A Review of Key Networking Concepts

A Review of Key Networking Concepts
Dr. Arjan Durresi The Ohio State University Columbus, OH 43210 Durresi@CIS.Ohio-State.Edu These slides are available at: http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/~durresi/cis777-03/
The Ohio State University
2- Networking Concepts - 1
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Overview
Telecommunications tools to improve communications ! ISO/OSI Reference Model ! Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 LANs ! Interconnecting Devices All these concepts are taught in CIS677.
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Communication
Exchange of Information (Communication), makes possible the Human society and the civilization ! Improvements in communication - milestones in the history of civilization " Language " Writing " Books " Electronic communication, Internet
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Tools created to increase and enhance our capabilities: " Cars, Airplanes, Microscopes, Telescopes " Telegraph , Telephone to communicate " Computers born to store and process information " Computers to communicate; Network - more than two computers ! Each epoch in human history is dominated by one tool: " Industrial Revolution: Steam engine " Information Age: Computers and networks ! The Internet is the universal medium of communication
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Communication with computers
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In 1890 simple telephone networks with manually operated switches circuit switching ! Operators replaced by mechanical switches and 100 years later by electronic switches
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Evolution of Networks
Electronic switches and exchange control information using the common channel signaling (CCS)
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Since 1980s Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) for the transmission links of the telephone networks ! Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) integration of data and voice ! Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) > 1.5 Mbps downstream
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RS-232C
Up to 38kbps over short distances (less than 30m) ! Serial transmission one character at a time ! Each character => 7 bits + 1bit parity
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Synchronous Transmission
The first computer networks designed to share largescale computers ! HDLC family ! Packet based => header + data + CRC
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Store-and-forward Packet Switching
To interconnect many computers ! Statistical multiplexing more efficient than timedivision multiplexing ! ARPNET late 1960s " The network is peripheral
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Emergence of LANs ! In the 1990s Internet becomes a commercial success ! Internet has been doubling is size every nine months ! From If a company is important it is online to If a company is not on line it doesnt exist ! The impact of Internet: " Economic, Education, Government, etc.
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Local Area Networks
Emergence of LANs ! Ethernet 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps ! Ethernet everywhere: LAN and WAN
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LAN
Token Ring better performance than Ethernet ! Avoid collisions ! Handle priorities ! FDDI up to 100Mbps ! Data + Real time traffic
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Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Switched technology total throughput much larger than shared medium ones ! 53 bytes cell. Integration of data and voice. ! Very good QOS ! Complex, less scalable than Ethernet and IP, no native applications
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Always more speed

DWDM
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Cable Television Networks
! ! ! ! !
CATV delivers TV in more than 50% of US households High Speed Internet Access. Cable modems: 45 Mbps downstream, 1.5 Mbps upstream Sharing Security issues No cable in offices But new revenue for providers
Historical Maps of Computer Networks

http://www.cybergeography.org/atlas/historical.html ! The pioneering research of Paul Baran in the 1960s, who envisioned a communications network that would survive a major enemy attacked. ! Donald Davies, a pioneer in networking in the 1960s ! A good book Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet, by Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon
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Trend: Convergence
Entertainment Video Games Publishing News Cable TV Advertising Digital Media Production
Telephone
Computer Digital Media Storage/ Handling
Video Voice Transport Transport
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Convergence (Cont)
Content Computing Communications ! Merging of Content Providers and Content transporters ! Phone companies, cable companies, entertainment industry, and computer companies ! Single department for telephone and computer networking ! LAN/WAN convergence
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Social Impact of Networking
From : To be important should be online to: To exist should be online

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No need to get out for " Office " Shopping " Entertainment " Education
Virtual Schools ! Virtual Cash ! Virtual Workplace ! 165 Million US online users
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Cave Persons of 2050
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Networking Trends ?
Networking Bottleneck Bandwidth bps more important that CPU speed ! Networking Age - Internet-based Economy ! Internet Growth - High ! Data > Voice Networking and Telecom Merger ! Quality of Service Holy Grail for the research ! Optical Networks The promise for unlimited bandwidth ! The Internet - the universal medium of communication
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How Fast is the Internet Growing?

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IP Traffic Growth will slow down from 200-300% per year to 60% by 2005
- McKinsey & Co and JP Morgan, May 16, 2001
98% of fiber is unlit - WSJ, New York Times, Forbes (Fiber is a small fraction of cost. Laying is expensive.) ! Nortel blamed sales decline on falling IP traffic ! Carriers are using only avg 2.7% of their total lit fiber capacity - Michael Ching, Marril Lynch & Co. in Wall Street
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Journal
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The Bubble
Networking Spending Dot Coms CLECs Y2K
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

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Sidgmore: Internet Traffic doubling every 40 days, 30 days, Over-projection data networking equipment Nearly 1/3 of all tech IPOs over the last 21 years happened in 1999 and 2000. Source:Morgan Stanely/Chi at Opticomm
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CLEC - Competitive Local Exchange Carrier ILEC - Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers
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Internet Growth (Cont)

! !
Demand on 14 of 22 most used routes exceeds 70%

-Telechoice, July 19, 2001
Traffic grew by a factor of 4 between April 2000April 2001

-Larry Roberts, August 15, 2001
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Total U.S. Internet Traffic

20 Largest Tier 1 U.S. Internet Service Providers 60 50 40 Total U.S. Internet Traffic 30 20 10
3.0/yr Average Growth Rate
PetaBytes/month
ISPs
0
Jan 00 Apr 00 Jul 00 Oct 00 Jan 01 Apr 01 Jul 01 Oct 01 Jan 02
Source: Roberts et al., 2002

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Moores Law is Too Slow

70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 1 2 3 Traffic
Moore's Law 4 5 6
Years
Moores Law: Factor of 2 every 1.5 years 60%/year ! Internet Traffic: Factor of 4 per year Need for more Networks, QoS, Optical Switching
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Voice vs Data: Traffic vs Revenue

100% 80% 60%
Aug 2000 IP Traffic IP Revenue Aug 2002 Voice Traffic Voice Revenue
40% 20% 0% Jan-00
Jan-01
Jan-02
Jan-03
Jan-04
Jan-05
Source: L. Roberts at Opticomm 2001

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Trend: Traffic > Capacity
"You can never be too rich, too thin, or have too much bandwidth" Expensive Bandwidth Cheap Bandwidth ! Sharing ! No sharing ! Multicast ! Unicast ! Virtual Private Networks ! Private Networks ! Need QoS ! QoS less of an issue ! Likely in WANs ! Possible in LANs
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Technology depends on the Socio-technical System " Social, Political, Economic, Institutional ! Not simply the rational product of scientists and engineers. ! Technology makes sense when seen as part of the society ! Examples: " Automobile engines: Internal combustion vs. steam " Network technologies: ! OSI vs. TCP/IP vs. ATM, Ethernet vs. Token Ring, ISDN vs. fax ! Future: Quality of Service mechanisms over the Internet
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Is Technology only technical stuff ?
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The right Trade off in Networking

Need Cost
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Complexity
User is the King => Pays the bill ! What does the user really need? ! Killer applications are key for the success of a particular technology ! In todays Internet the driving need is connectivity " Email and web browser killer applications, which dont need more QOS ! Future Internet, new applications + more QOS ?
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Dealing with Network Complexity

Network complexity: " Many technologies with different features " Not all standards are compatible, from different organizations " Multiple technologies to interconnect the networks " No single underlying theory that explains the relationship among the parts ! How to learn about the networking ? " Focus on the concepts, go beyond the details " When needed is easy to go from concepts to details " Concepts are borrowed among technologies.
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ISO/OSI Reference Model

3 2 1 Application Presentation Session Transport Network Datalink Physical File transfer, Email, Remote Login ASCII Text, Sound Establish/manage connection End-to-end communication: TCP Routing, Addressing: IP Two party communication: Ethernet How to transmit signal: Coding
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TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP = Transport Control Protocol ! IP = Internet Protocol (Routing)
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TCP/IP Ref Model Application Transport Internetwork Host to Network
TCP/IP Protocols
OSI Ref Model Application Presentation Session Transport Network Datalink Physical
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FTP
Telnet HTTP UDP IP
TCP
Ether Packet Point-tonet Radio Point

Layered Packet Format

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Nth layer control info is passed as N-1th layer data. FTP FTP Data Header TCP Header IP Header TCP Data IP Data Ethernet Data
Ethernet Header
Ethernet Trailer
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Hour-glass model:
" " "
Internet Protocol IP
Glue of the Internet, Everything over IP, and IP over everything The single common language
Implemented at both hosts and routers ! Accommodating heterogeneity ! Minimalist approach. Best effort datagram service ! One of the main reasons of the Internets success
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TCP,UDP IP ATM,Ethern.
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Internet Architecture
! Defined
(IETF) ! Hourglass Design ! Application vs. Application Protocol (FTP, HTTP) FTP HTTP NV TFTP
TCP UDP
by Internet Engineering Task Force
IP
NET 1
NET 2
NET n
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TCP/IP Networking Architecture
Router = Intermediate Node

End host A FTP
FTP Protocol
End host B Application
TCP
TCP Protocol IP Protocol IP Protocol
Transport
IP Ethernet Driver
IP Ethernet Driver
IP Ethernet Driver
Network Ethernet Driver
Ethernet Protocol
One or more nodes within the network
Ethernet Protocol
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OS / SO Ne wo g OSI/ISO Networking Architecture

End host Application End host Application Presentation Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Network
Network
Data link
Data link
Data link
Data link
Physical
Physical
Physical
Physical
One or more nodes within the network
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OSI vs TCP Reference Models

! ! ! ! ! !
OSI introduced concept of services, interface, protocols These were force-fitted to TCP later It is not easy to replace protocols in TCP. In OSI, reference model was done before protocols. In TCP, protocols were done before the model OSI: Standardize first, build later TCP: Build first, standardize later OSI took too long to standardize. TCP/IP was already in wide use by the time. OSI became too complex. TCP/IP is not general. Ad hoc.
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Coding Terminology
Pulse Bit
!
+5V 0 -5V
Signal element: Pulse ! Modulation Rate: 1/Duration of the smallest element =Baud rate ! Data Rate: Bits per second ! Data Rate = Fn(Bandwidth, signal/noise ratio, encoding)
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Channel Capacity
Capacity = Maximum data rate for a channel ! Nyquist Theorem: ! Bilevel Encoding: Data rate = 2 Bandwidth
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1 5V 0 0 Multilevel coding: Data rate = 2 Bandwidth log2 M 10 11 01 00 Example: M=4, Capacity = 4 Bandwidth
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Channel Capacity (Cont)

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Bilevel Encoding: Worst case: 1010101010 Cycle time = 2 Bit time Data rate = 2 Bandwidth
1 5V 0 0 Multilevel coding: Worst case 0011001100110011 Cycle time = 4 Bit time Data rate = 2 Bandwidth log2 M 11 11 00 00 11 00 11 00
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11
00
Channel Capacity (cont.)

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Bilevel Coding: Worst case: 1010101010

5V 0 0 1 0 Time 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 Frequency 3F
Bilevel Coding: not worst case: 111000111000

0 Time 0 0 0 F Frequency
5V 0
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Shannon's Theorem
! !
Bandwidth = B Hz Signal-to-noise ratio = S/N Maximum number of bits/sec CMAX = B log2 (1+S/N) " Application of Second Law of Thermodynamic " When more than CMAX, information becomes noise Example: Phone wire bandwidth = 3100 Hz S/N = 30 dB, 10 Log 10 S/N = 30 Log 10 S/N = 3, S/N = 103 = 1000 Capacity = 3100 log 2 (1+1000) = 30,894 bps Compression : Code repetitive patterns with a shorter data set " Example: Code XXXXXX (6 bytes) with 2 bytes
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Nyquists vs. Shannons Theorem
Nyquists Theorem: " Explore ways to encode bits " Clever encoding allows more bits to be transmitted per unit time, for example multilevel encoding ! Shannons Theorem: " No amount of clever encoding can overcome the laws of physics
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Data vs Signal
Data 1010
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Signal
Data
Data: Analog (Music), Digital (files) ! Signal: Analog (POTS, Radio), Digital (ISDN) Data Analog Digital Analog Digital
Signal Analog Analog Digital Digital
Examples Modulation AM, FM Coding/Keying ASK, FSK, PSK Modulation PCM, ADPCM Coding Manchester, NRZ
Bit Stuffing
! ! !
Delimit with special bit pattern (bit flags) Stuff bits if pattern appears in data Remove stuffed bits at destination 0 11111 11111 11111 10010
Transmitter
01111110 0 111110 111110 111110 10010 01111110
Receiver
0 11111 11111 11111 10010
Flag
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What Goes Wrong in the Network?

Bit-level errors (electrical interference) ! Packet-level errors (congestion) ! Link and node failures ! Messages are delayed ! Messages are deliver out-of-order ! Third parties eavesdrop ! The key problem is to fill in the gap between what applications expect and what the underlying technology provides.
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Flow Control
Flow Control = Sender does not flood the receiver, but maximizes throughput ! Sender throttled until receiver grants permission ! Methods: " Stop and wait " Sliding window
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Error Control
Error Control = Deliver frames without error, in the proper order to network layer ! Error control Mechanisms: " Ack/Nak: Provide sender some feedback about other end " Time-out: for the case when entire packet or ack is lost " Sequence numbers: to distinguish retransmissions from originals ! ARQ: Stop and Wait, Selective Reject, Go-back n
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Data entering network divided into chunks called "packets'' packets traversing network share network resources (e.g., link bandwidth, buffers) with other packets. Resource use: statistical resource sharing Resource demands may exceed available resources :
"
Packet Switched
A and B packets arrive at R1, destined for C : resource contention: queuing (waiting), delay are random
A B R1 R2 C
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Circuit Switched
! All
resources (e.g. communication links) needed by the call dedicated to that call for duration example: telephone network demands may exceed available resources; A and B want to call C: resource contention: blocking (busy signal)
A B R1 R2 C
! Resource
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Addressing and Routing

! Address:
byte-string that identifies a node " usually unique ! Routing: process of forwarding messages to the destination node based on its address ! Types of addresses " unicast: node-specific " broadcast: all nodes on the network " multicast: some subset of nodes on the network
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Multiplexing
! Time-Division
Multiplexing (TDM) ! Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

L1 L2 L3 Switch 1 Switch 2 R1 R2 R3
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Statistical Multiplexing
On-demand time-division ! Schedule link on a per-packet basis ! Packets from different sources interleaved on link ! Buffer packets that are contending for the link ! Buffer (queue) overflow is called congestion
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Why statistically share resources?

Save/make money! ! Example: 1 Mbit/sec link; each user requires 100 Kbits/sec when transmitting; each user has data to send only 10% of time. " circuit-switching: give each caller 100 Kbits/sec capacity. Can support 10 callers. " packet-switching: with 35 ongoing calls, probability that 10 or more callers simultaneously active < 0.0004! ! Can support many more callers, with small probability of` "contention.''
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Inter-Process Communication
! Turn
host-to-host connectivity into process-toprocess communication. ! Fill gap between what applications expect and what the underlying technology provides.
Host Host Application
Host Application
Channel
Host
Host
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Network Support for Applications

Network supports common process-to-process channels; ! Request/Reply: for file access and digital libraries ! Message Stream: for video applications " video: sequence of frames " resolution: 1/4 TV-size image = 352 x 240 pixels; " 24-bit color: frame = (352 x 240 x 24)/8 = 247.5KB; " frame rate: 30 fps = 7500KBps = 60Mbps " video on-demand versus video-conferencing
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! ! ! ! !
Duplexity: " Simplex: Transmit or receive " Full Duplex: Transmit and receive simultaneously " Half-Duplex: Transmit and receive alternately Error Control: Make "channel" more reliable; Error detection and recovery Flow Control: Avoid flooding slower peer Fragmentation: dividing large data chunks into smaller pieces; reassembly Multiplexing: several higher level session share single lower level connection Addressing/naming: locating, managing identifiers associated with entities
Design Issues for Layers
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Performance Metrics-Important Concepts

!
Throughput
" "
" " "
Bandwidth Bandwidth vs. throughput Amount of data that can be transmitted Delay per time unit link versus end-to-end Notation: KB = 210 bytes, Mbps = 106 bits per second Bandwidth related to bit width B = 1 Mbps B = 10 Mbps 10 bits Link 1
1 bit 1 microsecond
Link 2
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Performance Metrics-Important Concepts

!
Latency (delay) " time to send message from point A to point B " one-way versus round-trip time (RTT) " Latency = Propagation_time + Transmit_time + +Queuing _time ! Propagation_time = Distance/SpeedOfLight ! Transmit_time = SizeOfData/Bandwidth ! Queuing _time = Processing time in routers, long in case of network congestion when routers buffer the data
Performance Metrics (cont.)

! Speed
"
of light
3.0 x 108 meters/second in a vacuum " 2.3 x 108 meters/second in a cable " 2.0 x 108 meters/second in a fiber No queuing delays in direct link ! Bandwidth not relevant if Size = 1 bit ! Process-to-process latency includes software overhead ! Software overhead can dominate when Distance is small
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Relative importance of bandwidth and latency " small message (e.g., 1 byte): 1ms vs 100ms dominates 1Mbps vs 100Mbps With bandwidth = 100Mbs => transmit_time = 0.08 micros With bandwidth = 1Mbs => transmit_time = 8 micros " large message (e.g., 25 MB): 1Mbps vs 100Mbps dominates 1ms vs 100ms " With bandwidth = 1Mbs => transmit_time = 200 s " With bandwidth = 100Mbs => transmit_time = 2 s High speed networks " RTT dominates
! !
Throughput = TransferSize / TransferTime TransferTime = RTT + 1/Bandwidth x TransferSize
"
1-MB file to 1-Gbps link as 1-KB packet to 1-Mbps link


!
Delay x Bandwidth: amount of data in the pipe, important concept in network design " Example: 100ms x 45Mbps = 560KB
Bandwidth Delay
Application Needs " Bandwidth requirements: burst versus peak rate " Jitter: variance in latency (inter-packet gap)
Connection-Oriented vs Connectionless
Connection-Oriented: Telephone System " Path setup before data is sent " Data need not have address. Circuit number is sufficient. ! Connectionless: Postal System. " Complete address on each packet " The address decides the next hop at each router
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Multiple Access Protocols
(a) Multiple Access
(b) Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

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Multiple Access Protocols

Aloha at University of Hawaii: Transmit whenever you like Worst case utilization = 1/(2e) =18% ! CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access Listen before you transmit ! CSMA/CD: CSMA with Collision Detection Listen while transmitting. Stop if you hear someone else. ! Ethernet uses CSMA/CD. Standardized by IEEE 802.3 committee.
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Ethernet
The diagram was drawn by Dr. Robert M. Metcalfe in 1976 to present Ethernet to the National Computer Conference in June of that year
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Interconnection Devices
Repeater: PHY device that restores data and collision signals ! Hub: Multiport repeater + fault detection and recovery ! Bridge: Datalink layer device connecting two or more collision domains. MAC multicasts are propagated throughout extended LAN. ! Router: Network layer device. IP, IPX, AppleTalk. Does not propagate MAC multicasts. ! Switch: Multiport bridge with parallel paths These are functions. Packaging varies.
!
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Interconnection Devices
LAN= Collision Domain Application Transport Network Datalink Physical
H H
H H
Gateway Router Bridge/Switch Repeater/Hub

Router Extended LAN =Broadcast domain Application Transport Network Datalink Physical
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IEEE 802 Address Format
48-bit:1000 0000 : 0000 0001 : 0100 0011 : 0000 0000 : 1000 0000 : 0000 1100 = 80:01:43:00:80:0C
Organizationally Unique 24 bits assigned by Identifier (OUI) OUI Owner Individual/ Universal/ Group Local 24 1 1 22 ! Multicast = To all bridges on this LAN ! Broadcast = To all stations = 111111....111 = FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
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Summary
ISO/OSI reference model has seven layers. TCP/IP Protocol suite has four layers. ! Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 uses CSMA/CD. ! Addresses: Local vs Global, Unicast vs Broadcast.
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Homework 4
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For each of the following addresses: indicate whether it is a multicast and whether it is a locally assigned address? 80:03:45:00:00:00 40:03:45:00:00:01 Were these addresses assigned by the same manufacturer?
From the book: ! Due: Next class

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CIS777 SP03

A Review of Key Networking Concepts

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A Review of Key Networking Concepts

The Ohio State University

Communication with computers

The Ohio State University

The Ohio State University

The Ohio State University

The Ohio State University

Store-and-forward Packet Switching

The Ohio State University

The Ohio State University

Local Area Networks

The Ohio State University

The Ohio State University

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Always more speed

The Ohio State University

Cable Television Networks

The Ohio State University

Historical Maps of Computer Networks

The Ohio State University

Computer Digital Media Storage/ Handling

Video Voice Transport Transport

The Ohio State University

Social Impact of Networking

From : To be important should be online to: To exist should be online

The Ohio State University

Cave Persons of 2050

The Ohio State University

How Fast is the Internet Growing?

The Ohio State University

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

The Ohio State University

Internet Growth (Cont)

Demand on 14 of 22 most used routes exceeds 70%

Traffic grew by a factor of 4 between April 2000April 2001

The Ohio State University

Total U.S. Internet Traffic

3.0/yr Average Growth Rate

Source: Roberts et al., 2002

Moores Law is Too Slow

Voice vs Data: Traffic vs Revenue

40% 20% 0% Jan-00

Source: L. Roberts at Opticomm 2001

Trend: Traffic > Capacity

Is Technology only technical stuff ?

The right Trade off in Networking

Dealing with Network Complexity

ISO/OSI Reference Model

The Ohio State University

TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Ref Model Application Transport Internetwork Host to Network

Telnet HTTP UDP IP

Ether Packet Point-tonet Radio Point

The Ohio State University

Layered Packet Format

by Internet Engineering Task Force

TCP/IP Networking Architecture

Router = Intermediate Node

End host B Application

TCP Protocol IP Protocol IP Protocol

Network Ethernet Driver

One or more nodes within the network