Power Distribution Systems and Its Characteristics III

Network Protector
In the low voltage distribution network, the connection between the low voltage network and the secondary side of the transformer is carried out through a Network Protector. The NP consists of low voltage Air Circuit Breaker (ACB) and a traditional electromechanical or electronic relays. These traditional relays consists of a master relay to open the circuit in the case of a reverser power in the circuit and a phasing relay.

Network Protector
Phasing relay works in conjunction with the master relay to close the Network protector. Network protectors are designed to operate automatically and are normally in closed position.

Voltage Reduction and Reliability

Most end use loads can be characterized as constant impedance or constant power. Constant impedance loads, like incandescent lights and hot water heaters, consume less power if voltage is reduced. Since power is proportional to the square of voltage, lowering voltage can significantly reduce system demand. Some utilities utilize this phenomenon to improve reliability.

Voltage Reduction and Reliability

If demand starts to approach the maximum amount of available generation, voltage is reduced with load tap changers and overall system demand is reduced. If a system consists of roughly 50% constant power and 50% constant impedance, a 5% reduction in voltage will result in approximately a 5% reduction in power since the constant impedance loads will draw 10% less power.

Voltage Reduction and Reliability

Constant power loads, like motors, use the same amount of power regardless of voltage. If voltage is reduced by a certain percentage, these loads will increase their current by an equal percentage to keep current times voltage constant. Increased current causes motors to heat up and may eventually result in equipment failure. Since distribution system capacity is almost always limited by equipment ampacity, voltage reduction does not necessarily improve distribution reliability.

Voltage Reduction and Reliability

When voltage is reduced, constant impedance loads draw proportionally less current and constant power loads draw proportionally more current (although many motors will operate more efficiently at lower voltages). If loads are split 50% constant impedance and 50% constant power, current does not appreciably change. If a higher percentage of loads are constant power, current will increase and distribution reliability can actually decrease. In addition, excessive low voltages can cause motors to overheat and lead to customer complaints.

Distribution Secondary
Secondary Mains and Service Drops

Distribution Secondary
The first AC secondary network was installed in the US in 1922. The main aim of the distribution transformers is to reduce the primary voltage level to a level that can be used by customers.

Three-phase commercial distribution transformers range from 75 kVA to over 2000 kVA.
In residential areas single-phase transformers range in size from 10 kVA to about 300 kVA; units with 25 kVA to 37.5 kVA size are the most common.

Distribution Secondary
Secondary voltage level in residential services in North America is 120/240 V; That means residential customers have a choice of using 120 or 240 V; this can be possible through single phase three wire system. Lower power devices such as lights can be connected to 120 V and other higher power devices (e.g. oven, cloth dryers) can be connected to 240 V. Secondary voltage level in residential area in most of the Asian Countries is at 230 V;

Distribution Secondary
Another type of secondary connection is three-phase four wire connection. This type of connection is used where moderate three-phase loading is needed and also for single phase load. This type of connection is common in Asia; voltage level 230/400,

Distribution Secondary
Line 2

Phase

Secondary

120 Volts

Primary Winding

Neutral

240 Volts

Neutral

Winding

120 Volts

Line 1 Connection to earth

Distribution Secondary
Phase A 25,000 V Phase B 25,000 V Transformer Phase C 25,000 V 14,400 V 14,400 V

14,400 V

Distribution Secondary
3 Phase Service
Phase A Phase B N Phase C Neutral Ground Conductor Neutral C Voltage E
F

Single Phase Service

B

25,000 V 25,000 V 25,000 V 14,400 V Secondary Primary Winding

Distribution Secondary

Distribution Secondary

Distribution Secondary

Autotransformer vs. two winding T/F

Autotransformer is a special types of transformer that is used in various types of distribution applications, primarily where the voltage transformation is small and cost is a major consideration. This auto transformer has advantages in the areas of voltage regulation and energy transfer. It has drawbacks concerning high short circuit currents (because T/F leakage impedance is usually less than 5%) and the fact that the primary is not completely insulated from the secondary. In next figure, energy transfer is increased by 30 times compared to two winding transformer.

Autotransformer vs. two winding T/F

Source: Power Distribution Engineering by James J. Burke, Marcel Dekker Inc.

Underground vs. Overhead

Distribution system can be either underground or overhead. It could be a combination of both. Underground distribution through UG cables are common in urban areas in most developed nations. The main driving force behind this is environmental pressure. Many utilities around the world very gradually converting existing three phase overhead to underground.

Underground vs. Overhead

Distribution systems are more reliable when they put underground compared to overhead. Even though, underground system fail less often that over head, often take much longer time to locate and fix. Also older, UGD cables are failing higher rates than expected. Here, the bottom line is the average customer minutes outage or (CMO) which is very lower for UGD designs.

Underground vs. Overhead

UG Designs also eliminates almost all of the temporary faults which is accounted for 80% of the total faults in some systems. On some power quality problems also UG Deigns have a very desirable impact. The choice depends on many factors

Service continuity Environmental consideration Capital and Annual maintenance cost.

Underground vs. Overhead

Skin effect factor(ys):
If the conductor is composed of one or more concentric circular elements, then the center portion of the conductor will be enveloped by a greater magnetic flux than those on the outside. Consequently the self induced back-emf will be greater towards the center of the conductor, thus causing the current density to be less at the center than the conductor surface. This extra concentration at the surface is known as skin effect, and results in an increase in the effective resistance of the conductor.

Source: General Cable

Underground vs. Overhead

Proximity effect factor(yp):
The proximity effect also increases the effective resistance and is associated with the magnetic fields of two conductors which are close together. If each carries a current in the same direction, the halves of the conductors in close proximity are cut by more magnetic flux than the remote halves. Consequently the current distribution is not even throughout the cross-section, a greater proportion being carried by the remote halves. If the currents are in opposite directions, the halves in close proximity will carry the greater density of current. AC RESISTANCE at temperature t : Ract = Rdct [1 + ys + yp]
Source: General Cable

Underground vs. Overhead

Main differences:
(1) Number of Joints (i) Overhead lines: typical length 2 to 15 km. (ii) Underground cables: typical length 0.5 to 2 km. (2) Inductance per km Voltage Rating, conductor size 11 kV, 50 mm2 415 kV, 50 mm2 Overhead ACSR (ohm/km) 0.4 0.28 Cable (ohm/km) 0.1 0.07

Underground vs. Overhead

Main Difference:
(3) Charging Current Voltage Rating, Overhead (MVAr/km) 0.0122 0.525 Cable (MVAr/km) 0.941 2.429

66 132

Underground vs. Overhead

Main Difference:
(4) Comparison of the failure rate between overhead and underground lines. Voltage Levels
5 to 11 kV 11 to 20 kV 33 kV 66 kV

Failure Rate Failure/year/mile Overhead Underground

0.177 0.133 0.070 0.059 0.048 0.097 0.037 0.028

Underground vs. Overhead

Equipment

Most of the equipment used in an overhead distribution system utilize air as its primary insulating medium. When is come to UG distribution system, air is not enough as the ground is much closer close. Typical insulation medium used in Vacuum, Oil, SF6.

Underground Cables

Three-conductor belted cable cross section

Underground Cables

Core Belted paper Lead sheath Bedding Single wire armoring

Overall Serving

Underground Cables

Typical cable cross sections

Underground Cables
Common underground feeder equipment

Underground Cables

Cross Section of single conductor cable

Underground Cables

Single conductor paper insulated power cable

Underground Cables

Three conductor paper insulated cable

Energy waste in a typical pumping system