

the land Zahi

(Phoenicia). It
III
was

was

century

later that Thutmose

than half not until more able to break up finally the

Lehnangehorige Altalso Burchardt,

Bondi

Dem

Hehraisch-phonezischen

Spracheweige

worter

in hieroglyphischen
Fremdworte

und
und

hieratischen Texten;
Eigennamen

kanaanaischen

im Aegytischen.

(138)

XIV,

EGYPT

AXD

AMTTBRTJ.

L39

coalition of the Amorite Kadesh the Orontes. on

kingdoms,

which

had

their centre

at

Apophis, three rulers of the Hyksos who hore the name Jacob-hur Khen-zer or known, Khian, three others are and is Semitic, and perhaps Jacob-el.2 The last mentioned also one
Besides
of the others. impossible that some
or

two

time gained incident would in Egypt

a

thinks that it is not chief of the Jacob-tribes of Israel for a the leadership in this obscure age, and that such an

Prof. J. H. Breasted

account

tribes into Egypt.

part

of these surprisingly well for the entrance This, in his judgment,would make the Hebrews allies of the Kadesh
or

of the Bedouin

Hyksos

{HE p. 220). empire Prof. W. M. Muller, in his recent work on Egyptian mythology, informs us that a very considerable part of Egyptian religious derived from or was influenced by the mythology thought was of
it must be assumed that at On-Heliopolis, the was situated at the earliest centre of Egyptian religion, which a constant route from the east, there was entrance of the caravan An illustration interchange of ideas in the most remote periods. Asia.
He

thinks

of this is to be found in the Semitic myth of the conflict between Marduk of and Tiamat, the god of light and the primeval monster the abyss, which reached Egypt after 2500 B. C, where it gave rise to the story of the gigantic serpent Apop the ('Airo"""), enemy of Miiller says that only faint traces of the recreation the sun-god. of the world from the carcass of the abysmal dragon are found, but in many recur other ideas bearing on the conflict with the monster variants (EM 104 ff.). The introduction of this myth into Egypt in this early period, prior to the time any influence from Babylonia

and Assyria had been felt,and nearly two millenniums earlier than it can be shown that the Assyrians had made use of it,is a most interesting substantiation of the position taken by the writer on its Amorite origin and especially since it only appeared^ as far as
is known, In the in Assyria
more

in the time of Ashurbanipal stages primitive of Egyptian such

an

{Amurru

44

ff.).

ancient local tradition played

Petrie, it should be added, names of Hyksos rulers.
2

important

civilization, when role, Miiller does

other

has proposed

the identification of many

14""

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AM0RITES.

not

think

the

borrowings

consisted

in

more

of gods motifs; at least the actual names have been generally appropriated. to seem however,
became
was

religious in this period do not An early exception,

than

the

she was the present writer that perhaps Orion, whose formation from Uru on an, like Shimshon, He
was

the goddess of Byblos in Phoenicia, who known soon after 2000 B. C, when and venerated in Egypt to identified with Hat-hor (see EM p. 154). It seems Ba'alath,
name

appears
an

to be

early brought to Egypt, where sky," and identified with the sun-god Horus, and associated also that this deity may also with Osiris. Doctor H. P. Lutz proposes Osiris, he thinks, is of West Semitic or Amorite an prove exception ; by the Sumerians or early probably also borrowed Among Babylonians. the reasons given by Lutz is the comparison with of Osiris' epithet Usr wnn nfriv "Osiris the good Being" Asarlu dug (oftenread Silig-lu-sar) Babylonian Sumerian or the origin ; and
was

is also he was the

exception. "hero of the

; and also because of the connections meaning which has the same Adonis Tammuzbetween the Osirian mythology and the Amorite texts, introduced in Egypt as early as the Pyramid myth which was

3000

B. C,

or

earlier.

Here how

should

the Pyramid
a

texts narrate

of his body was whither Isis his wife of the myth makes
part

washed Byblos

be added also the fact that by Set, murdered after Osiris was ashore in a great chest at Nedyt, reclaim

journeyed to

it. Plutarch's

Breasted

thinks this may introduced into the myth, this If, however, Byblos was at Abydos. occurred before the thirteenth century B. C.3 The parallel between Osiris has been pointed Tammuz the Babylonian and the Egyptian
out by Baudissin

the place where his body was later localized be Nedyt, although it was

narrative found.

{Adonis and

Eshmun
are once

1911),and
independent

others.

Barton

maintains

that Osiris and

Tammuz

manifestations

common of a primitive cult Hamitic, while Semites, but originally Osms and Isis were and Tammuz and Ishtar had their origin in Arabia (JAOS 25 213 ff.).

survivals and to both Hamites

In the light of all that is known, for doubting that Tammuz and
"

however, Ishtar
are

there

seems

littlereason
;

Amorite
Egypt,

and

it is not

Development

of Religious

Thought

in Ancient

p. 26.

XIV.

EGYPT

AND

AMl'REU.

"H

impossible been

that the Asiatic connections of Osiris and Isis, that have

correct. also prove suggested, may Following the Hyksos occupation of Egypt, or after 1600 B. C, fashionable in Midler says the worship of Asiatic deities became

Egypt,
dwelling
Ba'al

propagated from Syria. etc.,

on

being

mountains,

or

immigrants, mercenaries, merby many chants, Ba'al is described as the god of thunder, in the sky, and terrible in battle. Since

means

Palestine, Anmrru
were
a or

"lord" and is a generic title of deities in simply like one the kind of a god referred to was probably land from the Amorite Adad. Other sods imported
or

Resheph

Reshpu,

syncretistic formation Amorite god, another

called Reshpu-Sharamana, the names of Reshpu with which combines Astarte Shalmu; Shalman or (Ashirta), who is
once

at Memphis, chief temple was but who was Qedesh, at Ramses and elsewhere; also worshipped standing on a lion pictured, like the nude goddess of Babylonia, and holding in one hand a serpent, and in the other, flowers ; Asit, "the

mistress

of heaven,"

whose

probably

another
;

form
a

and sensual
Nukara 153

namely Nugara or

and Atum,

Anat, who like Astarte is warlike of Astarte; few other goddesses not so frequently mentioned,
the consort of the god of Edom, Amait, etc. (EM Xikkal (Nin-gal),

probably the Amorite

ff.).
earliest
occurrences

Amurru (which is written of the name 'mwr, 'mivr' II (1292and 'mr') are in the inscriptions of Ramses In the early period they called 122.")) the Nineteenth Dynasty. of Retenu, which may be related the country along the Mediterranean

The

in

lonians. given the land by the early BabyThe country east of the Orontes, extending to or beyond the Euphrates, was called Naharin.
some

way

to the

name

Tidnu

looked upon by the Egyptians with its fenced cities was but its people they regarded as vile. as well inhabited, and civilized, Thutmose III after making a peaceful tour of inspection through Retenu Upper
long series of reliefs made, representing the fauna and flora of what he called "God's land." The inscriptions mention commerce and booty or tribute as coming from Retenu in
a

Retenu

had

of gold, sdver, lead, copper, chariots wrought with gold, feldspar, precious stones, colors, incense, myrrh, cedar, malachite,
the shape

14l'

the

empire

of

the

amoeites.

other woods, cattle, etc. The ancient records of Egypt certainly attest the great wealth of this land. found in the inscriptions are The references to cities of Amurru

ivory and

How many of these cities existed in of the second millennium.4 be determined. B. C. cannot the third and fourth millennium for believing that one There reasons are at least figured quite history. The refin the earliest period of Egyptian erence prominently
texts made above to Byblos in connection with the Pyramid (ca. 3000 B. C), or the recognition that city received as early as E 2000 B. C. in having her Ba'alath venerated in Egypt (MiillerM

154),would
and

alone

be suggestive
a

probably also added, is mentioned the Twelfth

a great as city, of its importance Shechem, it should also be one. very ancient in in connection with an Egyptian campaign

Dynasty.

The unwarlike attitude of the Egyptians, prior to the aggression of the Semites, is responsible for the few references to the Amorite Few land in the early period. and brief as they are, they furnish
us

with most valuable glimpses have reasons that land, which we

The

of the civilization that existed in for believing had a great antiquity.

in the later period; but even fuller references occur have these enable us to picture the life and activity that must pulsated in this region in the earlier millenniums.

Suefru of the Third Dynasty, at the beginning of the third millennium B. C, mentions bringing forty ships filled with cedar wood This is the earliest naval expedition on the open from Lebanon. that is known sea {BAR I, 146). Sahure
against
4

(Fifth Dynasty) about

the
have

2743-27316

dispatched
at

fleet

Phoenician
been

coast.

relief discovered

Abushir

by work collected and discussed in the well known Europa. Cf. also Burchardt. FremdAltkanaandischen unci Paton, Egyptian Records ivorte, and of Travel in Western Asia. 6 tian The writer is not entitled to independent judgment as regards EgypThese
Miiller, Asien The dates used are taken from Breasted 's History chronology. of Egypt, which is in accord with the Berlin school. These are much shorter on than those of Petrie and other Egyptologists who account of certain known believed by the Egyptians some were evidences, and of which themselves,

hold

that the beginnings

of Egyptian

civilization

were

much

earlier.

XIV.

EGYPT

AND

AMUBRU.

1*3

the four of Ms ships filled with Semitic prisoners from shows Phoenician coast cities. This is the earliest known representation the earliest picture of Amorites who are of sea-going ships, and sailors.7 clearly distinguishable from the Egyptian of the Sixth Dynasty, about two centuries later, in the B. reign of Pepi I (2590-2570 C), had been sent five times against In a sixth expedithe "sand-dwellers" tion of Southern Palestine. in troop ships to the back of the height of the he crossed over Uni,
ridge
on

reached known Egyptian The

north the highway,

the

his army When of the "sand-dwellers." This is the first he smote all the revolters. invasion of Palestine. (BAR I, 311 ff.)

tale of Sinuh'e, the Egyptian, which relates his adventures in the time of Sesostris I (1980-1935 B. C), throws most valuable Palestine in the twentieth century. This nobleman light upon of high rank had accompanied the young coregent Sesostris on a successful the death the Libyans, when the news against campaign of I reached the camp. Without the aged king Amenemhet any of Sesostris hurried secretly back to the capital, but announcement,

for the message, accidentally overheard apparently fled eastward across the Delta into the desert. political reasons, On arriving at the frontier fortress he eluded the watches on the
wall.

Sinuhe, who

After

many wandering greatly from thirst, he

days
was

in the wilderness, and suffering finally succored by an Amorite

He took him to who had been in Egypt and who recognized him. his people. Later he was land to another one sent from until he came to Byblos. He finally reached Qedem where he spent a Then Ammi-enshi, the sheik of Upper Tenu (i. e. year and a half.

Retenu), brought
thou nearest Egyptians who

forth, saying: "Happy art thou with me; for Sinuhe was the speech of Egypt," known to the

him

with him. He entered the service of the Amorite chieftain, became the tutor of his children, married his eldest daughter, and was allowed to
were

the choicest of his lands. The goodly land named Yaa figs and vines. ' ' More plentiful than water was its wine, yielded its honey, plenteous its oil. All fruits were its copious was upon
trees.

select from

Barley

was

there and

spelt; without
Sahure,

end
Vol.

all cattle."

He

Burchardt,

Grabdenkmal

des Konigs

II.

144

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

was

men

the mighty appointed sheik of the tribe. His children became his consideration for caravans of his tribe. His hospitality and In his old age longing to were such that he boasted of them.

his native land, and be embalmed ger after death, he sent a messento forgive him and allow with a petition praying the Pharaoh On receiving a gracious rescript, he handed over him to return.
see

his property

reinstated This romance Retenu,

to his children and in high favor.

set out

for Egypt,

where

he

was

which

doubtless

gives

true
a

of Sesostris III (1887-1849 B. C.) of the Twelfth Dynasty, Sebek-khu, his commandant, on a marauding expedition, in Retenu. This is the district called Sekmen or pillaged a place invasion of northern Amurru first Egyptian of which there is a
It may have been prompted record. the Amorites, to which power Egypt I 680 f.).

and In the time

i. e., northern Amurru, shows to live in. delightful land it was

what

picture of life in fertile, prosperous

by the aggressive attitude of a littlelater succumbed (BAR

found in a tomb of a governor mural painting was Khnum-hotep, of Sesostris III, named which throws considerable in this era. light upon the land of Amurru It depicts the Semitic women and children, who are visit of thirty-seven men, Generally the Egyptians despised the 'Amu, Asiatics, called 'Amu. A very

important

is the usual designation for the dwellers of Palestine. The Amu headed by the chief of the highlands, Abesha, who is are A kilted attendant leads an depicted presenting a fine wild goat. which
antelope.

The

people

are

all richly dressed;

the

women

besides

wearing
upon
a

sandals are lyre. Their

presents
seem
a

The

scene

it would

is playing One man socks. are tied to the backs of asses. possessions picture of a highly civilized people, the equivalent Egypt possessed, at least from of that which

depicted

with

their appearance.

eye paint, which leader is Sheik of the hill-country, Abesha"

name

inscription reads: "The arrival, bringing Their thirty-seven Asiatics ('Amu) bring to him.

The

(BAR I, p. 281). This

is the I

same

as

the Hebrew

Abshai.

B. (1580-1557 C), in recording the siege of the city Hatwaret (Avaris) and its capture, after which he pursued the Hyksos into Asia to the city Sharuhen (Josh.19: 6),furnishes us

Ahmose

XIV.

EGYPT

AND

AMURRU.

145

following the Asiatic rule with the first glimpse of what took place there is such a paucity of the Hyksos, concerning which unfortunately to Manetho their last the Hyksos According data. made of fell Sharuhen being driven out of Egypt. It is thought, according to a record of after a siege of six years. into I then pushed northward that Ahmose Ahniose-Pen-Nekkbet, Syria, and invaded Zahi {BAR II, 1 ff.).
stand at Avaris before
Thutmose

I, about

1530

B. C,

invaded

Naharin

as

far

as

the

prisoners. slaughtering his foe, and taking numberless he set up his boundary tablet, bank of the Euphrates On the west inscription of his son Thutmose which fact is ascertained from the
Euphrates, III

(BAR

H, 81

f.).
1490 B. C, conducted a campaign far probably as Niy on the Euphrates
in "Retenu

Thutmose
the Upper,"

II, about
as

(BAR

II,

125).
Following of Kadesh including of inactivity on the part of Egypt, the king of Zahi, succeeded in stirring up all the allied kingdoms Thutmose III (1479Mitanni east of the Euphrates.
a

period

1447 B. C.) at the head of his army moved upon the strong fortress in the plain of Esdraelon the road which guarded at Megiddo Here defeated, after the coalition was between the Lebanons. Thutmose the cities northward marched and captured which

Yenoam,

the thoroughfare which commanded and Herenkern, These cities he dedicated to Anion. between the Lebanons. by Thutmose III throws The record of the spoil taken at Megiddo interesting light upon the wealth of that district. He records having Xuges 191 foals, 6 stallions, 924 chariots, 200 received 2,041 mares, 502 bows, 1,929 large cattle, 2,000 small cattle, and suits of armor, Although 20,500 white small cattle, perhaps the people goats. living in the vicinity of Megiddo can scarcely be classed as nomads, wealth

from

whom

this loot have

was

taken
great

they must Palestine

possessed

On

in herds and flocks. his second campaign through

he received submissive kings and gathered sent gifts. The reliefs of his third campaign, depict the flora and fauna for his fourth campaign

and southern Syria, tribute. Even Assyria

as

of Syria, which
are

mentioned he brought back. On

his fifth, he

above, Annals
moved

against

the northern

wanting. coastal cities. He

captured

Arvad,

seized

L46

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

Having returned by water. gained he landed the south country and the coast on his sixth expedition, his army of the Eleutkeros, and marched at Simyra by the mouth
some

Phoenician

ships, and

Kadesh. upon lay on the west

fortified city in the north end of the valley by water. surrounded side of the Orontes, and was After a siege of several months this formidable city was captured. he spent in his seventh campaign The balance of this season and This from the coast again, and engaged he expected of provisions for the campaigns Kadesh. in Xaharin, the district beyond

and chastizing Arvad towns a liberal supply

to conduct

Simyra

On his eighth campaign, two years later, he captured Qatna and Aleppo must also have fallen, for he pushed into Xaharin Senzar. to the "Height where he fought a great battle. Many of Man," He then turned towns captured and laid waste. of Xaharin were towards
the king of where he fought his foe, perhaps into that land, and Mitanni; after which he crossed the Euphrates tablet. On his return to the west shore of the set up his boundary

Carchemish,

I, alongside of river he found the tablet of his father, Thutmose The capture of the city of Xiy, a little which he placed his own. his work, after which to the south on the Euphrates, completed Babylon, as brought tribute to his camp. the princes of Xaharin Following his the Hittites, also sent gifts at this time. two enormous of the ten years, he erected at Karnak achievements ' ' Thutmose who crossed the great bend obelisks which he inscribed (Euphrates) with might and with victory at the head of Xaharin
well
as

One of the pair of his army. the other has disappeared.

The following
year

' '

now

stands in Constantinople, while

III again in Zahi, putting in the lower down a revolt. Two years later at Araina, perhaps Orontes valley, he defeated another coalition formed by his Xaharin foe. Several years after this he again chastised South Lebanon; found
Thutmose
at which

time

Cyprus, Arrapahitis

His seventh and last campaign was to revolt, his allies of Xaharin and especially the king of Tunip which resulted in the destruction of that city and the subjugation (BAB II, 391 ff.). of the country
The
was

the Hittites paid tribute. inciting occasioned by Kadesh

and

most

important
on one

inscribed

to us by Thutmose record bequeathed containing of the pylons of Karnak,

III his

XIV.

EGYPT

AND

AMURKTJ.

147

annals, in which long lists of peoples and Amorite towns are found. The striking fact is that in spite of all the vicissitudes which this land suffered through conquests of these and migrations, many in use in late Biblical times, and remain unchanged names were at
the present time. knowledge that some the idea of
"

This

much

fact, considered in connection with the in the early period, suggests cities are known greater antiquity for the civilization than is

generally recognized. II (1448-1420 B. Amenhotep

C), the

son

but

and when all Naharin May of the following year he fought at Shemesh-Edom against the Lebanon, whom he defeated. A littlelater, after a skirprinces of mish
one

year,

III, reigned of Thutmose Mitanni revolted. Early in

near

the Orontes, He

its sovereign.

he reached Niy, which city acclaimed him punished the city of Ikathi, and at Tikhsi he

he hanged on reachprinces of that district,whom captured seven ing Egypt. As his father and grandfather had done, he set up a in Naharin his northern tablet somewhere memorial marking In the vicinity of Napata he set up a stele marking his He drove before him in triumphal procession, southern boundary. to Memphis, 550 nobles, 240 wives, golden vessels as he proceeded

boundary.

the weight of 1660 pounds, copper, nearly 100,000 pounds, horses and 300 chariots (BAR II, 780 ff.).
tn

210

Thutmose
boundaries

the C.) apparently maintained the Asiatic empire established by his father. Mention of is made Naharin, against which one was conof campaign ducted. He refers to cutting cedars in Retenu, and proclaimed (1420-1411
"conqueror

IV

B.

His father had secured for him in of Syria." the daughter king of Mitanni, in order to marriage of Artatama, She was Mutestrengthen his alliance with that country. named in Egypt; the mother to the muya and became of the successor throne

himself

(BAR II, 820 f.).

III
He

Amenhotep
emperors.

(1411-1375 B. C.)
an

was

untitled woman a position of great influence during were such that he was not obliged to carry Amurru, for he had little occasion for anxiety He throughout supremacy unchallenged

married

the last of the great Tiy, who occunamed pied the reign. Circumstances
on

from

warfare his

with

subjects.

enjoyed

Syria, Babylonia,

Assyria, Mitanni,

and

Alashia,

with

whose

rulers he maintained

148

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

learn this, not from his monuthe friendliest of relations. We mental little or no light upon the situation, records, which throw

but from

and on in the latter days of his long reign that trouble appeared in Syria. invaded Mitanni, and the provinces of Hittites from Cappadocia

Letters which contain official the so-called Amarna correspondence hand, between this ruler and his successor, the one on the other the rulers of the nations referred to. It was only

Orontes, and began the absorption of Syria. in the conspiracy, and Ubi, the region Vassal Amorite princes were The Hittites and the Habiri, their was threatened. of Damascus, began to invade the land. allies,mercenaries or
Egypt
on

the lower

subjects,

During

of Ihnaton, the dissolution of the finally absorbed by the Asiatic empire took place, and it was Hittites. On his accession Dushratta of Mitanni and Burra-Buriash of Babylon the Pharaoh.

the reign of Amenhotep king who assumed the name

IV

B. (1375-1358 C),

ical the heret-

and sought friendly relations with in Seplel (writtenShubbilulimna cuneiform),king

sent greetings

hotep and sent gifts, but apparently Amenof the Hittites, did the same littledesire of maintaining the old relations with Seplel, had for the Hittites had already begun to encroach upon his land.

With
son

the assistance of the unfaithful vassal Abdi-Ashirta Aziru, who headed an Amorite kingdom the upper on

and his Orontes,

and Itakama who had taken Kadesh, the Hittites, with the aid of The faithful vassals the Habiri, steadily advanced southward. one of the Pharaoh after another succumbed until the entire land
was

lost to Egypt
a

(seealso Chapter XII).

Besides

the Amarna

tions monument single Egyptian of this reign gives instrucregarding the disposition of Asiatics whose towns had been to settle in Egypt plundered and destroyed, and who had come

letters,

(BAR

III, 10

Seti I

f.). (1313-1292), after

chastisement
common

the lapse of half a century, records his of the Bedouin in southern Palestine, who were ing makPalestinians. After this he capcause against the tured

in the plain of Esdraelon, and erected a victory tablet in the Hauran; to at which time the princes of the district came him and offered their allegiance. Two later he is found years
towns

storming founded

walled city in Galilee called Kadesh, which had been by the Amorites Abdi-Ashirta and Aziru; and later he
a

XIV.

EGYPT

AND

AMUERU.

149

son (Mursili), against Merasar of Seplel, king pushed northward he met in the Orontes valley. It does not of the Hittites, whom that any important decision was seem ment gained, except that the moveLater he made a treaty was checked. of Hittites southward

of peace
Merasar

with

Metella

(BAR
a
a

(Mutallu),who had succeeded his father III, 82 ff.).A few miles south of Tell Ashtarah
found in which Seti I is represented

in Bashan

offering Ramses
attempt

stele has been libation to Amon.

II

(1292-1225B. C),

of Seti I to wrest This occurred in his fourth year, when he move against Metella. He left evidence of his activity the Orontes. on seized Kadesh Beirut in the shape of a stele cut into the rocks overlooking near
the Nakr-el-Kelb

years about twenty after the the land from the Hittites, made his first

(Dog River). Metella by the aid of the kings

Kode, Kadesh,

of Naharin, Arvad, Carchemish, and Aleppo, besides drawing upon

great army. in history whose his masking
a

Nuges,

Ekereth,

his alliesin Asia Minor, amassed The battle of Kadesh which followed is the first strategy can be studied. The Hittite king by cleverly
manoeuvres,

taken was who The battle was to unawares. undecisive, yet Ramses returned Egypt Several years of and celebrated the event as a triumph. Naharin followed. far as Tunip. was as campaigns conquered After about fifteen campaigns the Hittite king died, and Ramses

flanked

Ramses,

made

peace

and

successor,

(BAR

which III, 316 ff.).

of alliance with Hetasar continued effective throughout

treaty

his (Hattusil), his long

reign

Merneptah

to the throne.

northern of the sea,"

advanced in years when he came Not long after his ascension he discovered that the Mediterranean peoples, called by the Egyptians, "peoples
among

B (1225-1215. C.) was

whom

were

the Theku

and

Peleset

(Philistines),

together with allied peoples, were incursions from making the north and especially Asia Minor ; and were ritory plundering his terin coalition with the Libyans, who were encroaching upon Egypt. This movement resulted in the decline of the Hittite the Egyptians had no further conpoAver in the north, with whom flict. the Libyans, poetic encomium celebrating his victory over his allies from the north Merneptah without mentioning makes
a

In

150

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOKITES.

in the last section to Israel. It reads: "The kings are the overthrown, saying Salam ! Not one holds up his head among Heta is Tehenu, is pacified; plundered is Nine Bows. Wasted
reference Pekanan

(the Canaan)

seized upon is desolated, his seed is not; Egypt ; all lands are united, they are pacified ; every one that is turbulent is bound by King Merneptah, giving life like Ee, every day." In
a

with is Gezer ; Yenoam

every

evil; carried off is Askalon; is made a thing not existing ; Israel for Palestine has become a widow

letter from being

Bedouin

frontier official,ention is made of Edomite m in Gen. 47: 1-12), Pithom (cf. allowed to live near
a

order to pasture their cattle (BAR III, 623 ff.). B. III (1198-1167 C.) records in relief,scenes Ramses
of Northern

It shows is called "the city of Amor," five strong cities, one of which by water is Kadesh (BAR IV, surrounded another presumably

Syria and

Asia

Minor.

sion of his invahim storming

59

ff.).
Sheshonk

(945-924B. C.) is the firstPharaoh

in the Old Testament, Palestine

gave
a

in Israel and of towns Of the total number only about about be identified. can seventy-five are preserved, of which seventeen Beth 'Anath in Galilee is the most northern city recognized; and
sixty
names

who Kgs. 14: 25). (1 list of between fifty and in Judah. hundred one

mentioned by name invaded in the fifth year of Rehoboam he On a large relief found at Karnak

the most southern (BAR IV, 709 ff.). A study of the Egyptian monuments of the early period tends Amurru, to show that considerable influence was exerted from

Arad

in Judah

where

centers a civilization of a high order existed It is recognized that emigrants poured already in an early age. Politically Amurru is not known into Babylonia and Assyria. also to have

in important

one

or

into contact with Egypt in the early period ; nevertheless, it is not impossible, as stated in a previous chapter, that history are to be more of the dark periods in Egyptian
come

explained as being due to encroachments of the Amorites, as we have definite proof, occurred in the history of early Babylonia. In the period prior to the Hyksos rule, that is, before 1700 B. C,

there is

no

evidence

from

the Egyptian

monuments

to show

that

XIV.

EGYPT

AND

AMURRU.

""'

kind of a political union of the different principalities This is due to the extreme Amurru. paucity of references of The Hyksos to the country on the monuments. unquesmovement tionably have on the part of must represented united activity there
was

any

Amorite

kingdoms.

Following

doubt but that the Amorite leagued together

be no their expulsion, there can region were cities of the Mediterranean

and

by Thutmose
A

in resisting the invasion III.

conquest

of the land

monuments of the second millennium, of the Egyptian from other sources, without any knowledge reveals a stability and that suggests a very long permanency of civilization in Amurru The stubborn resistance offered the Egyptian period of development.

study

hosts by the walled cities,the way

time
was enormous commerce

their strength from time to revived, the amount and character of the booty taken, the have of the tribute received by Egypt, the knowledge we

carried on, besides many other considerations, tend to had a great anticonfirm the idea that the civilization of Amurru quity; that back of the earliest traces of it, there was a chain and development or which covered many centuries.

XV

AMORITES
The Amorites
are

IN

THE

OLD

TESTAMENT

as pre-Israelite regarded in the Old Testament inhabitants of Palestine ; where we get the correct impression that is The term Amorite their history largely belonged to the past. quently but it was also used freused as having an ethnic signification, The Canaanites lived in a collective or geographic sense. hills or high ground (Josh. along the coast, and the Amorites in the

5: 1

18

; etc.) but the terms are frequently used synonymously instances all the inhabitants of the 22 etc.).In some

(Gen.
land, the

Hittites, Jebusites, Hivites, etc., are 7:7), even the Philistines (1 Sam.
the Amorites
are

designated 7:

as

Amorites

(Josh.

14) ; and in other

instances

listed among

the different peoples

of the country

(Josh.24: 11).
is to the Amorites earliest reference in the Old Testament to Palestine and found in the narrative of the Elamitic campaign the country to the south of it. This took place during the short in Babylonia, in the latter part dominant Elam was period when The
B. C. Chedorlaomer (Kudur-Lagamar), of the third millennium Elam, was by Arioch, king of Ellasar (Larsa), king of accompanied Amraphel (Hammurabi) king of Shinar (Babylon),and Tidal king of Goyyim (perhaps Guti),(Gen. 14: 1). These kings made
war

Shinab with Bera, king of Sodom, Birsha, king of Gomorrah, king of Admah, king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela Shemeber is Zoar). All these joinedtogether in the vale of Sid(the same dim (the same is the Salt Sea). Chedorlaomer and the kings that with him smote (probably Tell 'Ashtara in
were

the Rephaim

in Ashteroth-Karnaim

Bashan), the

Zuzim

in Ham,

the Emim

in Shaveh-kiriathaim, and the Horites in Mount Seir, unto El-paran, These kings returned and came which is by the Wilderness. to Em-mishpat is Kadesh) and smote all the country of (thesame
the Amalekites The

and also the Amorites that dwelt in Hazazon-tamar. latter place is identified in 2 Chron. 20 : 2 with En-gedi, which
(152)

XV.

AMORITES

IN

THE

OLD

TESTAMENT.

153

situated in the high cliffsat the mouth of the gorge of Wady Ghor running into the Dead Sea at about the middle of the west between bank. Some scholars, however, identify it with Thamara
was

Elath

has been identified about fifty miles Kadesh and Hebron. to Kadesh-barnea When the Israelites came south of Beer-sheba. it is said that they had reached unto the hill country of the Amois said to have kingdom rites (Deut. 1: 19, 20). Sihon's Amorite

the Gulf of Akabah (see below). This invasion, it the east side of the on seem, passed through the country would fication If the identiJordan and the Dead Sea, and extended southward. correct, the should prove with Gomorrah of Humurtu Babylonian army of Dungi at an earlier time had also visited this reached
unto

of the four quarters," which he acquired, points to activity in Amurru. rite, dwelt by the oaks of Mamre, the AmoThe statement that Abram
region.

Certainly

as

stated above,

the title "king

brother of Eshcol and Aner (Gen. 14: 13),refers to Amorites in southern Palestine (Numb. 13: 23 b). living near Hebron to land of the Moriah." whither Abraham "The was commanded
take Isaac and offer him for a burnt offering upon one of the mountains, "on district. In his journey, to refer to the Lebanon seems

his eyes and saw the place afar off." The Peshitto version reads "the land of the Amorites" instead The Septuagint translator not of "the land of the Moriah." The the text, used the words "the highland." understanding
writer of 2 Chron. 3: 1, who refers to "the mountain of the Moriah," having the temple hill of Jerusalem in mind, apparently to have based his statement upon this passage seems after the name had been corrupted. The Septuagint version here reads it correctly "of the Amorites."

the third day

he lifted up

The

Hebrew

in both instances has the

If the shortened form Moriah had actuarticle, "the Moriah." ally been used as well as Amoriah, it would interesting be an in cuneiform, where the initial letter also in parallel to the name instances has disappeared some (seeChapter VII).
Isaac

before

dying

informs

Joseph

that

he

which he had taken from the Amorites : thee Shechem above thy brethren, which I took out of the hand dition of the Amorite (Gen.48: 22). This trawith my sword and bow" apparently

Shechem

given him "I have given to

had

alludes to the capture

of that city by his

sons.

154

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

There Amorite

is

Jewish

legend

kings upon 34, (Jubilees 1 to 9). The

which tells of an attack made Jacob at Shechem, and of his victory

by
over

seven

them

in the time of Moses continued to be dominant on The river Arnon the east side of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. Mowing into the Dead Sea "was the border of Moab between Moab

Amorites

and

the Amorite"

(Numb. 21: 13). Sihon king of the Amorites

and Israel smote refused to let Israel pass through his border; to Jabbok, even him and took his land, from Arnon unto the children the city dwelt in all the cities,in Heshbon Israel of Amnion.

thereof (Numb. 21:21-26). Jazer, of Sihon, and all the towns by in this district,is also mentioned another city of the Amorites as name and went up by captured (v.32). And Israel "turned
way
' ' out against them. of Bashan, where Og king of Bashan came defeated, and Israel possessed his land (vv.33-35). He also was Og, king of Bashan, is called a king of the Amorites, it Although

is said he "remained race of that district.

The

of the remnant

of the Rephaim,"

great

is said to have kings" Amorite territory of these "two Arnon even unto extended from Aroer on the edge of the valley of Sion (also called Sirion and Senir, i. e. Hermon), and all Mount the Arabah (which is the Gulf of Akaunto the sea of the Arabah

bah) (Deut. 3: 8 ff. and

included Bashan,
a

4:

47-49). The
and the Edom

two

kingdoms

therefore

Gilead, Moab,

to the Gulf of Akabah,

region of no small extent. beyond After the Amorites

Jordan

had

been

Israel crossed the Jordan and came the men of Jericho, the Amorites,

to Jericho, fought

conquered, and defeated

Perizzites, Canaanites, Hittites,

and the inhabitants of Gibeon, of the who are said later in the time of David to be of the remnant Amorites (2 Sam. 21: 2), fought and defeated five Amorite kings, Adoni-zedek of of Hebron, Piram of Jerusalem, Hoham namely Jarmuth, Japhia of Lachish, and Debir of Eglon (Josh. 10: 3 ff.). throws light The older population of Judah being called Amorite
on was

Girgashites, Hivites and Jebusites On the west of the Jordan, Joshua

(Josh.24:

8-11, 15 and

18).

Jerusalem: "the in Ezekiel concerning the passage a Hittite" thy father and thy mother was (Ezek.16:

Amorite

3).

XV.

AMORITES

IX

THE

OLD

TESTAMENT.

"'""!"

also dwelt in Heres, Aijalonand in Shaalbim, and into the hill country, but the tried to force the children of Dan

The

Amorites

latter prevailed and made them tributary (Judg. 1 : 34 ff.). "While we have knowledge of petty principalities of of a number the Amorites the west side of the Jordan on there is no evidence

of
may

kingdom

or

kingdoms

such
are

as

east side.

When

excavations

those of Og and Sihon in this region conducted

on

the there

remains of a much earlier Amorite civilization Palestine. than has yet been found in Western borne by Amorites Unfortunately are menonly a few names tioned in the Old Testament. Some these like Adoni-zedek, of
can

be discovered

Japhia, Debir
The

be said to be Semitic, while others remain be said of the five kings mentioned same can

undetermined. in the

Elamitic

campaign

(see Chapter

II).

XVI

ASSYRIA
The
country

AND

AMURRU

to have

been

seems of Assyria, owing to its proximity to Amurru, extensively influenced by that land. This follows

study of the religion and nomenclature of the Assyrian the country settled inscriptions both early and late. Not only was by Amorites, but they kept pouring into it in various periods, as they did into Babylonia, and Egypt. In spite of the fact that the excavations conducted in Assyria have not been inconsiderable, littlehas been found that throws light from
a

The inscriptions of Shalof the land's history. furnish us with references to an early I and Esarhaddon maneser king named Ushpia (alsowritten Aushpia), the traditional builder the temple of Ashur ; and to Kikia, who is of E-harsag-kurkurra, Ashur (Chron.I regarded as the traditional builder of the wall of 122, 140). Also in a late chronicle we learn that Ilu-shuma, king against Su-abu, who is considered to be Sumuof Assyria, marched I (ibid. p. 129). of Babylon abum, the founder of the First Dynasty Assyria from The first contemporaneous record bearing upon is a military despatch of Hammurabi, Babylonian sources which
on

the beginnings

refers to his troops and the country of Assyria (LIE III p. 14), to which in this period was subject Babylon. The earliest known references to Assyria in the inscriptions belonging late period, the question as to comparatively the origin of its civilization has frequently been touched upon. it has been customary, Heretofore with the Biblical tradition of to regard it as having been an offshoot from Babylonia, Nimrod,
to such
a

largely because

and certain cultural of the script and language The early inhabitants of the country, whether Semitic elements.1 nian use or non-Semitic, did make of what we call the Semitic Babylolanguage, the Sumero-Akkadian system of writing. and
1

See Rogers

History

of Babylonia

and
(156)

Assyria

(II 133 ff.).

XVI.

ASSYRIA

AND

AMURRXT.

157

Moreover

the Sumerian

temple

names,

the many

Sumerian

terms

ence influto Sumerian used for religious rites,etc., point unmistakably by direct contact at some previous time ; but whether this was indirectly by contact with the Semites who or with the Sumerians lived in Eastern
or

Amurru,
sources,

who

had

been

rians, influenced by the Sume-

from

both

cannot

be determined.

Orient-Gesellschaft conducted by the Deutsche the site of ancient Ashur, on the Tigris, yielded at Kalah-Shergat, besides inscriptions, the earliest known antiquities of that land. debris In the lowest stratum, separated by charred which was
The
excavations

from

the

one

above, there

were

found

us

of the shorter head, the eyes with shell, the Sumerian physiognomy, and the treatment of the garments, make it reasonable to think that prior to the period when the foundations of the temple of Ishtar
at Ashur
were

which are suggestive of the work from the excavations in Southern

several pieces of rude sculpture the Sumerians, familiar to of

Babylonia.

The

inlaying

laid, the people

Sumerian time

under in their original home, the influence of the Sumerian craftsmen before they settled Assyria, is another question that cannot be determined at present.
In Amurru

(see King

civilization, which HB 137 f.). Whether

under the influences of the at the same prevailed in Babylonia

were

the Assyrians

were

the

use

temples

the writer proposed, after a consideration of 138 ff., Semitic deities in the early names of certain West of individuals, that the early Assyrian and culture, with
are

which

we

familiar,

arose,

migration

from

the West.

publications of Johns and also accepted by Luckenbill ; who, however, holds that the earliest Semites of Assyria were borne in on what he calls the first of the successive migrations from the desert of Arabia into the Euphrates Valley, which movement of Semites brought Sargon and Naram-

extensively influenced by It is interesting to note that recent King accord with this idea.2 This is
or was

C.) into Babylonia, first time gained by them (seeAJSL

Sin

(ca.2500

B.

the writer feels constrained from the results presented in this work.
2

for the was when supremacy 28, p. 154). With this view to differ in every detail, as is evident

Johns Ancient

Assyria

p. 10;

King

HB

p. 137.

l.")S

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

It has

been

other influence from this quarter It is not impossible that the Mitanni people has been pointed out. into Aram. It would that these kings had already pushed seem
no

rulers, Ushpia VI 5 p. 13). If this is correct,

traditional suggested that the two earliest known Hittite-Mitannian Ungnad BA (cf. and Kikia, were

lived prior to the time of the Ur Dynasty, for the rulers of Ur, who bore the title"king of the four quarters," would hardly have permitted Since the territory north of Akkad. an upon encroachment Shalim-ahum (KTA 60), Ka(?)-sha-Ashir preceded Ilu-shuma and who is thought
to have

been

contemporary

of the Amorite

First Dynasty

reigns would be near the thrones of Nisin and Larsa,3 on fresh ingress of Amorites at this time. If the Semites

of Babylon, the time the Amorites

of their established themselves Probably there was at least a

of Sumu-abu, the beginning

founder

who lived in Assyria prior to this period were Babylonians, they have left no traces of their culture which can be except the use of the language and said to be peculiarly their own, In an inscription found at Ashur, Ashir-nirari (about 1800 script. B.

C.) calls himself

may

Some

builder of the temple incline to cite this as an example "the

As

of dEn-lil-labira." of influence from En-lil "lord

of is very probably another designation of the Amorite This is confirmed by the reference of Tiglath-pileser storm-deity. it as I to this very temple in Ashur, in which he mentions "the
the storm" temple

Babylonia.

stated below

in Chapter

XVII,

of the god

Amurru,
p.
mean

the temple

house"
if we

(King

Annals

87). The

of the elder Bel, the divine intelligible becomes passage is the elder bet nmtati,
or

understand Enlil.
The

it to

that Amurru

god Ashir or in early Babylonia. Semitic

very

with inscriptions at present

is not known to have been worshipped In Cappadocia, at a time probably contemporaneous the Ur dynasty, hence earlier than the earliest

Ashur

known

from

Ashur,

the deity

was

as prominently worshipped. referred to XIII), the two regions had certain customs in common;

Besides,

ter (seeChapand
was

we

Esarkaddon

ruler by of the Nisin dynasty,

a

refers to a king Ellil-bani, son of Adasi, who TJra-iniitti, but he seems to have been the ruler by in other words
a

made
name

that

Babylonian.

XVI.

ASSYRIA

AND

AMTTBBU.

159

have

locality influenced for believing that either the one intermediate an the other, or there was civilization, of which we have at present no trace, that influenced both. As mentioned also,
reason

the

of the early rulers of Assyria, being constituted with Adad, Dagan, the Amorite and Shamshi, show that gods Ashur, Besides, the earliest temple Amorite. they were of probably
names

which

we

have

knowledge

was

erected to Adad

and Anu,

who

were

also Amorite gods (see Chapter XVII). into Assyrian king who records that he came The earliest known III, who ruled Shamshi-Adad was contact with the land Amurru He calls himself sar hissati, which is usually about 1600 B. C. translated "king of the universe," and informs us that he devoted his energies to the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates (KTA 2 Obv. 5-9). Further, he states that he set up a memorial stele in the country of La-ab-a-an (Lebanon), on the shore of "the
great
sea"

(the Mediterranean) (AT J

having had
any

2, IV:

13 ff.). He

does

conflict in this part of the land, which Hyksos would indicate that he probably ruled prior to the time the became Amurru driven out of Egypt, after which Western were
not mention

tributary to that land.

Ashur-uballit, who
descendent

lived

about

1400

B.

C,

the lands conquered with having Arik-den-ilu 3 Obv. 33 and 4 Obv. 25). His grandson etc. (KTA lands to the west the bordering of and north-west conquered Sutti peoples including the Aramaeans Assyria, (Ahlami),and

is credited by a of Shubari, Musri,

II, his son, 3 1: 21). Adad-nirari about 1300 B. C, who "king of the universe," many strongholds conquered called himself including Harran far as Carchemish as along the Euphrates,

{KTA

13). Shalmaneser I also makes the same claim (KTA 13 Bev. Ill: 4). Tukulti-Inurta, about 1260 B. C, claimed to be
"king

( KTA

5 Obv.

(KTA 17 Obv. of the universe, king of the four quarters" than the former.4 1-2),the latter title being more comprehensive The four quarters, is well known, Akkad as on the embraced

the north, Elam on on the east, and Amurru on south, Shubartu the west ; but the latter country could only have been conquered in part, for it was during this time that the Egyptians and the
4

For

translations of these texts,

see

Luckenbill

AJSL

28, 167 ff.

160

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

contesting for the supremacy of the land along the is made Mediterranean ; and in fact no mention of Assyria being involved in any of the references to the control of this territory

Hittites

were

in the Egyptian
later
on,

inscriptions

(see Chapter

XIV).

From

little

in the time of Tiglath-pileser I, about 1100 B. C, references found in that ruler's inscriptions. to this part of Amurru are it would seem, Amurru, with Mitanni already occupying Aram,

by neighboring dominated in the sixteenth century was completely The Hittites had encroached upon the land from the north powers. Egypt, after driving back the Hyksos, controlled and the north-east;

the western part of the country along the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, even crossing it ; and Assyria had continued to hold by raids or conquests at least part of the eastern region. into conflict over the While the Egyptians and the Hittites came
western any
on

lands, Egypt

and Assyria

do not

seem

to have

difficulties with each other; friendly terms with Thutmose

as

interpreted by the Egyptians

although Assyria, III, sent costly gifts, which were ship representing tribute. The friend-

experienced desiring to be

to have been greatly desired by both also seems of Egypt III, as is shown Assyria and Babylonia in the time of Amenhotep inscriptions of letters. Moreover, the Assyrian by the Amarna the latter half of the second millennium show us that repeated conquests

in the part of supremacy maintain Amurru which that nation tried to hold. Shamshi-Adad, the earliest ruler mentioned above who claims to have been solicitous for the welfare of the land between the Tigris
were

necessary

to

is doubtless the ruler bearing that name who and the Euphrates, built the temple at Tirqa on the Euphrates (seeChapter X). He is the only early Assyrian king who claims to have done more than ing conquer and subdue ; and it must be admitted that it is an interestdiscovery to have found evidence of the constructive activity king in this region in the shape of the votive of this Assyrian tablet referred to in Chapter XI. In the inscriptions of the following period we learn that Tiglathtory who had extended greatly the terripileser I (about 1125-1100), ; of Assyria, sailed in ships of Arvad upon the Mediterranean
he called "the sea great of Amurru" which Although the title "king of the four quarters"

{KB

I 48:

8).

included Amurru

XVI.

ASSYKIA

AND

AMUKRXJ.

161

inscriptions prior to this time do not mention Ashir-bel-kala in his inscription mentions Amurru. the name the gods of Amurru (King AKA p. 153). Ashur-nasir-pal refers to receiving tribute from the kings to the great sea of Amurru, and

(see above),Assyrian

the shore of the sea from Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Mahallata, Maisa, Kaisa, Amurru, (KB 1 108 : 85 and 86). Adad-nirari and Armada Hatti, Amurru, Tyre, Sidon, Edom, Omri III says he conquered
on

(Israel)and

Samaria

(KB

I 190:

11), showing
informs
us

include Palestine in Amurru.

Sargon

did not that he ruled the

that he

in which wide land of Amurru, 22, 46; Annals (X: 17, XIV:
Amurru included

he included

52).

Hatti and Damascus Sennacherib considers that

the cities of Philistia and Phoenicia, as well as Moab, Beth-Amon, (KB II 90). Ashurbanipal and Edom also included Palestine in Amurru.5 The references show that in the

Assyrian
Amurru
same as

inscriptions
varied, and in the Old

of the first millennium had an uncertain the name

of the signification,
name

the

confines

Testament;
as

moreover,

the

is usually

found

with the gentilic ending

in the Old Testament.

See Tofteen

AJSL

1908 p. 31.

XVII
THE An

DEITIES

OF

AMURRU

would embrace exhaustive study of the religions of Amurru the ancient inscriptions that have been discovered in not" only all but all the light that can be the land, including the Old Testament, gathered from
contemporaneous
sources.

It would

include also

certain elements of belief that survive at present, which represent the unconscious inheritance of previous millenniums ; also sacred rites and practices.1 sites,objects, The purpose of the present effort being to establish the existence ence of an antiquity for the Aniorite civilization and to show its influother nations, it must suffice to discuss briefly only such details of the early history as the contemporaneous records offer ; the religion of the Amorand instead of attempting to reconstruct
upon

be an impossibility, little more would that we have of the be done besides presenting the knowledge can In such a review it is deities that they worshipped. prominent ites, which
at the present necessary
to bear

in mind

that many

different nations

or

tribes

To what some of which were non-Semitic. occupied this territory, extent these peoples' religion influenced the Amorite, and whether foreign, cannot any of the deities we now consider as Semitic were

be determined.
as

Then

it is known had
their
own

in Babylonia, worshipped

that different petty and distinct names

ties, principalifor gods

who were fact that

were

in other districts under other names. The so many storm-gods, and of the deities of the land were identified with each other, would seem to confirm this. Even
was

as a storm-deity, a god regarded by the Hebrews of in the Certain groups the mountains. of deities are mentioned Aramaean inscriptions, as for example in the Panammu tion, inscrip-

Jahweh

Hadad,

El, Resheph,

Rekeb-el, and Shamash

; itis nevertheless

Small but valuable conipends of the early religion of Canaan The Religion of Ancient Palestine, and Paton The Early Religion
1

are

Cook

of Israel.

(162)

XVII.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMURBU.

163

impossible

at the present
"

pantheon or pantheons instances the attributes of the gods, and set forth discuss in some in a general way the facts that can be gathered concerning them. But this knowledge
the deities, or coming from contemporaries who

time to attempt a reconstruction in fact, it is possible to do littlemore

of a than

had adopted

referred to them, very often shows such modifications is usually regarded as the original conceptions of the of what deities, that its value appears to be only relative in arriving at permanent conclusions concerning
Amorite In not the
sex,

nature

and attributes of the

gods. a few instances it has been ascertained that the character to other after they had been transported changed of gods was lands. These changes may have been due to various causes. The

deity of the mountains when brought into the plains would gradually lose his mountainous A storm-god transported character. to a rainless land would naturally have other attributes emphasized. If Ea "lord is Amorite,
as

of the earth," is an the country where he was

is claimed, and the ideogram En-ki, indication of the nature of the god in indigenous, we can only conclude that

when brought to Eridu in southern Babylonia, a city that had been built on land regained from the sea, that he became a god of the springs and the deep.
was

it

Rivalry,
a

or prejudice,

contempt

may

have

been

deity's being regarded the way he was regarded

in Babylonia
was

destruction, etc. Cutha, was the god

pestilence. have a reason

quite differently in a in the land where autochthonous. Urra looked upon as the god of pestilence, plague, Ne-Uru-Gal, Urra-Gal, or Urru, the Nergal of well as of plague and city of the dead, we should
as

responsible for foreign land from

of the underworld If Cutha was a Babylonian

for this conception of the deity. He, as well as other deities, who originally partook of the same nature as the god Uru or Urru like the storm-god Adad (see or Amurru, are gods of war

below).
as one

who

reasonable

storm-deity is naturally a god of destruction, as well has considerable to do with vegetation. It would seem to infer that the idea that this deity was a god of

plagues, pestilences, and death had developed in the land which had from time to time suffered violence at the hands of the hordes him. Such a god of the invaders, perhaps ruthwho worshipped

164

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

regarded as rasubbu, "the terrible." Nergal, although have continued to be may pantheon, adopted in the Babylonian it is "With this understanding recognized as a god of the West. less, was
how a god of the Amorites, to difficult comprehend again and again invaded Babylonia, would be regarded in the West deity. Doubtless the same conception arose
not

who
as

had
a

such brought have

concerning

had war and Assyrian gods, who calamity so often upon the people ; but unfortunately we way at present of determining this.
the

Babylonian

no

modification which the original character of certain deities suffered was the change in sex, a question which Barton (See Semitic Origins pp. 120, and others have fully discussed.
191 ff. the goddess Ashirta was carried into Arabia, became a godshe became the god Athtar ; and the god Shamash dess. In the Nippur Name Syllabary it would seem Shamash that

Another

etc.).When

in the

name

(UMBS Tu-li-id-dSamsi(-si)
feminine.

XI

1,

39)

was

regarded as became goddess Some

as

Urta, the goddess of the Amorites In-Urta stood for masculinized, although the name
as
a

also in Babylonia,
a

well

scholars see combination of the two principles, male

was

god (seebelow). in this transformation

credited with an androgynous writers of the late period, but the existence of in the Semitic world is yet to be proved.
In the development
centres
we

of sex the idea of the True, Venus and female. character by certain ancient
a

hermaphrodite

lonian of theological systems in the various Babyfind many attempts at identifying one god with in
a a

Such a practice was another. perfectly natural foreign gods were which constantly filtering. As

land

into

result the syllabaries deities contain many formations, such as of syncretistic Shar-Maradda, AmarUru-Mash, Shar-Girru, Nannar-Gir-Gal,

Utug,
as

etc.

Such

formations

were

known

Ashtar-Chemosh, Dadda, Giri-Dadda,

As Ba'al

Hadad-Eimmon,

also in the West, 'Attar-' Ate, Itur-Mer, Bir-

Jahweh-Sabaoth,

Jahweh-

Shalom,

is well known "lord,

were

the generic designations or titlesas feminine owner," with its corresponding

etc. El "god,"

form

used in connection with deities of different localities. It seems Malik or Melek, probably the same as Molech of the Old Testament, was another such appellation. In only a few instances
Ba'alat,

XVII.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMUEBU.

165

can

the

names

of the deities who

was

be surmised; the moon god

was

tions represented by such designato cite a single example, the Ba'al of Harran Ba'al became Sin. In Egypt the name of a
are

deity, as period.
appears

for Marduk Bel, another name is another Adon "lord" such frequently in Assyrian texts, as Abu "father"

in the Neo-Babyionian element A-du-na-i-zi, A-du-niterm.

This

ba-'-al,A-du-ni-ili-a, etc. Testament

where,
name as names

is found

like Ab-ram, Abi-hud, Abi-melech,

as a

in many Abi-shua'

Old
,

etc.,

of

in other Semitic lands, it is used deity. 'Am written in cuneiform

substitute for the Hammu, Amma, etc.,

regard as a designation of "the father-uncle," borne which some was by the husbands practiced, is also of a wife when polyandry 'Ammi-el, cf. 'Am-ram, used instead of a deity in personal names,
etc.2 Uru is the In view of the fact that the name or of Amurru "god Uru" as same that of the land, and that Aloros stood at head of the Chaldean mythological list of antediluvian kings, it the

'Ammi-hud,

would

seem

of our it seems Amorite best at this time to religion of the consider the deities alphabetically. is one deities of the Western Adad prominent of the most of knowledge

or Uru that the god Amurru was Nevertheless, because Amurru.

the head

theon of the panlimited very

Semites.
is found

He is known
written

in the Old Testament

as

Hadad.

The

name

in cuneiform: A-da-ad, Ad-du, Ad-di, A-ad-du, A-da-di, A-da-da, Da-ad-da, Da-di, Ha-di, etc. Another name of this deity, perhaps arisen as an epithet, is Ramman, also written Ramimu, Adad, Rbnmon,
43
Vemxav

(2 Kgs.

5:

18),etc. (seeDeimel

Pantheon

Babylonicum,

f.).
in the Hittite

together with Shamash, figures prominently treaty, where both bear the title "lord of heaven." Amarna

Shamash
ammu

of the letters, Abimelech, king of Tyre, likens the Pharaoh to In the Aramaic inscription of King Panand Adad.
one

In

Syria (eighth of northern century),he is mentioned at the head of a list of five gods ; Hadad, El, Resheph, Eekeb-el, and Shamash. In Assyria and Babylonia, to which lands they were lords of divination. In Assyria carried, Shamash and Adad were
2

See Paton's

article on

'Amm

in Encyclopaedia

of Religion and Ethics.

166

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

common

name mean

name

' '

may

for the early rulers was Shamshi-Adad. ' ' My sun is Adad, but it also may mean
many

The
' '

Sham-

a syncretistic formation, ash is Adad," have been found in Amurru (see

above).

that are of the West lands, including some been likened to Adad of Amurru, namely Dagan of Suki,Adgi of Suhki, H-Hallapu, Bu-We-ir.3

examples of which There are other deities not Semitic, that have

of Amurru,

Teshub

of the nature of Adad largely upon the inscriptions of Babylonia and Assyria, where he tions, was regarded as the weather-god, the god of the tempest, inundato Gods as well as men lightning, and thunder. seemed
are our

We

dependent

for

knowledge

He over the elements. of him because of his power stand in awe time that he was was the lord of abundance at the same of want the rain. His and hunger, which resulted from his withholding destructive
power

find Hammurabi

the enemy." powerful bull breaking

an

and we appropriate war-deity; speaking of him as "the mighty bull who gores is meant by the picture of the Doubtless, Adad made
an

him

Egyptian

scene.

with Shamash, Shamshi-Adad

attributes of in Adad.
a

the fortress representing a deity in It should be added that Adad's close association because of the very common nation combiespecially

down

in
were

names,

solar-god

that and other facts, show blended with those of a storm-deity

Semitic deities, although unlike several other West brought into the Babylonian not identified with any pantheon, was ent. particular centre in Babylonia, at least as far as is known at presAdad, In Assyria temples Ami, Adad. is frequently seen In the art of the seal cylinders, Adad resting his foot upon a bull, or standing entirely upon the animal, which In the same he leads by a leash attached to a ring in its nose. hand he holds
a

was

his position was erected to Anu and

prominent

and

the two

of the earliest Later, Ashur Adad. supplanted deities of the land became Ashur and
one

different, for

breast.
3

thunderbolt ; the other hand The many devotees of Adad

is usually held against the (dIM) among the Amorites

See CT

forms

25, 16 and 17 etc., but especially in connection with the many in which the god Amurru occur or Uru (Chapter VII).

XVII.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMUREU.

167

living in Babylonia,

as

is shown

by the impressions

in the time of the First Dynasty, is an indication was the worship of the deity at this time.

as

of seal cylinders to how extensive

in the land of Suhi, Adad of the storm-god in the name according to the list of gods CT 25, 16 : 19. It occurs Ad-gi-ilu of the Assyrian documents (ADD 17 : 3),and in the name texts (BE X 55: 1),which Ad-gi-si-ri-sa-bad-du of the Murashu

Adgi

is

name

"DrYJWTN. is also written in the Aramaic on the tablet, endorsement to be syncretized with Siri, namely In the latter name the god seems Adgi-Siri. by the It has been previously Uru. Amurru or maintained
Uru, or of the West Semitic deity Amurru writer that the name ently by the Semites, was written differwhen brought into Babylonia For example, the name in different centres. at Babylon
at Cutha appeared Amar-TJtug, probably a syncretistic formation; On the ideographic and it was etc. written Ne-Uru-Gal, Una-Gal,

Chapter VII. see phonetic writings of the name, In studying the inscriptions of the seal impressions on tablets dated in the time of the First Dynasty, one is struck with the number to Amurru individuals who acknowledged (dMarobeisance of

tu). What especially stands out in these seal inscriptions is the (dAN-Mar-tu) The two signs for deity have writing dEl-Amurru
.

been
or

regarded
or

elonim;

representing a Phoenician plural, and it has been read dAn-Mar-tu and regarded
as

read
as a

dim
combination

There can be little doubt but that and Martu.* of Arm the reading is,as stated above, El-Amurru, 'El-TJru (seeAmurru or frequently in the syllabaries of 1909, p. 158). This name appears deities written 'El-Mer (dIlu-Me-ir) and it is another example ; of the prefixing of the word for god to names of deities like 'ElShaddai, 'El 'Elyon, Il-Tammesh, Il-Tehri, Il-Teri,Al-Si', Al-Nashu
p. 4). and Il-Ashirta (Lutz EBL The custom El "god" a prefix to the as of actually pronouncing deities, as the writer has indicated, was name West of apparently Semitic. Moreover, one needs only to consult the names of the p.
4

{Amurru

158),also H-Kanshan,

See Krausz
Eadau

Gotternamen

p. 9, and

Hommel's

p. 56.

holding reads AN-dMAR-TU, highest and oldest Babylonian with the god AN

editorial note in same, identified was that MARTU

(BE 28,

p.

41).

168

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

deities of scribes and of individuals to see how extensively Semitic deities were in not only Uru but other West worshipped the time of the First Dynasty (seeChapter VIII).
patron

The Marduk,
were

name as

of the counterpart well

as

as regarded 'Uru (TIN), also the Talmudic form of the name Aramaic word for as "sunset" ('uria), well as other considerations, made it seem ever, How100 ft'.). a solar deity (Amu mi that the god Ainurru was or be admitted that the West Semitic deity, Amurru the others evolved, Uru, regarded as the original deity from whom indigenous. was primarily a storm-deity in the land where he was

of this deity at Babylon, namely of deities like Nergal, etc., who other names in connection with the sun-gods, considered

it must

is so often by the syllabaries, where his name Transference of the deity from his original equated with Adad. home to the fertile plain between the rivers, where mountainous This is determined
the inhabitants
were

dependent

upon

agriculture,

was

probably

assumed. responsible for the solar traits that were Anu and Antu, the writer has suggested, contrary
opinion that they their origin among
were

to the accepted

Babylonian

the Western

had originally Sumerian, Semites (seeAmurru p. 142). A

or

number of considerations the following.

The
name

lead to this conclusion, among

very

which

are

in the personal tional names revelations at the time the tradiof Chaldeans who made dynasty of Aloros ruled (see Chapter VIII) ; the second by Am/Soj-ros,the third by Ai^cr-ros etc., and the fourth revelation was Anna
or

Ana

probably

is found

by 'Ava)Sa""os. The temple built in honor of Ashur erected or restored about 2400 B. C. was of the gods Anu and Adad, the latter being a West
and
as

Semitic deity;
heretofore lying west former was
of

Assyria

was

held

(see Chapter

XVI),
seems

of the country, it also West Semitic. Assyrian

kings

as not settled by Babylonians but by people from the lands reasonable to infer that the

tions also figures in certain inscripprominently associated with Dagan, Anu

in Semitic deity. Anu are another West and Dagan addressed the prayer of Ashurbanipal (CraigRel. Texts II 21 : Rev. 2). The laws of Anu and Dagan are referred to by the Assyrian kings. Antu is well known in place
names

in Amurru.

Anathoth,

the

XVII.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMURRU.

169

city where Jeremiah grew Beth-Anoth of Jerusalem. 'Ainun

up, is

littledistance to the north-east (Josh. 15 : 59) is identified with Beit

a

in the neighborhood This may be the ancient of Bethzur. by Seti I (BAR. Ill, 114). shrine referred to as a city conquered B anises II mentions a city on the mount (BAR III of Beth-Anoth name was 356). A city in Judah bearing the same also conquered by Sheshonk
'

(BAR
on

IV,

762). Bethany

(writtenin Syriac

Beth

the road to Jericho from Jerusalem, as well as Bethany beyond Jordan may also have been shrines of Anu. As heretofore suggested by Professor Montgomery (see Amtnru

Anl'

N\JJ?JTD

p.

143), Anu

may

be found

An-ram

in the

Samaritan

in the personal Hebrew. 'Anath

name

'Aner,

father

written Shamgar of

be an abbreviated name may tained which originally conthat of the goddess. Anu also figures in the nomenclature tablets, of the Cappadocian (RA VIII p. 149), Pi-sa-A-na, and [Id]-sa-A-na cf. Gimil-A-nvm

(Josh. 3: 31)

V {BdbyloniacaI

p. 191, 7

11). The latter

name

appears

in

let tab-

referring to a decision rendered in the "house of the judgment belonging to the god. This some property of Ana," concerning a temple shows that there was of Anu in Cappadocia.

of Antu was carried comparatively early to Egypt. The priesthood of the goddess at Thebes is already mentioned in III. Ramses the time of Thutmose II gave his favorite daughter worship
a
name

The

shown the early period, it must be assumed borrowed from the people of Amurru.

"daughter which meant of Anath." influence had been that Babylonian

Since it has not been in exerted upon Egypt

was

at least that the goddess

What
worship

seems

to be the most important centre of Anu and Antu is at 'Ana and 'Anatho the Euphrates on (see Chapter

and it is not improbable that from throughout the lands.

XI)

this quarter

it was

spread

adjoining

carried to Erech in a very for whom the temple called E-Anna Gudea, and Ur-Engur, regarded him
was

Anu

early period by the Semites ; was erected. Lugal-zaggisi,

as

the "lord
as
one

Sumerians

very

The goddess to have been introduced as the consort of Anu. at Erech in the early period ; Ishtar appears It would seem also that Lulubu was another citv in which the wor-

Anna probably adopted Antu, however, does not seem

The of lords." of their deities.

170

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

In the inscription of ship of these deities had been introduced. Annu-banini of an early period, who had erected a statue to Ishtar in the mountain of Batir, the king invokes for it the protection of and Antu, Enlil and Ninlil,Adad and Ishtar, Sin and Shamash, etc. Anu was at Kish, another also early worshipped It is to be noted that the name Semitic centre. of Anu-mutabil, governor of the city of Der, who probably lived about the time of the gods Annu is also compounded with that of the deity. In connection with the question of the origin of the gods it must duced be regarded as significant that the worship of Antu was not introthe First Dynasty,

then it does not at Erech until the Greek period, and even introduced into Nor was the name in the nomenclature. appear Assyria; of Amurru and in Egypt whereas in the broad expanse
we

have Anu

so

much

evidence of it; and where

it left such

an

indelible

impression. regarded by scholars as being originally a sunin the heavens, who became in the god whose great luminary was deity of the the development of later theological systems -chief a In Egypt heavens. the goddess is represented sitting upon throne, with a feathered head-dress similar to the representations has been

She has she is often paired. of Ashirta with whom shield in her right hand and a battle-axe in the left ;
as

lance and a or resented she is rep-

She is a warlike goddess and clad in a panther-skin. sensual ; is called lady of heaven, daughter of the sun, etc. (Miiller EM -p.156).
Ashir, whose A-usar, A-sur, is written in cuneiform A-sir, A-sa-ru-um, Semitic script "ItJ'N and As-sur, and in the West in all probability of West Semitic origin {Amurru
name name

(also1DN) was 138 ff.).This conclusion followed the consideration that the
did not appear its prominence and
appears

in early Babylonian nomenclature and because of nician in the early Cappadocian tablets and in the PhoeAshirta inscriptions. Further Aramaic the name

though Ashirta is in of Ashir, even in which Ashir most cases written with ayin, while the few cases inscriptions the name is found in the late Phoenician and Aramaic
to be the feminine

is written with Ashir it would

alepli.
seem

was

If this is correct, the original habitat of Ashirta. as probably the same

XVII.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMURRTT.

1~1

interesting confirmation of the assumption that the deity is West Semitic is the fact that Ashar is found in the Amorite Name I Syllabary in the name Ia-[ku]-un-A-sa-ru-wm TJMB8 XI 2 III: 6), An It is to be noted, however, and it is not found in the Akkadian. Hana tablets, or in that the deity is not found in the few known It is to be further noted that the feminine Census. the Harran in these Ashirta or the Assyrian Ishtar do not figure prominently
texts, occurring
once

in the

names

few times in the latter, which period. Ashur,

of the former, Idin-dRl, and belong to the late Assyrian of course

a sun-

(See also Chapter X.)

whose

to have been symbol is the solar disc, seems This is probably shown also by the name god, in Assyria. found is Shamash, or "Ashir is my sun," "Ashir Samsi

Asirin the

he is also a mountaintablets, and yet like Amurru "Ashur the god, cf. dAs-swr iht si-ru a-si-ibE-har-sag-kur-kur-ra dwells in 'the temple of the mountain of the exalted god who

Cappadocian

"

world'
great
are

(KTA

3, Rev.

mountain"
a

23),and also Asur sadu rabu "Ashur, the (CT 26, 1: 11). His warlike attributes, which
tation of the solar disc by the represenforth in the passage are well set

pictured also in his emblem of

"Ashur
up

warrior with an arrow, the good one, strong warrior, thunders

amongst

the enemy,

mighty in battle, who burns his foes, who bursts forth like a
or

flame of fire,who death is the onset

decides the battle, and like the snare (AJSL 28 p. 186). of his arms"

certain

Ashirta

offers the most

in connection with being that her worship

complicated and intricate of all problems the names of West Semitic deities, the reason
was

spread

throughout

that in certain lands her sex was changed; in so many different forms. In inscriptions coming from appears Amurru her name in the Amarna Abdi-Asirta appears in the name letters,A-si-ir-ta and As-ra-tio"i{ti,to); in the Moabite inscription it is written 'strt', and in the Phoenician inscriptions 'stilt,'strt,
also 'srh and 'str (late). In found at Ta'anach, belonging
one

the Semitic world; and that her name

of the letters of Ashirti-washur to the Amarna period, the oracle learn that
Since the

of Ashirat
5

is referred to.5
Ta'annek

We

"Solomon

went

after

See Hrozny

Xo. 1:21.

name

of the deity of this

172

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

Ashtoreth,

the goddess of the Zidonians" (1 Kgs. 11: 5). In the II with the Hittites, Ashtart is looked upon peace treaty of Eamses The deity also figures prominently a goddess as in of that land. the West Semitic names tablets. of the Cappadocian
the city of Og, king of Bashan (Deut.1 : 14 ; Josh. 9: 10, is mentioned in Gilead, as the etc.) Ashtaroth-Karnaim defeat of the Rephaim (Gen. 14: 5). place of Chedorlaomer's Beeshtarah, the Levitical city in Manasseh (Josh. 21: 27) is
was

Ashtaroth

"Temple of Ashtera," and is thought regarded as Beth 'Ashtera III refers to be identical with Ashtaroth of 1 Ch. 6 : 71. Thutmose

Palestinian city 'Astiratu in the Aniarna is also mentioned

to
a

(MiUlerAE
tablets.

162,

313).
name,

alAs-tar-te

In Jerome's

Onomasticon,

two

forts bear this

the nine miles apart, lying between Adara and Abila. Ashtaroth, Karnaim city of Og is placed six miles from Adara. is said to be a town Ashtaroth-Karnaim, the same as apparently lying in the angle formed by the Nahr er-Raqqad and the Yarmuk, which apparently

which Ashtaroth

are

is represented

to-day by Tell ' Ashtara

miles south-east of El Merkez resides. Ashtaroth-Karnaim Ashary, The

site about worship of Ashirta
a
was

where the governor is also placed by five miles south of Tell 'Ashtara.
early introduced The earliest there.
name

about two of the Hauran some at Tell by

into Babylonia known

who migrated that is compounded writer The name ruler of Kish.

as

the Semites

to the

and Assyria, As-tar-tu (timeof

with it,is En-bi-As-tar, a pre-Sargonic lonia in time was Ishtar in Babypronounced although occasionally such "West Semitic forms

as

lonian Esarhaddon) are found. In the early Babyinscription of Anu-banini of Lulubu, Ishtar (dRI) appears the consort of dIM. An inscription of Lugal-tar-si is dedicated

to Anu

name and to dNinni which is a Sumerian of Ishtar. As the her name Sarpanitum. She is also as consort of Marduk appears the consort of Ashur in Assyria, and of other gods, the explanation

being that the

name

Ishtar in many for "goddess." She was

name

instances had become

also regarded
as

the generic the daughter

Amorite

is written phonetically the ideogram dRI in this name

as
we

A-si-rat, it scarcely seems Ishtar, as has been done;

proper

to read

have

no

for justification

this reading

in any

and especially "West Semitic inscription.

XVII.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMURRTJ.

173

105 ff.). A Babylonian (See Jastrow BBBA of Sin and Anu. informs that in her us hymn, rewritten in the Greek period, Ashrat, and regarded as "the was original home, where her name the consort of Amurru {dMar-Tu-e), goddess of the plain," she was "lord of the mountain" (SBH, 139: 143-5). Ishtar shows that she A study of the epithets of the Babylonian

is credited with playing the role of most of the gods, besides being She the mother goddess, the goddess of wedlock and maternity. is regarded as being a storm and a war goddess ; as the giver of rivers, canals, flocks, etc. She is she presides over vegetation; identified with other goddesses, and in consequence partakes of Like Aphrodite, in their consorts. their attributes, or those of some also recognized as a dissolute she was parts of Babylonia,
The passage practiced in her name. goddess, and prostitution was to show seem Deut. 23 : 18 together with other evidences would that these immoral rites had been introduced from the West.
The

worship
was

she was temple

of Ashirta or 'Astarte in the city Bamses worshipped

at Memphis.

In Egypt

of

of horses and the chariot. III (BAR IV: shields" of Bamses

war,

carried to Egypt where Her chief and elsewhere. known as the goddess she was Anath "the and Astarte were
was

105). Qedesh, perhaps

as
a

another

manifestation of 'Astarte, is pictured hand on a lion, holding flowers in one wearing rides on horseback,
and p.

nude
a

the

sun

and
may

moon

on

and her head.

form

serpent

goddess standing in the other, 'Asit, who always

be another

of Astarte
the
same as

EM (Miiller
Ishtar,
was

156).
In Arabia
the deity Athtar, regarded
as

recognized as masculine. 'Atari "U"U?), who appears

this is by 'Ashtar
no means

scholars maintain that 'Attar or late in Aram, is a modification ; although certain. On the Moabite stone (ninth

Some

century)
by

is identified with

Chemosh,

and

is also

regarded

scholars as masculine. in Many scholars hold that the original home of the goddess was Barton and others regard it as fairly well established Babylonia. Semitic deity, but that Arabia is its that Ishtar was a universal

home.

While

it is

one

and every one question in the mind

mined, questions that cannot be deteris entitled to his or her view, there is little of the writer in the light of the above, that of those

174

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

from Amurru; this goddess emanated Halab or Aleppo (seeChapter XII).

Barton

and

very

probably

from

in the root 'tara, as a term finds the origin of the name connected with irrigation. Paton follows him and suggests that it applied to the numen "self waterer."6 of the spring and meant the attributes of the god Athtar for this conception, but scarcely on those of Ashtaroth-Ishtar. There is no way of determining whether the view that Ashirta
There
may

be

reasons

based

on

is the feminine

sonable of Ashir is correct, but it appears perfectly reathesis in spite of all the that have been raised. Metaobjections Ashrat became or could have taken place and Ashirta

Ashtar. Ashtartu.

Subsequently

ending Anathoth The place name of the Old Testament would Such forms as to contain a double feminine ending. seem also in the which occur qinnatate, feminine plural of qinnu "family,"
Babylonian
contract

the feminine

had beeu lost sight of, when the etymology could have been added, when Ashtar became

literature, must
a

Ata Aramaic

or

Atta

was

West

be explained in the same Semitic deity frequently found

in
a

way.

in the

inscriptions.

It is found

name

in the Harran

Census,

A-ta-id-ri,and in A-ta-su-ri, Sa-ku-a-ta-a, etc., also in the Assyrian (See Tallqvist APN.) period.
Atar, the deity of the Aramaeans, as mentioned above, Athtar is regarded by some scholars as identical with the Arabian it is repreIn the Assyrian documents sented and the Biblical Ashtart. Attar
or

in the documents
name, name

names

A-tar-bi-'-di,

-kam-mu,

-idri, -qdmu,

-suri,

(= flEHny ),Bir-A-tar, fdA-tar-ma-la-ahu, and in the Babylonian

dAt-tar-nuri, A-tar-idri, A-tar-ri-El, etc. This deity's is well known, is combined as with Ate in the syncretistic Atargatis (nnjTiny), the chief goddess of the Aramaeans,

Syria. whose worship existed in the late period throughout Dagan, whose name is written Da-gan, Da-ga-an (Amarna 317: worwas 2),Da-gan-na, and Da-gu-na (BezoldCatalogue IV 1482), shipped but his original home seems in different parts of Amurru, been in the middle Mesopotamian region. As mentioned in the few tablets discovered above, Chapter IX, about a dozen names from the kingdom are as compounded of Hana coming
to have
6

See article "Isktar,

"

Hastings

Encyclopaedia

of Religion and Ethics.

XVII.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMTJEBTJ.

175

bear the title"priest of Dagan." and a number was In Tirqa, probably the chief city of Hana, Dagan apparently Shamshi-Adad, "king of Assyria, king of the the patron god. restored the temple of Dagan, and recorded himself as universe," The oath formulae of the contracts from a worshipper of that god.

with that of Dagan,

that region show that the people The property Itur-Mer. recorded

swore

by Shamash,
one

in

of the deeds

and is said to be

Dagan,

that of these three deities (see Chapter XI). by the Philistines at Gaza In Canaan the deity was worshipped (1 Sam. 5: 1). There was also a (Judg. 16: 23),and at Ashdod Beth-Dagon Joppa, which was near temple of Dagan probably

(Josh.15 : 41). This fane and its surroundings are represented by the present site Beit Dejan,about six miles south-east of that city. There is another Beit Dejan about six miles south-east of Xablus ;
and

fortress above Jericho called Dagon a mentions a tablets was (Ant. XII 8: 1). One of the writers of the Amarna in I-ti-Da-gan occurs The personal name certain Dagan-takala. Josephus
a

tablet from Dagan

was

Cappadocia

(Babyloniaca 1907
by
the in Babylonian

p.

19).
at
an

period.

The

carried first appearance of the time

to Babylonia

names

of Manisktusu.

early literature is in personal In the obelisk of that

name

Semites

are ruler several names compounded with the Dungi, in his thirty-seventh year, dedicated a

of the deity. temple to Dagan.

founded by of rulers of the Nisin Dynasty, which was from Amorite Mari, are an compounded with the god's name; Idin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan. Hammurabi in his Code namely, and
Two
names

More calls himself the warrior of Dagan. Assyria also bore the name Ishme-Dagan.

than

early king of Ashur-nasir-pal (883one

859 B.

(823-811B. C.), and other Assyrian kings claimed to be devotees of Anu and Dagan. There seems to be considerable difference of opinion concerning the nature of the god Dagan Dagon.7 is equated Since Dagan or
with Enlil

C), Shamshi-Adad

(CT

24 6

22

it etc.), seems

reasonable
a

to regard

him

as

possessing similar attributes. Ea, as Chiera has proposed,

7

is probably
see

West
"Dagon"

Semitic deity
in the Encyclopaedia

For

full discussion

on

liis nature,

Paton

of Religion and

Ethics.

176
( UMBS

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOEITES.

syllabaries Avhich he published, he finds Anu, Ea, and dIM grouped together, and also Dagan, Ea, Ishtar and Ishtar. In the Amorite syllabary he found El, Ea, and If his contention should prove together. correct, then grouped XI
1 39

f.). In the

name

very probably Amorite.

the three gods

of the triad, Anu,

Enlil, and Ea
occurs

are

in personal Eri-ba-dE-a-sarri, Ib-ni-dE-a-sa" ri, Xftr-dE-a-sarri, etc. names, as: This deity was at Calah, in which city Ashur-nasir-pal worshipped letters sent from In the Amarna established an image of him. Mitanni, Ea-sharru figures in two lists of deities: in one, Teshub, Shimike, and Ea-sharri; and in the other, ShiShaushka, Amon,
In the Cassite period the deity Ea-sharru
to see another syncretistic Are we and Ea-sharri. mike, Amon, Shar, written Shar, Shar-ri, LUGAL, formation in this name?

and

HI

in Hittite

names,

occurs

frequently,

as

Ha-at-tu-Shar,

It-H-ib-Shar, etc. (seeClay PN Ah-li-ib-Shar-ri, Shar was inclined to inquire at least whether

p.

33). One
or

feels

Semitic

Hittite

(seeunder Shar below).

ideograms, written with two Sumerian is considered by most scholars En "lord" and Lil "the storm," to be of Sumerian origin. The chief proof besides the Sumerian 13 : 1-7, where what are is found in Eeissner SBH form of his name 's seven They Lord of found. are: are chief names called Enlil Divine Enlil ; Father of the lands ; Lord of the living command,
En-lil, whose
name

was

people ; Hero, who seest by of the dark-headed thine own ; and Hero, who ; Strong lord, directing mankind power p. 70). causest multitudes to repose in peace (seeJastrow RBBA

Sumer

Shepherd

origin of this deity based upon be said to be conclusive. As the by no means this evidence can Babylonians and other deities, it is reasonable to adopted Adad have adopted Sumerians that the "black-headed" may suppose is written in Sumerian this deity. Further, the fact that his name The
argument

for the Sumerian

proof of its origin than that Ashratu, the consort of Sumerian, whose name Amurru, was was written Nin-gu-edin-na (Eme-sal: Gdsan-gu-edin-na)"the lady of the plain." , implies. He was deity, as his name Originally Enlil was a storm is
no more a

His temple was called E-kur, which means god of the mountain. designated Nin-harHis consort was "house of the mountain."

XVII.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMUERU.

177

sag,

"lady

mountain."

of the mountain." "When transferred

He

"great is called Shadu-rabu to the alluvial plain Babylonia,

extensively practiced, and which so greatly where agriculture was depended upon the winter rains, Enlil becomes a god of fertilityor an agricultural deity. Primarily, however, he is a veritable Adad, for

"he

causes

the heavens

to tremble

Moreover

in the Sumerian

of his original and more in later times. Although Enlil

above qualities, but character

hymn

the earth to quake." cation referred to, there is no indiand

broader

general

epithets reflect only a than had been assigned him

the

deity of Nippur, in the the chief patron found in that Name Syllabaries of the time of the First Dynasty occurs only twice, unless it is assumed, with Chiera city, his name t {UMBS XI 38 ff.),hat it is represented by the ideogram dIM.
was

in of the later triad, Anu, Enlil, and Ea, there appears dIM. As Ea, the Semitic lists, the triad, Anu, stated and the attributes of the deity dIM are identical with those of above,
Instead

Enlil, the god of the storm and atmospheric conditions. Gir was as well as the the name a deity in the land of Amurru of tions name of a country (seeChapter III). In the West Semitic inscripa

number

milki

C^OIJ,
which

compounded with the deity, as Gir^SDIJ. 'ttmj.etc. See Cook North Semitic Inscriptions), of
names are

late period. Babylonian

would show But we are

sources

that his worship was continued up to a dependent largely upon evidence from

for the existence of this Amorite god. dGir sa birqi "Gir of the lightning," sa sadi "of the mountains" is also identified with dKur-Gal (=Amurru), dMar-tu (=Amurru), and

dSAR-SAR
an

(see CT 24 89-94). dG\r is also identified with Nergal importation from the West {CT 25 50: 15). The sign is also
in the ideographic
25 17:

found

writing

of his

name.

dGIR-GIR-it=dIM

(CT

of Amurru 26 of the in the name

31). dSar-ra-pu^=dSar-g\r-ra Marki i. e. "Shar-Girra Line (CT 25 35 : 24) is another syncretistic formation.
text reads

element appears Nin-Zu-Gir, the deity (or Su) also written Tello, who is identified with the West Semitic In-Urta. In this of connection it is natural to think also of the deity En-Gur, in the

same

Sar-Gir-ra-Suki. The

Kin-Gir-Zu

name

of the founder of the Ur Dynasty, since the change from Gar to Gor (writtenGur) offers no difficulty. The comparison is at

178

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

least inviting because

names.

ruler's

name

tic of other rulers of this dynasty bearing SemiDun-gi is not the pronunciation Even of the second in the Sumerian name by the complement ra as shown
a ',,

dDun-Gi-ra-kalam-m
that these Sumerian

It is not improbable others. and perhaps Since the Semitic names. forms represent

phonetic change of g into m is well established in Sumerian, the latter being the Eme-sal for the former, and as so many cuneiform
signs

beginning it may

whether

connected even has the reading Su-mu-qa-an, It is to be noted also that GIR Su-mu-ug-ga, and Sak-kan (CT 29 46: 8, 9) ; also Sa-kan (CT 12 Gir-sakan 3j). This may be found in the West Semitic name formation like Gir-Ba'al a name { pD"U), perhaps Gir-'Ashteroth (mnE"JTU). Note also the formula dBabbar-ge=d
Hani
occurs

with g, the question arises with m also appear not be possible that Gir and Mar are dialectically in names found in the West.

(7JD"U)
GIR
=

and dumu

"""^^GtR,

CT

24 32: 112.

UR-dHa-ni,

found on Babylonian tablets, cf. in several names dHa-ni-ra-bi and Gal-dHa-ni, etc., of the Ur Dynasty; Ha-ni-be-el-gas-si of the Ea-an-da-di, Census the names and
would
seem

Aivil-dHa-ni of the First Dynasty; Cassite period, etc. In the Harran

Ha-an-su-ri, and Bir-Ha-a-nu occur, which the deity with that part of the region. Hani
50:

to associate

bears the title be-lum

ku-nu-uk

"lord

8) ; and also is called ilu sa dupsarruti (Shurpu II: 175). He together with Nisaba

of the seal" (SBH "the god of the scribes" ited cred-

with being the givers of the most Chapter XI).

Lahmu

his consort are known ancient laws now

(see

The only trace of the worship of Lahmu and Lahamu. in Judah, Beth-Lehem in the West is in the well known place name about seven represented by Bet Lahm, and also in Zebulun, now

These deities figure prominently of Nazareth. miles north-west in the Marduk-Tiamat creation legend, which as previously shown 44 ff.). The names from the West (seeAmurru of also emanated
to have been used in the composition the deities do not seem of Assyrians. In fact besides the by the Babylonians names and legend adopted by the Assyrians, in which the names creation they are only found in late Syllabaries, where they are desoccur,

XVn.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMUKRU,

1~!4

ignated

god and goddess Babylonicum p. 162.

as

(anum and antum)

; see

Deimel

theon Pan-

Marduk
of
a

god the formula

has been regarded as being the contracted pronunciation Semitic Amar-Utug, the West combining syncretized name is The basis for this assumption Amur Amar or with Utug.

Amar-Utug

of the Marduk-Tiamat fact that the Marduk originated in the West, except there is
an

U-ri-Marduh

(B. 11566),the personal name Cassite period (Clay PN), together with the
=

dA-ma-ru

myth is West in this way in Babylon influence from

Semitic.

If the

name

through

it should not be found The fact is Babylonia.

in the complete absence of the use of the name in spite of the claims of the Pan-Babylonists that the West, from Babylonia. imported Canaanitic civilization was
almost

Marduk
mentioned is the name

was

As the city is scarcely the local god of Babylon. in the inscriptions prior to the First Dynasty, neither Even in the Name Syllabaries of that of Marduk.
not
occur.

with the ascendancy of Babylon he became the chief god of the pantheon, when under Hammurabi he supplanted all other gods. The nomenclature thereafter of all the Babylonian citiesshowed the extensive influence of his worship.

period

it does

But

And

mony continued to be the centre of the hegefor nearly two thousand years. established by Hammurabi Mash the name was as of a deity in Amurru well as the name There was of a country and a mountain. also a city named
as

is known,

Babylon

(seeChapter XII). Although the god of Mash" has not been heretofore recognized in the West, it would seem that his name is probably compounded in that of a hero in David's time,
"place

Ki-Mash

Mash-mannah

(1 Chron.
8:

12:

10) ; in Mish-'am

a (Di'u'2), name

in

Benjamin (1 Chron.
('JHt^O, 1

Mishraites 12) ; and in the gentilic name Chron. 2 : 53). In Amurru it was that perhaps conjectured

in the absence of any etymological explanation of Shamash, it may have been from Sa Mash like the "(the god) of Mash," Arabic Dhil'l Shard etc., in other words that the mountain Mashu his habitat (seeAmurru was p. 127).
The
consort

of Mash

was

of the god Sin (Amurru 'Xin-IB; the sign MASH

called the children is also a name p. 200). Mash of the god is used interchangeably with dNin-IB.
are

Mashtu.

They

180

THE

EMPIRE

OP

THE

AMOKITES.

found on the business equivalent, fiUHJN. for the name, Sons seemed to point to the reading documents of Murashu is also possible, which En-Ushtu En-Mashtu the god's name. as The Aramaic
or In-Urta. could be from En-Urta It was that the (p.78, and MI 1 ff.) also contended in Amurru deity Mash was carried by the Semites to Babylonia at a very early time. In the first three dynasties, Kesh, Erech, and Ur, names EspeMesh cially or compounded with the deity Mash predominate.

in the early period do we find evidence of the worship deity. Some have translated this element as meaning of this is said to mean Mes-ki-ag-nun-na "hero," the name as for example
at Erech

"the

hero

the

beloved

"Mesh

is the beloved Names

of the highest." of the great one,"

Rather
or

does

it

mean

"Mesh

setting forth the hero character for believing that were not given at birth ; and we have no reason Gilgamesh Chapter they are titles. (See the discussion on the name beloved."

is the great of individuals

Unu(g)kiearly passage, reading galu dMes sangu (BE 2 87 1: 30) ; ga of the god Mesh, the priest of Erech" Mes the early seal reading Nin-Unugki e Unugki en "Nin-Uruk, de high priest of the god Mesh, in the temple of Erech" (Collection

VIII.)

The

"man

dumu Ur-Mesh Lu-Unugki "Urpersonal names Mesh, son of Awil-Uruk (RA VIII p. 31), show conclusively that in Erech (see Misc. Insc. p. 3). a deity Mesh was worshipped

Clercq

83),the

be inferred from the probably character of the deity may Uru"ru maaSMas (CT 24 10: 8); in other syncretistic formation that Mash was a deity similar to the mountain or stormwords Mashu, The association of the god with the mountain deity Uru.

The

as

above, would
way.

seem

to support

another

The
name

god

Nergal

This is confirmed in this view. is a transformed Uru from the

West.

"Mesh sends of Nergal is Mesh-Lam-Ta-e below under forth the sprout," this deity is from Amurru (see and Mesh, and Mish are that figure Mash, Nergal). also elements Another

in the temple names prominently of Nineveh, Cutha, and Akkad. is also regarded by the writer as being of West Semitic Nabu figures prominently origin (Amurru p. 144). The fact that his name

in the nomenclature Semitic peoples; of West and that in Moab there was a city Nebo (Numb. 32: 3, 38),probably near Mt. Nebo, the place of Moses' death (Numb. 33: 47),as well as a

XVn.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMTJBBU.

181

(Ezr. 2: 29),make it appear highly city in Judah by that name in Amurru. What probable that the original home of the deity was is especially confirmatory is of this conjecture the fact that in the
Akkadian rabi of the period of Hammudoes not appear ; but in the Amorite Syllabary the the name Owing to the great ingress of Amor1-zi-Na-bu-u is found. Name

Syllabary from

Nippur

name

ites in this period some names are compounded with that of Nabu. The deity also received recognition on the part of the kings. In is cared Hammurabi's the beloved temple of Nabu" reign, "Ezida date for his sixteenth year reads : ' ' The year in which See also the twenty-seventh built." the throne of Nabu was year III 193, 235, and 250). Earlier than this, Ammi-ditana (L1H of for. The
we

have

no

knowledge

that the deity

was

recognized.
may

however,
greater.

the antiquity
or

of his shrine
a

be shown
in

At any time, to be much

Nashhu Harran

Nashuh
as

is

deity found
etc.

frequently This

names

of the rarely

Census,

Nashhu-gabri,

form

occurs

outside of these tablets (see Tallqvist APN). In the inscriptions of Ashurbanipal is frequently the fire-god Nusku referred to. This king restored his temple, E-melam-anna

in Harran.

his texts also we to Sin, Girru, In-Urta, and Nergal.8 His consort's name is Sadarnunna. the Harran Census, Johns proposed

From

learn that he is closely related These are West Semitic gods. In publishing that Nusku was the tablets of very likely a

in the Census appears god originally, and that his name Nashhu. This being correct Nashhu doubtless more correctly represents
At
an

Syrian

the actual pronunciation of his name early date the worship of this West
at Nippur,

in his original habitat. Semitic deity was duced intro-

where

his

name

Nergal

an

is another name which the ideographic writing Ne-Uru-Gal; of and importation from the West {Amurru 114 ff.). Other
are

written Nusku. like Marduk is a contracted

was was names

pronunciatio

also

of

gods are (Amurru, or Mari), and from Suki, is a district in Mesopotamia which (CT 25 35: 24-26). The name d Mes-Lam-Ta-e "the god Mesh probably means sends forth fruit
etc.

this deity

Sar-Girra, Mes-Lam-Ta-e, from

Marki

These

two

said to have

come

See Streck VB

VII

3 p. 762 and

Tallqvist APN

p. 259.

182

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

habitat of Mesh is thus Mash, or who regarded as identical with Nergal, as noted above, is the mountain Marduk, Like the contracted pronunciation Mash. also which in the West in Babylonia, the form Nergal was arose not used prior to the exile,with one exception, which the inscription of which at Ta'anach; (NI-NI) apil Ha-ab-si-im arad Ne-Uru-Gal Habsim,
occurs on

(or the sprout)." The

reads: "Atanah-ili,

seal found A-ta-na-ah-M

a

son

of of

Western Whether
Nergal

The seal was servant of Nergal." origin, but the script is Babylonian.
the

unquestionably read
or

ideogram
or

Ne-Uru-Gal
whether it was

was

simply in Palestine, perhaps the name god worshipped of some It should be emphaGir, Mash, Uru, etc., cannot be determined. sized in the early period, that this is the only known use of the name

in this instance,

pronounced to represent employed

the civilization of Palestine when according to the Pan-Babylonists to be essentially Babylonian. is supposed Eesheph "lightning," "flame," the lord of heaven, lord of eternity from the late and ruler of the gods, the warrior, is well known
to the inscriptions of northern Syria. As far as known inscriptions. in the cuneiform writer, this deity is not mentioned He figures, however, in Egypt, where he is depicted wearing a high his conical cap, to which often is tied a long ribbon falling over

Aramaic

back, and which

one

ries gazelle. He carIn his back. a quiver on a shield, spear, club, and sometimes a syncretistic form inscription he is called Reshpu-Saramana,

is ornamented

with the head of

that he is identified with the god Shalman. mean which may forms Together with Min (a harvest deity)and Qedesh,Eesheph a triad in Egypt (seeMuller EM p. 155).

Shamash,

in the Amarna

deity of the Amorites. deity of Egypt, Amon-Re,

letters, is looked upon as the leading It may be due to the fact that the chief was nent solar, that he occupied such a promi-

place in the salutations of the Amorite princes to the Pharaoh, Shamash, my god, my lord." in which he is called "my Gaza, perhaps the personal The place name Beth-Shemesh near
name

Shimshon

(Samson),as

well

as

names

found in the Cappado-

An important his worship. cian tablets, show how widespread was trict, disfound in the Mesopotamian worship was centre of Shamash invoked in the foremost of the triad who were where he was

XVn.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMURRU.

183

Dagan, the oath formulae of the Hana contracts : Shamash, Itur-Mer (seeChapter XI). At an early period the Semites his worship into Babylonia, where in the cities Sippar Larsa he became

and
carried

and

the patron deity. He is perhaps the best known god in the Babylonian and Assyrian pantheons. The deity Shamash was early carried to Arabia, and looked upon Winckler held the view that the deity was as a goddess. ered consid-

feminine
the
name

As mentioned above, also in early Hittite groups.9 Name Syllabary, Tn-li-id-dSamfound in the Nippur

shows that the si(-si), also under Mash.)

deity here

was

construed

as

feminine.

(See

Sbaru.
among

lands.

is a god Sharu that has figured very prominently the Semites in Amurru and Babylonia, as well as in other in Babylonia, An important centre of his worsbip was at Umma, There
present

His name in this region was called Jokha. lagab with igi-gimu inserted, the correct written with the ideogram bary by the Yale Syllareading for which, namely Shara, is made known (MI 53 : 111). As in the case of the god Uru or Amurru (see
at

like Shara, pronounced Sharru, etc., without regard for the meaning also of the signs, were by the scribes to reproduce the pronunciation employed of the values
name,

Chapter

VII), other signs having

as

IM

meaning

"wind";

BAR

meaning LUGAL

"court,

meaning "vegetable

pronounced

"field," SHAR meaning meaning etc., all these signs having growth"; values like Shar, Shara, Sharru, were used by the scribes to

fold, sheep,"10 "king"; AGAR

"shrine"; meaning "mass, HI meaning

MARUN
totality";

reproduce the sound of the deity's name, who had been introduced in Babylonia from the West. With this practice of the ancient Langdon by his criticism and assertions apparently does scribes, to be acquainted (RA 13 p. 161). not seem
9
10

See Mittcilungen
MARUN
=

der deutschen Yale

No. Orient-GescUschaft
AGAR
=

sara

Syllabary No. 112, MI;

35 p. 53. Sara, ibid. Xo.

184

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

is also written phonetically Sha-ra, Sha-a-ru, Shar-ru, Shar-ra, Shar-ri, etc. Perhaps also Sheru, or Sher11 is to be included as represented in West Semitic names, as Se-ir-id-ri, Sername

The

ila-a-a,etc.

(see Tallqvist APN)

and probably

also Du'l Shara,

the god of the Nabataeans. It is not impossible that many

and other elements are is to be read Shara, that this ideogram letters, which is usually written dE-a-LUGAL Amarna

LUGAL

of the names Semitic in

of deities composed of dress ; and a Sumerian like dE-a-a-sar-ri of the

(seeunder

Ea).
especially in names of the early Babylonian in the periods, see Sdr-ru-ba-ni, Sdr-ru-tab, etc., and probably names Sar-ga-ni-Sar-ri and Bi-in-ga-ni-Sar-ri(BA VI 3 85 ff.).In Sharu
appears

the Ur

Dynasty

many

names

are

compounded

in which Shar appears as other compounds of temples and deities, see the writer's Misc. Inscr. p. 15. A large number the Hittite-Mitannian among of personal names
are

with the deity. For an element in names

Shar, cf. Ha-at-tu-Sar, Ah-li-ib-Sar-ri, It-hi-ib-Sar,tc. (seeClay PN). Note also the names e with Shara, source, which are probably from the same which have been collected
constituted with
a

god

by Sundwall

Klio 1913, Elftes Beiheft 190 ff. Naturally

the

; and if so with which question arises whether this deity is the same people, the Semitic or Hittite, did his worship originate. If they have a common probable that the Hittites may have origin, it seems

borrowed

the deity from

the Semites;

as

is clearly evident they with Adad, that he was

did in several other instances. The Syllabaries associate the god Ilu-Mer, Nergal, In-Urta, etc., which
as

Shara

Gir, Mur,

shows regarded This would seem to indicate that he was "a The idea that he was a solar or storm-god. vegetation god" has proposed or "the god of flocks," which Langdon (RA 13, 161), to be justified seems alone by the employment of two of the signs

similar in character.

(seeabove). To used to reproduce the pronunciation of his name differentiate between deities as being solar-gods, vegetation-gods
or

storm-gods
11

is

more

or

less artificial, since vegetation

is depen-

Cf. Ser

the Aramaic

etillu (B. ' ' Mar lord

4306),a meaning
from the
name

' '

the sign received perhaps of the deity Mar.

like

XVn.

THE

DEITIES

OF

AMUBBU.

185

dent upon

the

sun

and the rains.

Moreover,

solar-deities

are

also

vegetation-gods. Sin was his worthe chief deity of Harran, ship whence apparently time. The Assyrian an at emanated early scribes who made Si-', Census in the seventh century the name the Harran wrote
showing that they heard

(See god Sin. Berossus's If the eighth name of antediluvian Am elSin, it to represent is correctly understood kings, 'Ajue/i^u'os,
which was Chapter XL)
is the earliest reference to the name worship of Sin into Babylonia in an
names

pronunciation of the different from that of their own

a

name

in that district

known.

Semites The

brought

the

of Sin and the deity in the country south of Palestine. as Hadramoth as far south into Arabia Wilderness

early period. Mt. Sinai show

ical geographinfluence of the

was carried

His worship (seeChapter

II).12

has literature whose deity in the cuneiform name He is known Za-mal-mal, as been read Za-ma-ma, and Za-ga-ga. This the patron deity of Kish, an early Semitic city in Babylonia.

Zababa

is

deity has been identified with Inurta (dNin-IB),alled mar restum c in the Hammurabi Code ; and is "the first son of Ekur" saEkur later regarded as "the Marduk of battle." bary The writer has shown from the recently published Chicago Syllain the name 37 328 f.)that MA was (seeJAOS read ba, thus Za-ba-ba; the name approaches and noted that this pronunciation
of the god Ekron, that perhaps later also suggested tern we more would evidence of a deity in Wesin Zabub or Zabab, whose name was named reproduced Za-ba-ba. it was found that this had Subsequently
namely

Ba'al

Zebub.

It

was

find

Asia

cuneiform (MVAG 18 4 p. 70 f.)in his already been anticipated by Winckler advanced notices of the new cuneiform material found at the HitIn it,he called attention to the prominent tite centre Boghaz-koi. role Za-ba-ba and

(which he read Za-ga-ga)played

among

the Hittites

he seemed to think was as prominently He had a temple in the capital ably and probwas the chief deity of Ellaia and Arzia which is inferred from the part his name played in the great political treaties. The existence the cult of Zababa held, these peoples, Winckler among of allied peoples, whom Teshup. as worshipped
12

Note

also the passage

"field of Sin the god of Halaba,"

VS

VII

95

4.

186

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

was

due

to colonization

or

Zababa had the same when If this statement could be supported by evidence of the influence force. of the Marduk cult in the West it would have more

migration from Babylonia high position that Marduk

at a time later had.

The

disadvantage
on

in this instance

in not having any light on early Hittite, history from

early Amorite,

or

native

sources

is

here again felt,in that the date of the earliest reference to the deity history is so much earlier than the tablets referred in Babylonian to the writer that Winckler has to. In spite of this fact, it seems the order reversed ; and that Zababa is really a, deity like Inurta

in the he is identified,who was extensively worshipped with whom West ; and was coveries carried to Kish at a very early date. Further diswill determine whether this is correct.

syncretistic name Zababa Probably was battle and the foremost this idea.
v

The

dTJr-d Zababa
also
son a

(CT

24 8:

5) is to

being storm-deity; of Ekur (seeabove) would

be noted. the Marduk of accord with

discovery which has recently become known may prove is to be read Hbaba instead of Zababa. Langdon that the name dZAhas kindly informed the writer that the equation il-ba-ba Another
=

MA-MA dMA

occurs

on

Berlin

dedicated to Hommel.

is published in a Festtext, which schrift This suggests the equation Il-Ba

=

(CT

25, 27

bill'scontention = MA ba, in the It is of course toward regarding

as

Moreover, 6) for comparison. t (AJSL 35 59 f.),he writer's

name seems

in spite of Luckenproposed
reading

of

apparent

thus to be confirmed. that the trend of what

seems

-with the collapse of the Arabian origin theory of this culture (seeChapter II) in the light of what has been offered, and also what might be assembled, tion, that no other conclusion is possible. As set forth in the introducSemites from Amurru entered the valley at a very early period.

having

practically everything its origin in Amurru. It

precedes is nian that is Semitic Babylo-

Under

foreign influences in the

new

culture developed differently, and when emigration or invasion took place, what had been in the "melting for a millennium, though pot" still call Akkadian, which we strikingly different. This evolutionary process needs no explanation for history shows it has gone on in all ages, and is going on at present, and will continue to go as long as the world lasts.
was

the old surroundings in a later period a new

Semitic,

INDEX.
A-ba-ia, 113 A-ba-ra-ha-am, 41 A-ba-ra^ma, 41 129 Abbi-Teshshub, Abdi-Ashirta, 127 Abdi-Hiba, 129 Abesha, 144 Abi-esuh, Abi-hud, 165 Abi-melech, 165 Abirshua, 62 Abraham, Ab-ram, 165 Abu, 36 Abu-Simbel, 59 A-da-ad, 165 II, 159 Adad-nirari d 70 o-da-odlH^ Adapa, 77, 83 Adgi, 166 f Ad-gi-ilu, 167 Adgi-Siri, 167
Aleppo. 124 f 112 Al-eshshum, 34 Almaqu-hu, 167 Al-Nashu, Aloros, 76. 78, 106 168 Anathoth, Anbay. 34. 35 34 An-Kurah.
Anna, An-ram,

168

Al-Si', 167
109, 110 Al Wurdi. Amait, 141 68 Amar-a-pa-', 54 Aman-hashir, Amar-ma-'-a-di, 68
Amar-na-ta-nu, Amar-ra-pa^',

Antu,

169 168 Anu, 168 Atiu-Mastu, 73 69 Anum-pi-Mc-ir, Anusat, 73 Apil-Nergal, 81

Apop,

68

139

68 Amar-sa-al-ti, 68 dAmar-Vtug, 25, passim 76, 78 Amegalarus, 77 Amel-Aruru, Amel-dEl-Amar, Amel-Sin, 78 Amel-"ru, 78

72 arahshamna, 37, 44 Aram, Ar-data, 72. 78, 106 72 argamanu.

Areli, 72
Ari. 72 Ariel,72 Arik-den-ilu. 159 37 Arpaehshad. "' Ar-iva-da, 72, 78 Ar-wit-u. vn Asaph. 55
A-sa-ru-um, Ashir,

68

Ad-gi-si-ri-zdr-bad-du,
167

A-du-na-i-zi, 165 A-du-ni-ba-' 165 -al, A-du-ni-ili-a,165 Aelian, 84 78 A-ga-al-Marduh, Agum-kakrime, 99. 116 A-HA, 83 Ahi-Jami, 54 36 Ahi-wcdum, 1, 144 Ahmose Ahu, 36 Ain Shems. 55 Ainsworth, W. F., 109,
110 Akkukarib,
36

Amemphsinus, II, 147 Amenhotep III, 126 f. Ainenhotep 147 IV, 126 Amenhotep Amillaros, 106 'amir, 67

76, 78

170

170

Asir-Samsi, 171
Ashirta, 171 Ashirta-washur, 54 Ashtaroth. 172 Ashtaroth-Karnaim.
JAs-tar-te, 172

amiramu, 6
'Amm, 34, 36,41 67 a mutant, 76, 78 Ammenon.

172

Ammi-bail. Ammi-eushi, 39 Ammi-zaduga, 113 Am-mu-ra-bi, 68 Amoriah, 'Amrit, 72, 103

'Amu. 144

112. 116 14:i

Ashur-uballit. 159 164 Ashtar-Chemosh, 99 Ashurbanipal, Asit. 141 A-ta or Atta. 174 A-ta^id-ri. 174 A-ta-im-ah-Ui, 182

A-Kur-Gal,
Alaparus,

20 76, 78, 106

Alap-Uru, 78 Albright, W. F., 73

A-mu-ur-ri-iki, 66 Amurru, 167 Ana. 116 ff Anat, 141 Anatho, 108, 115, 118

Atar-hasis, 77 Athtar. 34. 173 'Attar-' Ate, 164

Atum. 141

(J87)

l.ss

THE

EMPIKE

OF

THE

AMOBITES.

A-usar, 170 Aziru, 127 ff Ba'alath, 65, 140 Ba-ah-lu-ti, 115 Balata, 55 Balbi, 109 Ba-lu, 80 Bana-sa-Addu, 81 Barton, G. A., 28, 8], 90. 124, 140, 173 f Baudissin, W. W., 140 Beka',66 Be-la-qu, 81 Bell, Gertrude L., 109, 110, 117 Beni Jafna, 48 Bera',41 Berossus, 76, 79, 95 Beth-Anath, 74 Beth-' Am', 169 Beth-Dagon, 175 Beth-Lehem, 178

Beth-Sheniesh, 55, 74,

182 Bezold, C, 174

Bilga-Mash, 89 Bir-Da-ad-da, 47 Biridiya, 129 Birsha' 41

,

Cook, G. A., 177 Cook, S. A., 162 Conder, C. R, 44 Corsote, 110 Cowley, A., 65 Craig, J. A., 168 da-ga-ma, 98 Dagan, 175 Damiq-ilishu, 79 Damascus, 42, 119, 122 f Darmeseq, 42 Da (v)onus, 76, 78 Decapolis, 48 De Goeje, M. J., 28 Deimel, A, 165 Delitzsch, P., 9, 13, 124 Der Aban, 55 Dhaw, 34 DlnVl Shara, 179 34 Dhii-Samwa, Diarbekr, 97 a,Di-mas-qa, 122 dDumu-Zi, 80, 82 f, 95 Dumu-Zi-Ab-Zu, 83 Dun-gi, 20, 97, 126 dD an-Gi-ra-kalam-ma,
178 Dur-Igitliin, 112 Dur-Isharlim, 112 Du-'-v^zu, 82 Ea, 175

El Jezireh, 50 Ellil-bani, 158 El-muti, 90 El-ra-bi-ih, 114 'El-Shaddai, 167 E-lu, 80 El-tlr,71, 106 dEn-Amas, 25 En-bi-As-tar, 172 dEn-Din-tirki, 25

en-gi-du, 85 dEn-ki-du, 85 f dEn-lil, 25, 176 Enlil-bani, 79 dEn-lil-labira,158 Enmastu, 73 En-Me-Dur-An-Ki, 77 En-Me-ir-Kar, 69, 80, 82 Enurasat, 73 En-Ur-ta, 74 E-ta-na, 80, 81, 95
B-ud-gal-gal, 125 Eusebius, 76, 79, 90

Bit-Karkara,

Bit-Nin-IB,

124 74

bit 111 su-ri-b[i], fBi-it-ti-dDa-gan, 113 Bliss, F. J., 53 Bold, P., 26, 34, 72 Breasted, J. H., 101, 139 f 142 Briinnow, R. E., 23 Bu-la-aq-qu, 81 Burehardt, M., 138, 142 f Byblos, 126 f, passim Chantre, E., 131 Chedorlaonier, 97 Chiera, E., 36, 61, 80, 87 f, 114, 175, 177 Cernik, 109 Cicero, 52 Condamin, A., Ill
,

Ea(En-Ki)-bdni(Du),
85 E-Anna, 169 Eannatum, 90 Ea-sarri, 176

Faluja,81 Fuye, Allotte de la, 74 Gardiner, 65 Gari, 121 68 Galu-dAmar-Dingir, dGestin-An-na, 84 Gezer, 53 Ghassanides, 48
Gimil-A-nim, 169 Gir, 177 Gir-'Ashteroth, 178 Gir-Ba'al, 178 Giri-Dadda, 164 121 GlR-GIR, dGlR-GlR-u, 177 Gir-sakan, 178 dGir sa birqi, 177 dGis, 88 dGis-bil-ga-Mesh, 80, 84 Golenischeff, V. S., 131 Goshen, 43 Gressnian, H., 88 Grice, E. M., 12, 21, 92,
114

dEa-tabu(Dug), 85 Ebed-Uru aim, 78, 106 Eber, 37 Ed-Der, 111 Edoranchus, 76, 78 Ekisigga, 111 Elam, 82 dEl-Amurru
El-data, 72 'El-'Elyon, Elephantine, 63 El-Ghor, 121 Eliezer, 62

Gubin, 97

INDEX.

189
Ja-a-ma, 54 112 Ja'mu-Dagan, Ja-ri-ib-dAdad, 115 Jaskur-ilu, 40 '-dDa^gan, "Ja-as-mch 26, 115 Jasmah-el, 40 Jastrow, Marcus, 70 Jastrow, M.. Jr.. 80. 85, 88, 89, 132, 173. 176 82 Ja-u-i(mi) -ba-an-da, Jensen. P., 9, 131 Jeremias, A., 77 Johns, C. H. W.. 113, 131, 157 Joktan, 37 Josephus, 66. 138 Ka-lu-mu-un, 80 Kara Eyuk, 131 Karnak, 59 158 Ka(?)-sha-Ashir, Kashtiliashu, 112 Khnum-hotep. 144

Gudea, 33, 96 f Guli-Addi, 54 93 Gungunu, Gur-raki, 121 Ha-ba-ru, 46 habbatu, 45 Habiri, 43, 44, 45 f Ha-bi-ir-si,46 Ha^ab-si-im, 182 Hab ur-ibal-Bugash, 112 Hadad, 165 Hadad-Rimmon, 164 33, 34 Hadhramotians, Hagar, 118 Hagir, 34 Halabu, 124, 125 Haleb, 124 Halevy, J.,23 Halis, 115 Hallapu, 124 Halma, 82, 95 Halman, 124 Hilprecht, H. V., 93 Hammurabi, 97. 113 f Hammurabih, 113 ha 'amori, 66 hamustum, 131, 133 Hani, 98 f, 178 Harran, 119 f Hat-hor, 140 Ha-at-tu-Shar, 176 Haupt, P., 67 Ha-sa-el, 47 Hebron, 47 Hermitage, 123 Hobab, 88 Holma, H., 69 Hommel, F., 31, 33, 36, 39, 73, 77, 114, 121, 167, 186 Hrozny, F., 171 Humba, 87 Hu-um-ba-ba, 87, 95 Humurtu, 57, 126 Huntington, E., 3 Huwal, 34 Hu-wa~wa, 86 ff Hu-un-ni-ni, 105, 123
'

Iarmuti, 95 Ibi-Sin, 97, 134 Ibn Doraid, 39 'Ibri,45 Idin-dRI, 170 169 [Id]-sa-A-na, Ikununi, 133 f Mini ha-ab-bi-ri.45 45 ildni SA-GAS, Il-Ashirta, 167 Il-Ba', 73, 186 il-ba-ba,186 II Fakhr. 34 dIl-Ha~al-larbu, 125, 166 Ili~i-ma-dWe-ir, 69 I-li-Me-ir. 69 Il-ka-Me-ir, 69 Il-Kanshan, 167 Ilmaqqah, 34 Il-Tammesh, 167 Il-Tehri, 167 Il-Teri. 167 d w.1--"-,r/"] 70i 167 Ilu-sliuma, 156 Ilu-We-ir, 166 Im-me-ir-i-H, 78 dIM-ra, 70 Irzi, 109 'Ishara, 109, 111 Isharlim, 116 Isbi-Urra, 90, 106, 107 islit. 40 Isbki-Bal, 94 Ishkun-Nergal, 21 I-su-il, 90 Isidore of Charax, 81, 108 Islam, 48 Is-re-il, 0 9 I-tur-Me-ir, 69, 112. 164 I-zi-Na-bu-u, 181 Jacob-hur, 139 Jadah-lialum, 39 Jadah-ilu, 39 Ja-ab 104, 105 164 Jahweh-Sabaoth, Jahweh-Shalom, 164
,

EUn-gi(r)-rd(DU ),122

Kikia, 156, 158 Kikkinu, 113 Ki-Mashki. 37. passim King, L. W., 30, 33, 40, 86, 91, 96, 157 f Kin-gin. 122 Ki-sa-ah-bu-ut, 115 Kittel, R., 77 Knudtzon. J. A.. 121 Kraeling, E. G. H., 120 Krausz, J., 167 Kudur-Nahundi, 99 kur-amitr, 67 La-ab-a-an. 159 Lahmu, 178 77 LAL-ilr-al im-ma Langdon. S. H., 67, 73, 85, 183, 186 Larsa Dynasty, 91 Libit J.shtar. 91 limmu, 131, 133 Luckenbill, D. D., 29, Ja-[ku]-un-A-sa-ru-um, 42, 73, 114, 157. 159, 171 185 f
.

LiiO

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMORITES.

82 Lugal-zaggisi, 20, 90 Lulubu, 126 Lnschan, F. von, 60 Lute, H. F., 12, 41, 140,

Lugai-Bdn-Da,

Mer-ka-gi-na,
d

69

167 Macalister, R. A. S., 30,54 53, 55 Mackenzie, Madga, 97 Magan, 33 Malgu, 105, 119 Malik, 164 Manetho, 138 90 Manishtusu, 33 Mannu-dannu,
Mar, 69 103 Maratha,

me-ir-me-riJ]y"_l_J]y[ Meissner, B., 66, 91 Meri-ba'al,70 Merneptah, 149 Mer, Mir, 69 Merra, 107 Meyer, E., 23, 28, 60, 79, 132, 135 dMes, 180 80 Mes-An-Ni-Pad-da, Mesheq, 123 80 Mes-Ki-Ag-Nun-na, Mes-ki-in-ga-se-ir, 80 106, 180 Mes-Lam-Ta-e,

Nedyt, 140 Nergal, 181 Nergal-gar-ra, 21 Ne-Uru-Gal, 25 :1 Niebuhr, Prof., 121 Nikkal, 141 Nimrod, 156 dNin-a-dam-azag-ga,
25:1 dNin-Gal, 25 :1 dNin-Gir-Su, 25 dNin-Gis-Zi-Da, 84 Nin-gu-edin-na, 176 Nin-har-sag, 176 dNin-lB, 25 dNin-igi-zi-bar-ra,25 ki, 70 d "imN-IMmu^u dNin-Marki,

Mes-Za-Mug(?),80
Mil-ki-U-ri, 71 Mil-ku-ru, 71 33, 34 Minaeans, 90 Mir-Dadu, Mish-'am, 179 Montgomery, J. A., 11, 169 Mordecai, 10 Morgan, J. P., Library

72, 103 69 Mar-bi'-di, 69 3Iardakos, 35 35 Mardokentas, Marathias, Mar-barak,

Nin-Numusda, Nin-Sun, 84
d

73

niNin-urVr, 71 Ninurtu, 73

*Nm-uru(PIN),74
73 Nisaba, 118 Niswar, 34 Norris, F. A., 31 Nu-bdn-da, 82 Nukara, 141 Og, 100 Olmstead, A. T., 12, 79, 81, 96, 103, 109, 115 On-Heliopolis, 139 Ophel, 55 Orion, 140 Osiris, 140 Otiartes, 77, 78 Pa-gi-rvm, 113 Pallacopas, 81 Paton, L. B., 28, 36, 42. 162, 165, 174 f Pekah, 122 Peleg, 37, 81 Pepi I, 143 Peters, J. P., 109, 117 Petra, 27, 47

Marduk, 179 Mari, 60, passim

69 Mar-jehai,

Ninurut,

69 Mar-la-rim-me, Ma-ri-la-rim, 69 69 Ma-ri-id-di, Masca, 110 """mar-ru, 67 69 Mar-samak, Mar-se-te-', 69

of, 81, 113 Moriah, 68, 153 34 Motab-Natiy"n, Miiller, W. M, 139 ft', 170, 172, 182, 185 Mur, 69
Murashu, Mur-ra,
d

44 70

Mar(TUR)-su-ri,m
Mar-sam-si, 69 dMar-tu-ba-an-da,
Mash,

Mursil, 129
mu-ri(n)IM) JQ dMu-u-ru-u, 70

82

179 73 ma-a-su, 179 Mash-mannah, 80 Mas-Sal-Nun-na, Mashtu, 179 Mashu, 37 73 ma-asu, Maynard, J. A., 73 Medinet, 59 78, 106 Megal-Uru, 55 Megiddo, Me-is-tu, 124 Meluhha, 97

Musri, 43 Na-ba-a-a-te, 47 Nabataean, 47 Na-bat-ai, 47 Nablus, 55 Nabu, 180 72 Nabii-rimannu, 39 Nakarum, 164 Nannar-Gir-Gal, Naram-Sin, 33 Nashhu, 120, 181 Nasr, 34 Naville, M., 45

Petrie, F., 59, 65, 139 Phaliga, 81 Pi-la-qu, 81

INDEX.

191

I'i-li-qam, 80, 81 Pilter, W. T., 36. 40, 41 Pinches, T. G., 131 81 Pir'-Amurru,

Pir'-Mer, 69 Pir'-Vru, 69
P?-sa-A-"a, 169 Plutarch, 140 Poebel, A., 35, 77, 80, 83, 85, 88, 96, 107 Pognon, H., 38, 73 Prince, J. D., 22. 114 Put-Ahi, qani,
130

Quainan, 34 33, 34 Qatabanians. Qedem, 79. 143 Qedesh.141

qinnatate, 174 Radau, H.. 167 40 Ra-'-dr-bi-el, IIaibum, 40 34, 165 Ramman. Ramsay, Sir Win. M., 131 Ramses II, 130, 149 Ramses III, 103, 150 Ranke, H., 36, 40, 91, 114 f Rassam. 116 Rawlinson, Sir H., 103 R.-nnell, 109 Resheph, 141, 182 Retenu. 141 Rezin. 122 Rim-Sin, 94 Rogers, R. W., 156 Sabaea-Himyarites. 33 Sahure. 142 Sak-kan, 178 Samaria, 55 Sami',34 Samsu-iluna, 97 Sargon, 90, 96 Sartu, 83 Sayce. A. H.. 9. 28, 38, 77. 96, 123, 131 f. 135 Scheil. V., 90, 107. 119, 131
' '

Schnable, P., 79 Schoff, "W. H., 117 Schrader, E., 28 Sebastiyah, 55 Sebek-khu, 144 Sellin,E., 54 Semachoros, 84 84 Semak-Jau, 84 Semak-Ur, Seriiblt el Khadim, Sesostris 1, 143 Sesostris III, 144 Seti 1, 129, 148 Shalim-ahu, 158 Shalman,"l41, 182

65

Sinai, :J4 Sin-iqisham, 115 Sinuhe, 56, 79, 143 dSir-du, 83 Sisimordakos, 35 Snefru, 142 Solomon, 100 f Sprenger, 28 Steuernagel, 121 Stratonike, 88 Streck, M., 181 St. Stephen, 107 Su-abu, 156 Suhi, 115, 117 ff
sumu,

40

179 Shamash, 72, 182 III, 159 Shamshi-Adad

8a Mash,

Su^mu-qa-an, 178 Sutu, 47 Syncellus. :!-~"

82 Svr-baran-du(di)
,

Shamash-resh-usur,
"

106, 118, 119

Samas-wedmn-usur,

36

Shara, 183 dShar-bdn~da, 80, 82, 95. 1l'4 Shar-Girru, 164, 181
Marki, 111 dSar-gir-ra

Sar-Gir-ra-Suki,111 164 Shar-Maradda,

Sha-a-ru, 184 d8ar-ra-pu, 111 Shar-Urra, 106 Snrru-kenu. 133 Sharuhen, 144 Shibam. 34 Shimshon. 140, 182 Shinab, 40 Se-ir-id-ri, 184 Shem. 37 Shema, 55 Ser-Ha-a-a, 184 Sheshonk, 150, 169
Shubaru, 83 Shubbiluliuma, Shuwari, 83 Sihon, 100 Simanu, 72 Simuru, 126 Sin, 34 Sin-abu, 41 127 f

dSUR, 68 Syncellus, 76 Tabba-edi, 36 Tahba^wedi, 36 Ta'lab, 34 Tallqvist, K, 181, tamertu, 67 Ta-mu-zu, 82 Ta'anach, 54, 62, 63
Tell el-Hesy, 53 Tell Mutesellim, 55 Teshub, 18, 166 82 Thammoza, Thilutha. 119 F., Thureau-Dangin, 73. 92. 96, 114. 131.

133 1. 127. 145 Thutmose II, 145 f Thutmose Thutmose III, 48, 53, 56, 100, 145 f IV, 147 Thutmose Tiamat, 139 82, 121, 124 Tidnum, Tiglath-pileser 1, 119.
160

Tmkarum,39
Tirqa, 111, 112, 118 Tofteen, O. A.. 66, 161 Torrey, C. C., 12

192

THE

EMPIRE

OF

THE

AMOBITES.

Tukulti-Inurta, 159 Tukulti-Me-ir, 69, 116

Vr-ru-da

Xisuthrus, Yakut, 117 Yemen, 48 Yuzgat, 135

77, 78

Ur-d"ar-banda, 132, 134

'Urta, 70, 73 164 Uru-Mash, Uru-mush, 90 71, 74 V -rii-sarlim, durumUru(PIN), 74 d "-rt"nUrum" 71 Uruu-ru-m"-asMas,71 71 TJ-ru-mil-lci, TJruuru-Tab, 71 dUr-dZababa, 186 Ushpia, 156, 158 Warad-dWe-ir, 69 Ward, W. H., 86 f 133 Weber, 0., 121 Wedum-liblut, 36 dWe-ir-a-})u-su, 69 Weissbach, F. H., 106 Wilderness of Sin, 35 Winckler, H., 9, 28, 39. 42, 183. 185 f Wright, W., 9, 28 Xenophon, 110
,

Tu-li-id-dSamsi{si)
,

164, 183 Tutul, 106, 119 U-a-a-te-',47 Ubar-Tutu, 77 77 ummanu,

Za-bd-ba, 185 Za-ga-ga, 185 Zakir, 69 Zakku-Igitlim,

dUmun-bad-urudunagar-ki, 25 :1 Uni, 143 Ungnad, A., 41, 91 Ur of the Chaldees, 102 73 u-ra-su, Urbillu, 126 Uri, 108 'Uria, 70, 73, 168 UR-Inurta, 91, 93 U-ri-im-me-i, 71

113 Zakku-Isharlini, 113 Za-mal-mal, 185 Zanzum, 40 Ze bub, 185 dZe-ir-tu,83

111 ] Zi-i[m...,104,105,

Zimmern, 77

H., 9. 22. 44.

a'Uri(URU)-wa-da,18
Uri-wada, 72 Ur-Nina, 20 Ur-ra-gal, 71 Urra-imitti, 90, 106

zimri, 40 116 Zimri-Hanata, Zoan, 45 Zu-ga-gi-ib, 80 Zur, 34

. .

60. S9.

.-um-Shaniash.
105

II