Personality It may be understood as the characteristic patterns of behavior and modes of thinking that determine a persons adjustment to the

environment. Theories of Personality 1. Type Theory One basis for classifying personality is body build by Kretschmer & Sheldon Endomorph- plumbs person- sociable, relaxed, & even tempered, comfort, love fine food, jovial, affectionate. Ectomorph- tall, thin person- restrained self conscious & fond of solitude, absent minded, shy but brilliant. Mesomorph- strong, athletic- noisy, callous, highly aggressive, self-confident Second basis to type personalities is psychological factors by Carl Jung Introverts- greater sensitivity and concern for feeling and are more comfortable dealing with abstract things, they are less sociable & absorbed in inner life. Avoid social contacts rarely speaks to others. Extroverts- more oriented towards other people, events & objects crave excitement and dislike solitude Mixture of these two determines the kind of overall personality on an individual. 2. Trait Theory In this theory we could rate an individual on a scale of intelligence, emotional stability, and aggressiveness. Psychologists working the basic Trait Theory are concerned with 1. Determining the basic traits that provide a meaningful description of personality. 2. Finding some way to measure them. Factor Analysis- a complex statistical technique, it helps to reduce a large no. of measures to a smaller no. of independent dimensions. Two ways of assessing Personality Traits 1. The person describes himself by answering about his attitudes, feelings & behavior. 2. Someone else evaluates the persons trait from what he knows about the individual. Two methods of personality rating inventory & rating scale. 3. Psychoanalytic Theory It is based in in-depth study of individual personalities. Created by Sigmund Fred. Free Association method requires that the person talks about everything that comes into conscious mind. By analyzing free association Fred sought to puzzle out basic determinants of personality. Structure Model- personality composed of 3 structures- id, ego & superego Id- is the mental agency containing everything inherited. Ego- mental image do not satisfy needs, reality must be considered. Ego develops out of id. Superego- it judges whether an action is right or wrong according to the standards of the society. 4. Social Learning Theory Through learning one acquires knowledge, language, attitudes, values, manual skills, fears personality traits & self insight.

Two ways of learning- learning through reinforcement (direct experience) & learn by observing others watching the behavior of other people, draw conclusion from it. Perception It is a process through which the information from outside environment is received, selected, organized & interpreted to make it meaningful. Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations of adding meaningful associations to sensations Perception Process: 1. Process of Receiving Stimuli- sensory organs (vision, smell, hearing, touch & tasting) receives not only physical objects; they receive events or objects that have been repressed. 2. Process of Selecting StimuliExternal Factors Influencing Selection a) Nature- whether the object is visual or auditory & whether it involves picture, people or animal b) Location- the best location of the visual stimulus for attracting attention is directly in the front of eyes in the centre of a page. c) Intensity- stimuli of higher intensity are perceived more than the object with low intensity. For example, loud noise, strong odour. d) Size- larger size attract more attention than the smaller ones e) Contrast- the background what people are expecting will receive their attention. f) Movement- moving object receives more attention g) Repetition- repeated stimuli is more attention drawing than single one. h) Novelty & familiarity- novel & familiar situation can serve as an attention greater Internal Factors a) Learning- creates expectancy in people and expectancy makes him to see what he wants to see. b) Psychological Needs- unreal things often look real because of deprived needs c) Age Difference- the generation gap contributes to different perception d) Interest- perception is influenced by the interest of the perceiver e) Ambivalence- mixed feeling about situation 3. The Organizing Process- the stimuli received must be organized so as to assign some meaning to them 4. The Process of Interpreting- the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning to the information 5. The Process of Checking- perceiver tends to check whether his interpretation is right or wrong 6. The Process of Reacting- the perceiver shall indulge in some action in relation to his perception. The action is positive when the perception is favorable & vice-versa.

Factors Influencing Perception

1. Characteristics of Perceiver- the person needs past experience needs, habits, personality, values, attitudes may all influence the perception process 2. Characteristics of the Perceived- the physical attributes, appearance, & behavior of other person in the situation also influence how that situation is perceived. 3. Characteristics of the Situation- the physical, social & organizational settings of the

situation or events in question can also influence perceptions Managing Perception Process 1. Have a high level of self awareness 2. Seek information from various sources to conform or disconfirm personal impressions of a decision situation 3. Be able to see a situation as it is perceived by other people 4. Influence Perception of other people when they are drawing incorrect or incomplete impressions of events in the work settings 5. Avoid common perceptual distortion that bias our views of people and situations 6. Avoid inappropriate attributions Learning It is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of prior experience Learning is reflected in behavior. The change in behavior should occur as a result of experience practice & training. Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning- by I.P. Pavlov established a Stimulus-Response (S-R) connection. It introduces a simple cause & effect relationship b/n one stimulus & one response. Operant Conditioning- by B.F. Skinner, it induces a voluntary change in behavior and learning occurs as a consequence of such change. Behavior is repeated if the consequences are avourable & vice versa Cognitive Learning- it refers to the individuals thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understanding, or ideas about himself and his environment. It was done by Tolman. Social Learning- ability of an individual to learn by observing models- parents, teachers, peers, motion, pictures, TV artists, bosses & others.