5

TH
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION 2006, SAN MIGUEL REGLA HIDALGO, M

EXICO, AUGUST 25-28, 2006. 1

A methodology for modeling based on fuzzy
clustering - cubic splines for nonlinear systems
Julio Cesar Ramos Fern andez
1
, Virgilio L opez Morales
2
, Gilles Enea
3
, Jean Duplaix
4
.
AbstractThis paper proposes a novel methodology based on
fuzzy clustering and cubic splines for modeling nonlinear systems.
The Gustafson-Kessel (G-K) algorithm is used in order to classify
clusters with linear domains. At least in each three different and
ordered consecutive clusters (with linear trend), there are two
points of inexion, one maximum and one minimum. Then, a
cubic spline can be synthesized, and the intersection with the
next spline is smoothing via fuzzy sub-models. An advantage of
this approach is a reduction on rules number, and consequently
an important reduction of Takagi-Sugeno (T-S) models. We obtain
models with the rule-base, which have trapezoidal membership
functions for input and cubic spline for output. An example is
proposed to illustrate our modeling approach.
Keywordsmodels reduction, fuzzy modeling, local models,
cubic spline.
I. INTRODUCTION
In control engineering, modeling and identication are
important steps in the design of control laws, supervision and
fault-detection systems. Traditionally modeling is seen as a
conjunction of a thorough understanding of the systems nature
and behavior, and of a suitable mathematical treatment that
leads to an usable model. This approach is usually termed
white box (physical, mechanistic, rst-principle) modeling
[Babu ska, 1998].
The identication problem consists of estimating the param-
eters in the model. If representative process data is available,
black-box usually models can be developed easily, without
requiring process specic knowledge. A severe drawback of
this approach is that the structure and parameters of these
models usually do not have any physical signicance. There
is a range of modeling techniques that attempt to combine the
advantages of the white-box and black-box, such that the know
parts of the systems are modelled using physical knowledge,
and the unknown or less certain parts are approximated in a
black-box approach, using process data and black-box model-
ing structures with suitable approximation properties. These
methods are often denoted as hybrid, semi-mechanistic or
The work of Julio Cesar Ramos Fern andez is partially supported by the
PROMEP grant and ANUIES-SEP-CONACyT/ECOS NORD, M02:M03. The
work of Virgilio L opez Morales is partially supported by the SEP-SESIC-
PROMEP research project grant PROMEP - UAEH-PTC-1004 and ANUIES-
SEP-CONACyT/ECOS-NORD, M02:M03.
1
Author is at the Universidad Tecnol ogica de Tula-Tepeji, Col. El
33 El Carmen Tula de Allende Hidalgo, Mexico;
2
Author is at the
Universidad Aut onoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Centro de Investigaci on
en Tecnologas de Informaci on y Sistemas, Carr. Pachuca-Tulancingo
Km. 4.5, C.P. 42090, Pachuca, HGO, M exico;
3,4
Authors are at
the Laboratoire des Sciences de lInformation et des Syst emes UMR-
CNRS 6168 Equipe COSI, Universit e du Sud-Toulon Var, La Garde.
jramos@uttt.edu.mx, virgilio@uaeh.edu.mx,
[enea,duplaix]@univ-tln.fr
gray modeling [Lafont and Balmat, 2003], [Babu ska, 1998].
The modeling approach proposed in this paper is based on
fuzzy models, which describe relationships between variables
by means of If-Then rules, such as:
R
i
: If x is region A Then y = f(x) (1)
where R
i
is the number of rules or models. Among the differ-
ent fuzzy models methods, the T-S has attracted most attention
[Tanaka and Wang, 2001]. In fact this model consist of rules
like [1], with fuzzy antecedents (region A) and mathematical
functions in the consequent part (y = f(x)). In this paper
we obtain fuzzy models by using G-K algorithm to detect
consecutive linear regions. A cubic spline is calculated by each
three linear regions. An important issue in fuzzy-rule-based
modeling is how to select a set of important fuzzy rules from
the rule base can result in a compact fuzzy model with better
generalizing ability. In [Yen and Wang, 1999] it is introduced
several orthogonal transformation-based methods that provide
new or alternative tools for parameters and rule selection.
Orthogonal Least Squares (OLS) method is used to remove
redundant or less important clusters during the clustering
process. The drawbacks on these approaches is the initializa-
tion of clustering process with an overestimated number of
clusters. The big question is how many number of clusters
in the partition are overestimated?. In [Setnes et al., 1998]
it is shown some results to reduce the number of initials
models by using a measure of similarity between the initial
fuzzy sets. Therefore the fuzzy sets with redundant information
are merged to create a common fuzzy set to replace them
in the rule base. In nonlinear systems identication, both
the amplitude and frequency contents of the input signals
are of major importance [Johansen and Murray-Smith, 2000].
The principal components analysis (PCA) allows to reduce
a complex correlation systems into a smaller number of
dimensions, in [Pessel and Balmat, 2005], a reduction in the
matrix of variables input/output is achieved, an application on
a real system (an experimental greenhouse) with a neuronal
modeling. A drawback is that reduction on input variables or
excitations of the modeling, avoid the possibility to design
control laws. Several works with the B-spline basis functions
of different orders are regarded as a class of a membership
functions. Recently, splines have also been proposed for neu-
ronal network modelling [Brown and Harris, 1987] and design
of fuzzy controllers using periodical non uniform B-spline
In [Shimojima et al., 1994] it is proposed a self-tuning fuzzy
inference neuronal networks of membership functions that
are represented by spline function. A key problem is on the
obtention of the region of the spline in order compute the knots
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION 2006, SAN MIGUEL REGLA HIDALGO, M

EXICO, AUGUST 25-28, 2006. 2

position of the spline, since the shape of the spline function
depends of the knots.
Several algorithms for ordinary least squares regression
spline tting are to exhibit in [Thomas, 2002], an important
issue associated with it is the choice of a theoretical best set
of knots. Typically these best knot sets are dened implicitly
as the optimizers of some objective functions.
The methodology proposed in this paper is on the rule-based
structure proposed by T-S, where it is used linear consequents.
The advantages with our approach is a reduction in the rule-
based, and the consequents are nonlinear (cubic) with constant
parameters. We thought that the cubic consequents may char-
acterizer the transients or nonlinearity of the system better
than the linear consequents (T-S modeling). Our methodology
proposed in this paper for modeling nonlinear systems is based
in fuzzy clustering. Because fuzzy clustering classies objets
according to similarities among them, and the organizing of
data in groups. The term similarity should be understood as
mathematical similarity, measured in some well-dened sense.
In metric spaces, similarity is often dened by means of a
distance norm [Bezdek et al., 1981].
This paper has the following structure, in Section 2, we
describe the algorithm of G-K and the knot selection,
and its ability to detect linear regions, by using its
eigenvalues of the covariance matrix on each cluster
obtained. In Section 3, the interpolation cubic spline
algorithm is explained, and we obtain cubic polynomials, are
obtained for the local interpolation, on the interpretation of
local models. This approach is widely used by different
authors, but they was computed linear consequents,
[Babu ska, 1998], [Trabelsi et al., 2004], [Yen et al., 1998],
[Foulloy et al., 2003], [Tanaka and Wang, 2001],
[Sam and Rui, 1993], [Bernal Reza, 2005]. Our approach
proposes cubic consequents with the following:
y(x) = a
3
x
3
+a
2
x
2
+a
1
x +a
0
. (2)
In Section 4 the fuzzy modeling is obtained. The antecedents
are dened by trapezoidal membership function, and the
consequents by cubic equations. Section 5 discusses the main
results and gives the concluding remarks.
II. GUSTAFSON-KESSEL ALGORITHM AND KNOT
SELECTION
The G-K algorithm is a derived from de basic fuzzy c-
means (FCM), by adapting distance norm, in order to de-
tect clusters of different geometrical shapes in one data set
[Babu ska, 1998], another algorithm that use the adapting dis-
tance norm is based on fuzzy maximum likelihood estimates
clustering (FMLE).
Each cluster has its own norm-inducing matrix A
i
, which
yields the following inner-product norm:
D
2
ikA
i
= (z
k
v
i
)
T
A
i
(z
k
v
i
) (3)
in the FCM algorithm the matrices A
i
are identity matrix
(I), in G-K algorithm the matrices A
i
employing an adaptive
distance norm. The cost function of the G-K algorithm is
dened by:
J(Z; U, V, A) =

c
i=1

N
k=1
(
ik
)
m
D
2
ikA
(4)
where U M
fc
, V
nc
and m > 1.
Denition 1. (fuzzy partition space) Let
Z ={z
1
, z
2
, ..., z
N
} be a nite set and let 2 c N be an in-
teger. The fuzzy partitioning space for data matrix Z is the set
M
fc
=
_
U
cn

ik
[0, 1] , i, k;
c

i=1

ik
= 1, k;
0 <
N

k=1

ik
< N, i
_
.
The ith row of the fuzzy partition matrix U contains values
of the ith membership function of the fuzzy subset A
i
of Z.
The next constraint inequalities [5], [6], and [7], they must
be well considered, when programming the G-K algorithm or
any derived from the basic algorithm FCM like the algorithms
e.g., c-varieties, and c-elliptotype, FMLE.

ik
[0, 1], 1 i c, 1 k N, (5)

c
i=1

ik
= 1 1 k N, (6)
0 <

N
k=1

ik
< N, 1 i c. (7)
A solution for equation [4] in the G-K algorithm is reported
in [Babu ska, 1998] and [Foulloy et al., 2003].
Constraint inequalities and equalities are considered, al-
lowing the matrix A
i
to vary with its determinant xed
corresponds to optimizing the clusters shape while its volume
remains constant:
|A
i
| =
i
,
i
> 0, i (8)
Using the Lagrange multiplier method, the following expres-
sion for A
i
is obtained:
A
i
= [
i
det (F
i
)]
1/n
F
1
i
(9)
where F
i
is the fuzzy covariance matrix of the ith cluster
dened by:
F
i
=
_

N
k=1
(
ik
)
m
(z
k
v
i
)(z
k
v
i
)
T
_

N
k=1
(
ik
)
m
_
1 (10)
where m is a fuzziness parameter (1 < m < ),
also called weighted exponent, which is proposed by the
user. In [Foulloy et al., 2003], it is illustrate via simula-
tions, the geometric cluster shape when varying m, in
[Ramos-Fern andez et al., 2006] it is shown the membership
function when m = 1.1 by using FCM algorithm.
In this paper we xed the parameters m = 2 and
i
= 1.
In [Babu ska, 1998] and [Foulloy et al., 2003] it is proposed

i
= 1, where there are not any prior knowledge, the clusters
volume and cluster shape. A drawback of the G-K algorithm
is that due to the constraints [8], The method can only nd
clusters of approximately equal volumes [Babu ska, 1998].
Remark 1. The eigen-structure of the cluster covariance
matrix provides information about the shape and orientation
of the cluster. The radio of the lengths of the clusters hyper-
ellipsoid axes is given by the radio of the square roots of
5
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION 2006, SAN MIGUEL REGLA HIDALGO, M

EXICO, AUGUST 25-28, 2006. 3

V
B
A
F
1
F
2
x
y
Fig. 1. Flat ellipsoid, linear subspace.
the eigenvalues of F
i
. The directions of the axes are given
by the unitary eigenvectors of F
i
, it is show en the Figure
1, the longest axis of the ellipsoid in direction spanned by
the eigenvector
1
, is given by A, and it represents a linear
subspace, where A =

1
corresponds to the eigenvalue the
longest axis. The smallest axis of the ellipsoid spanned by the
eigenvector
2
, is given by B =

2
, is the smallest linear
subspace given by the ellipsoid, V is the center of cluster. Lin-
ear subspaces of the data space are represented by at hyper-
ellipsoid, which can seen as hyperplane. The eigenvector cor-
responding to the smallest eigenvalue determines the normal
to the hyperplane, and can be used to compute optimal local
linear models from the covariance matrix [Babu ska, 1998]. In
this paper it is which to calculate the longest axis with their
corresponding eigenvalue and eigenvector. The key idea is to
take the longest axis by each cluster calculated. In this way,
consecutive three cluster can be regrouped in an automatic
way and a cubic spline can be imposed by each three linear
models (longest axis).
A common problem to solve in parametric polynomial
or spline curve from a sequence of points, is choose the
parameter values corresponding to the interpolation points
[Jetter et al., 2005], like the initial knot and nal knot. We can
used clustering methods for chose initial and nal knots. We
use the same example cited in [Babu ska, 1998]. A nonlinear
SISO system for didactic analysis and easy comprehension is
review. The system is the univariate nonlinear function given
by:
y = 0.0001 sin(0.001x
2
) x
3
+, x [0, 100] (11)
where N(0, 25) is a normally distributed random noise.
Remark 2. The G-K algorithm or any other derived from
the FCM basic algorithm , gives the numbers indices aleatory
ordered on the centers of the clusters. Since the randomly
initialization on the partition matrix. As the process of search
of the best centers clusters is iterative, it nds the centers
by the best similarity between the database, and the rst
centers detected are the best initialized or the best grouped.
It is necessary to ordered the centers, with respect to an
independent variable. The rst center of the clustering has to
be the nearest of the initial data.
See Figure 2, the SISO system from the equation [11]
is classied with G-K algorithm with ve clusters. Each
cluster correspond a linear model. The slope by each model
is obtained by using the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors.
The pairs (k1, k2), (k3, k4),...,(k9, k10) are the coordinates
corresponding to the eigenvalues and their respective unitary
eigenvector, c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
5
are the centers of clusters. By taking
these coordinates, it is delimited the knots in the interpolation
using cubic spline. The rst cubic spline correspond since the
rst cluster (c
1
) up to the third cluster (c
3
). The subsequent
cubic spline have to be overlapped, e.g., the third cluster with
the fourth cluster. Then the second spline goes from the third
cluster up to the ve cluster (c
5
). Observe that an important
reduction (50 percent) in the rule-base is obtained, by using
cubic spline consequents.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
x
y
k4 k1 k2 k3 k5
c2
c1
k7 k6
k8 k9 k10
c3
c4
c5
Fig. 2. Five local linear models using G-K algorithm.
Algorithm 1 (Gustafson-Kessel). Given the data set Z,
choose the number of cluster 1 < c < N, the weighting
exponent m > 1 and the termination tolerance > 0. Initialize
the partition matrix randomly, such that U
0
M
fc
Repeat for
l = 1, 2, ... Step 1: Compute clusters prototypes, 1 i c:
v
l
i
=
_

N
k=1
_

l1
ik
_
m
z
k
_

N
k=1
_

l1
ik
_
m
_
1
(12)
Step 2: Compute the cluster covariance matrices, 1 i
c:
F
i
=
_

N
k=1
(
l1
ik
)
m
(z
k
v
l
i
)(z
k
v
l
i
)
T
_

N
k=1
(
l1
ik
)
m
_
1 (13)
Step 3: Compute the distances, 1 i c, 1 k N:
D
2
ikAi
= (z
k
v
l
i
)
T
_

i
det(F
i
)
1/n
F
1
i
_
(z
k
v
l
i
) (14)
Step 4: Update the partition matrix, if (D
ikA
i
> 0), for
(1 i c, 1 k N):

l
ik
=
_

c
j=1
_
D
ikAi/
D
jkA
i
_
2
/
(m1)
_1
(15)
otherwise

l
ik
= 0 if D
ikA
i
> 0, and
l
ik
[0, 1] with

c
i=1

l
ik
= 1.
Until
_
_
U
l
U
l1
_
_
<
III. INTERPOLATION CUBIC SPLINE ALGORITHM, AND
CUBIC CONSEQUENT
In this paper we have integrated two well known technics:
fuzzy clustering, and cubic spline interpolation. The goal is to
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EXICO, AUGUST 25-28, 2006. 4

obtained a structure in the rule base with cubic consequents.
The main steps are: for each rule a submodel is obtained, the
consequents are analytical functions, a reduction in the rule
base compared with the T-S models with linear consequents.
The algorithm that we have used for the cubic spline interpola-
tion is shown in [Mad ar et al., 2003]. The rst version appears
in [Horiuchi et al., 1993]. The cubic splines are dened as
a continuous function and tted to the available measured
data system input/output (SISO). The input/output vector Y =
[y
1
, ..., y
N
]
T
, X = [x
1
, ..., x
N
]
T
, which are dened by each
pair of knot: [K
1
1
, K
1
2
], [K
2
1
, K
2
2
], ..., [K
n1
1
, K
n
2
].
In order to formulate this algorithm, let us dene a cubic
spline for a knot sequence of cubic polynomials: x
1
= K
1
1
<
K
1
2
< K
2
1
< < K
n
2
= x
N
. By each pair of knots [K
i
1
, K
i
2
]
there is a cubic spline, where K
i
1
is the initial knot for the
ith cubic submodel and K
i
2
is the nal knot in the ith cubic
submodel.
K
1
1
K
2
1
K
1
2
K
2
2
SPLINECUBIC1
SPLINECUBIC2
Lk3 lk4 Lk2 Lk7 Lk8 lk5 lk6 Lk9 lk10
c
3
c
4
c
1
c
2
c
5
Lk1 Lx
N
Lx
1
* * * * *
Fig. 3. [K
1
1
, K
1
2
] knots for the rst cubic spline, [K
2
1
, K
2
2
] knots for
the second cubic spline, c
1
, ..., c
5
are the centers of the G-K algorithm,
k1, ..., k10, are the eigenvalues of the ellipsoids.
Algorithm 2. (Cubic Spline Approximation). Given the
data set Z = [[y
K
i
1
, ..., y
K
i
2
]
T
; [x
K
i
1
, ..., x
K
i
2
]
T
], and the pair
of knots, [K
i
1
, K
i
2
]. In order to include the rst data K
1
1
= x
1
,
and the nal knot K
1
2
= k6, for the rst cubic spline model,
see Figure 2 and Figure 3. The subsequent knots K
i
1
= k
j
and K
i
2
= k
l
, j = j + 2; l = l + 4 initial values j =
3, l = 6, where j is the value on the axis x for the center
of cluster (c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
5
), and l indices of the coordinates of
the eigenvalues with their respective eigenvector unitary. See
Figure 3, where the region of the rst cubic spline submodel
it is between [x
1
, ..., k6], and the region for the second cubic
spline is between [c
3
, ..., x
N
], both submodels overlapping
between c
3
and k6.
The cubic spline has the following structure:
S(x) = s
p
1
a(x
K
i
1,2
) +s
p
2
b(x
K
i
1,2
) +s
1
c(x
K
i
1,2
) +s
2
d(x
K
i
1,2
)
(16)
where the variable x
K
i
1,2
is the value of x within x
K
i
1
and
x
K
i
2
.
Step 1: Calculate the internal coefcients:
h
i
= K
i
2
K
i
1
(17)
for K
i
1
x
K
i
1,2
K
i
2
a(x
K
i
1,2
) =
_
(K
i
2
x
K
i
1,2
)
2
(x
K
i
1,2
K
i
1
)
_
(h
i
)
2
(18)
b(x
K
i
1,2
) =
_
(K
i
2
x
K
i
1,2
)(x
K
i
1,2
K
i
1
)
2
_
(h
i
)
2
(19)
c(x
K
i
1,2
) =
_
(K
i
2
x
K
i
1,2
)
2
(2(x
K
i
1,2
K
i
1
) +h
i
)
_
(h
i
)
3
(20)
d(x
K
i
1,2
) =
_
(x
K
i
1,2
K
i
1
)
2
(2(K
i
2
x
K
i
1,2
) +h
i
)
_
(h
i
)
3
(21)
end
Step 2: Linear least squares: Since each cubic spline
model, is linear in the parameters (see equation [16]), an
optimization method can be employed, where [22] is the linear
parameter vector.
= (s
1
, s
p
1
, s
2
, s
p
2
)
T
(22)
hence, can be determined by minimizing the following cost
function:
J() = X
2
(23)
where
=
_

_
c(x
K
i
1
)
.
.
.
c(x
K
i
2
)
a(x
K
i
1
)
.
.
.
a(x
K
i
2
)
d(x
K
i
1
)
.
.
.
d(x
K
i
2
)
b(x
K
i
1
)
.
.
.
b(x
K
i
2
)
_

_ (24)
The problem can be solved analytically by the ordinary linear
least squares (LS) method:
= (
T
)
1

T
X, X
_
x
K
i
1
, x
K
i
2
_
. (25)
Step 3: Cubic splines polynomials: The cubic polynomials
are obtained by the mathematical expressions [16], [22], and
by algebraic manipulation. In Figure 4, show two cubic poly-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
80
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
x
cubic Spline 1
cubic Spline 2
Fig. 4. Two cubic models, with smoothing.
nomials that approximated the real output from the equation
[11]. Where, the equation [26] is the cubic spline 1, and
equation [27] cubic spline 2, by using the Algorithm 1 and
2. The approach proposed is smoothing, respect to the real
output.
y
1
s
= 0.0010 x
3
+ 0.0814 x
2
1.453 x + 12.858. (26)
y
2
s
= 0.0252 x
3
+ 5.919 x
2
455.131 x + 11476. (27)
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION 2006, SAN MIGUEL REGLA HIDALGO, M

EXICO, AUGUST 25-28, 2006. 5

0 20 40 60 80 100
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
x

Membership
function cubic spline 1
Membership
function cubic spline 2
Fig. 5. The trapezoidal membership functions, for the fuzzy modeling.
0 20 40 60 80 100
100
50
0
50
100
x
y
0 20 40 60 80 100
40
20
0
20
40
x
e
cubic spline
fuzzy modeling
Fig. 6. Validation of the fuzzy modeling, the real output and the model
proposed (up), the error calculated by equation [32](down).
IV. THE FUZZY MODELING
By using the results computed by the Algorithm 1, see
Figure 3, taking the knots, gravity centers and eigenvalues,
the trapezoidal membership functions (TRMF) are built. A
TRMF is calculated by four parameters (a,b,c,d), it is cited
Matlab
c
technical computing software. The rst TRMF is
dened by the parameters: a = b = x
1
, c = c
3
, and d = k6.
The parameters for the second TRMF for the fuzzy modeling
example are: a = c
3
, b = k6, c = d = x
N
. Note that in each
region overlapped by two trapezoidal membership functions,
the sum of the membership functions is one, see Fig. 5.
A. The Defuzzycation
The approach of the weighted average of the rule conse-
quents, is well known for the T-S modeling. One advantage
by using weighted average is their computational simplicity
in the implementation. This criterion is particulary important
for fuzzy control because controllers operate in real time
[Wang, 1997]. The equation [28] solve the weighted average
of the rules.
y =
_

M
i=1

i
(x) y
i
s
_

M
i=1

i
(x)
_
1
(28)
where
i
(x) is the degree of activation of the ith rule.

i
(x) =
n

j=1

A
ij
(x
j
), i = 1, 2, ..., M, (29)
where x
j
is the jth input vector to the system, M is the number
of rule, y
i
s
is the cubic polynomial computed,
A
ij
(x
j
)
[0, 1] is the membership function of the fuzzy set
A
ij
in the
antecedent of the rule R
i
, see equation [1]. The rule-based by
the fuzzy model , consist of two rules:
R
1
: If x is region 1 Then y
1
s
(30)
R
2
: If x is region 2 Then y
2
s
(31)
The validation is achieved by different sets of data input/output
(see Figure 6). The error is obtained with the following
equation:
e = y y, (32)
where y is the approximated output, and y is the real output.
The approximation by the fuzzy modeling proposed in this
paper, allow us to obtain: smoothing submodels, transparent
rule-based models, and analytical consequents.
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS
We have presented a modeling method for fuzzy rule-based
models from systems SISO measurements data, which provide
a good accuracy as well transparency with smoothing trend
and low complexity of the resulting rule base. The approach
has been applied on a modeling of nonlinear system problem
from the literature. Our thought, that the cubic consequents
catch the nonlinear nature of the phenomena better than linear
consequents. Our approach preservers some characteristics to
derived further information (rst and second derivative). A
drawback in our approach, is that linear control techniques can
not be used natural straight forward. Then, a novel search area
points head start, for an operational research on the schemes
of fuzzy modeling for control, using this modeling approach.
Our aim is to obtain a new methodology for fuzzy modeling
for control, with an easy implementation in systems on real
time.
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