Chapter 5: Solid Waste Management Introduction Solid waste can be defined as any solid or semi-solid substance or object resulting

from human or animal activities, discarded as useless or unwanted. It is an extremely mixed mass of wastes, which may originate from household, commercial, industrial or agricultural activities. Unmanaged heaps of waste cause adverse impacts to the environment as well as human health. Waste is a serious health hazard and lead to the spread of infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other creatures that in turn spread disease. Air pollution is another factor to be considered. Normally it is the wet waste that decomposes and releases a bad odour. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise in the health problems. Other than this, co-disposal of industrial/ residential hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to chemical and radioactive hazards. Uncollected solid waste can also obstruct storm water runoff, resulting in the forming of stagnant water bodies that become the breeding ground of disease. Wastes dumped along roads, riverbanks, abandoned quarries, seas, and lakes with the inevitable effect of contaminating water supplies as well as the whole aquatic chain. Solid waste is a broad term, which encompasses all kinds of waste such as Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), Industrial Waste (IW), Hazardous Waste (HW), Bio-Medical Waste (BMW) and Electronic waste (E-waste) depending on their source & composition. It consists of organic and inorganic constituents which may or may not be biodegradable.

TYPES OF SOLID WASTES Solid waste includes domestic wastes, municipal wastes, commercial wastes, garbage, rubbish, ashes, construction and demolition wastes, industrial wastes, hazardous wastes, hospital wastes and sewage. Domestic wastes : These wastes are generated by household activities such as cooking, cleaning, repairs, redecoration, empty containers, packaging, clothing, old books, newspapers, old furnishings, etc. Commercial wastes : Solid wastes generated in offices, wholesale stores, restaurants, hotels, markets, warehouses and other commercial establishments. These are further classified into garbage and rubbish. Institutional wastes : Wastes generated from institutions such as schools, colleges, hospitals, research institutions. The waste includes garbage, rubbish and hazardous wastes. Municipal wastes : Wastes generated due to municipal activities and services such as street waste, deadanimals, market waste and abandoned vehicles. Generally, the term is used in a wider sense to incorporate domestic wastes, institutional wastes and commercial wastes. Garbage: It includes animal and vegetable wastes due to various activities like storage, preparation and sale, cooking and serving. These are biodegradable. Ashes:

Residues from the burning of wood, charcoal and coke for cooking and heating in houses, institutions and small industries. Ashes consist of a fine powdery residue, cinders and clinker often mixed with small pieces of metal and glass. Rubbish : Apart from garbage and ashes, other solid wastes produced in households, commercial establishments, and institutions are termed as rubbish. Bulky wastes: Bulky wastes are large household appliances such as cookers, refrigerators and washing machines as well as furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees and branches. The bulky metallic wastes are sold as scrap metal but some portion is disposed as sanitary landfills. Street wastes: Street wastes include paper, cardboard, plastic, dirt, dust, leaves and other vegetable matter collected from streets, walkways, alleys, parks and vacant plots. Dead animals : It includes animals that die naturally or accidentally killed. It does not include carcass and animal parts from slaughterhouses as these are considered as industrial wastes. Construction and demolition wastes: Major components of the construction materials are cement, bricks, cement plaster, steel, rubble, stone, timber, plastic and iron pipes. Industrial wastes: These are discarded solid material of manufacturing processes and industrial operations and are considered separately from municipal wastes. However, solid wastes from small

industries plants and ash from power plants are frequently disposed of at municipal landfills. Major producers of industrial wastes are the thermal power plants producing coal ash, integrated iron and steel mills producing blast furnace slag and steel melting slag, non-ferrous industries like aluminium, zinc and copper producing red mud and tailings, sugar industries generating press mud, pulp and paper industries producing lime and fertilizer and allied industries producing gypsum. Management of industrial solid waste is not the responsibility of local bodies. Industries generating solid wastes have to manage by themselves and are required to obtain prior permission from the respective state pollution control boards under relevant rules. Solid Waste Generation According to the Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010 report, the amount of solid waste generated in Peninsular Malaysia increased from 16,200 tonnes per day in 2001 to 19,100 tonnes per day in 2005. This amount is estimated to increase to 30,000 tonnes per day in 2020. On average, at this time a Malaysian generate 0.8 kg of solid waste per day. (Source: Ministry of Housing and Local Government, 2008). The composition of solid waste Rate of solid waste composition varies between areas because it is influenced by several factors, among which the socio-economic and lifestyle. On the average composition of household solid waste in Malaysia are as follows:

The classification of solid waste: These types of solid waste can be classified into several parts such as;

Table 5.1 The classification of solid waste

The sources of solid waste: All this kind materials would be found at the sources areas: Residential areas: village, housing area, flats, and so on. Industrial areas: factories, stores, etc. Commercial areas: shopping mall, supermarket, and so on. Institutional areas: college, school, kindergarten and so on. Construction/ demolition: construction site and demolition site Municipal services: uptown, night market, and so on. Process: manufacturing activity, etc. Agriculture: plantation activity, livestock activity, vegetation activity, etc.

The quantity of MSW in Malaysia: It is estimated that solid waste generated in small, medium and large cities and towns is about 0.1 kg, 0.3-0.4 kg, and 0.5 kg per capita per day respectively. According to Kathirvele et al (2003), the generation rate ranges from 0.5-0.8 kg/person/day to 1.7 kg/person/day in major cities. The 9th Malaysia plan reported that the average per capita generation has increased from 0.67 kg/person/day in 2001 to 0.8 kg/person/day in 2005 [RMK9]. Nazeri [2002] stated that the waste generation in peninsular Malaysia has increased from 16,200 tons per day to 19,100 tons per day. Assuming a 3.6 percent growth, in 2020 the amount is expected to be 31,000 tons/day [NSP 2005].

The main element in MSW management: The activities associated with the management of municipal solid wastes from the point of generation to final disposal can be grouped into the six functional elements: (a) waste generation; (b) waste handling and sorting, storage, and processing at the source; (c) collection; (d) sorting, processing and transformation; (e) transfer and transport; and (f) disposal.

Waste Generation: Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of value (in their present form) and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal. Waste generation is, at present, an activity that is not very controllable. In the future, however, more control is likely to be exercised over the generation of wastes. Reduction of waste at source, although not controlled by solid waste managers, is now included in system evaluations as a method of limiting the quantity of waste generated.

Waste Handling, Sorting, Storage, and Processing at the Source: The second of the six functional elements in the solid waste management system is waste handling, sorting, storage, and processing at the source. Waste handling and sorting involves the activities associated with management of wastes until they are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Sorting of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source. For example, the best place to separate waste materials for reuse and recycling is at the source of generation. Households are becoming more aware of the importance of separating newspaper and cardboard, bottles/glass, kitchen wastes and ferrous and non-ferrous materials.

On-site storage is of primary importance because of public health concerns and aesthetic consideration. Unsightly makeshift containers and even open ground storage, both of which are undesirable, are often seen at many residential and commercial sites. The cost of providing storage for solid wastes at the source is normally borne by the household in the case of individuals, or by the management of commercial and industrial

properties. Processing at the source involves activities such as backyard waste composting.

Sorting, Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste: The sorting, processing and transformation of solid waste materials is the fourth of the functional elements. The recovery of sorted materials, processing of solid waste and transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily in locations away from the source of waste generation are encompassed by this functional element. Sorting of commingled (mixed) wastes usually occurs at a materials recovery facility, transfer stations, combustion facilities, and disposal sites. Sorting often includes the separation of bulky items, separation of waste components by size using screens, manual separation of waste components, and separation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Waste processing is undertaken to recover conversion products and energy. The organic fraction of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) can be transformed by a variety of biological and thermal processes. The most commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic composting. The most commonly used thermal transformation process is incineration.

Waste transformation is undertaken to reduce the volume, weight, size or toxicity of waste without resource recovery. Transformation may be done by a variety of mechanical (eg shredding), thermal (e.g. incineration without energy recovery) or chemical (e.g. encapsulation) techniques.

Transfer and Transport: The functional element of transfer and transport involves two steps: (i) the transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment and (ii) the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site. The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station.

Disposal: The final functional element in the solid waste management system is disposal. Today the disposal of wastes by land filling or uncontrolled dumping is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site, residual materials from Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion of solid waste, rejects of composting, or other substances from various solid waste-processing facilities. A municipal solid waste landfill plant is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid wastes on land or within the earths mantle without creating nuisance or the highest rank of the ISWM hierarchy is waste minimization or reduction at source, which involves reducing the amount (and/or toxicity) of the wastes produced. Reduction at source is first in the hierarchy because it is the most effective way to reduce the quantity of waste, the cost associated with its handling, and its environmental impacts.

The characteristics of MSW: The characteristics of MSW substituted into two main parts that are:

4.5 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS (i) Density: The knowledge of density is important for the design of all elements of the solid waste management systems like storage, transport and disposal. For example for a known volume of the solid waste its density gives us the idea about the requirement of the truck in tonnage. Every truck or similar vehicle has a permitted load capacity say 12 ton or so which it can carry according to law. In developed countries as their waste is light so compaction reduces the cartage charges substantially. The density varies significantly from source to the disposal site because of handling, change in moisture content, densification due to vibration of movement, disturbance by animals and birds (scavengers) etc. The following table gives some data from MSWM for density of municipal solid waste in some Indian cities.

Table 4.6 Density of Municipal Solid Waste produced in some Indian Cities.

It is evident from the above table that density is more in Jaipur waste as because of dessert conditions there is more sand and other inorganic heavy matter. These figures are only indicative and are to be verified before the actual design of a system. Actually it is very important that the solution to any SWM problem should be site specific and time specific. The same city may show different composition after some years. (ii) Moisture content: Moisture content of the solid waste is expressed as the weight of moisture per unit weight of wet material.

Moisture content varies generally from 20 to 45% depending upon the climatic conditions and level of city (income group) etc. The increase of moisture content increases the weight and thus the cost of transportation and thus the storage section should take care of it. (iii) Calorific value: Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from combustion of a unit weight of a substance, expressed as kilo calorie per kilogram. The calorific value is determined in the laboratory by Bomb Calorimeter. Table 4.3 shows typical values of the residue and calorific value for the different components of the municipal solid waste. If the energy is to be recovered or the waste is to be disposed, by incineration (controlled burning) the following points should be considered: Organic matter gives energy only in dry condition. The moisture content as free water reduces the dry organic matter per kilgram and hence requires a significant amount of energy for evaporation. The ash content of the waste reduces the proportion of dry organic material per kilogram of waste. It also retains some heat. So for economical recovery of energy the waste should contain minimum amount of moisture, ash and other inorganic matter. These are the significance of determination of physical characteristics.

4.6 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The chemical characteristics of solid waste are determined for assessing the treatment process. Mainly three chemical characteristics are determined, chemical, bio-chemical and toxicological. Chemical quantities of solid waste in Indian urban centres are pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K), total carbon, carbon/nitrogen ratio, calorific value. Bio-chemical characteristics include carbohydrate, proteins, natural fiber, and biodegradable factor. Toxic characteristics include heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides etc.

Consideration of lipids (fats, oils and grease) should also be done as they are of a very high calorific value (about 38000 Kcal/kg). These days synthetic organic materials like plastic have become a significant component of solid waste accounting for 5-7%. In India the plastic is non-biodegradable and thus poses a great problem. It chokes the drains and if burnt it produces poisonous gases. The thin plastic sheets and bags are not recycled as the cost of making it dirt & oil free makes the process uneconomical. All the above considerations of characteristics are required to design, conceive and assess the most appropriate ways of transportation, the requirements of treatment, extraction of energy and the safe, sanitary way of disposal for the protection of environment

The generation of MSW in Malaysia: The rate of waste generation in Malaysia is increasing, covering community activities such as commercial, institutional, industrial and markets. It is also related to the economic level of different sectors in the community such as squatters, low, medium and high class residential area. The rate varies according to the type of waste generators and land use. Depending on the economic status of the area, the per capita solid waste generation rate varies from 0.45 to 1.44 kilogram per capita per day. The generation of municipal solid waste by the public is a function of socioeconomic background either the buying power or income level, cultural background, locality either urban or rural setting and the environment awareness. Some of the contributing factors to increasing Malaysian MSW generation rate are relatively due to population growth, rapid urbanization, economic growth and its multicultural society that celebrates various festivals.

The process of handling of MSW: As the economic activity and population increases, the management of solid waste is becoming a serious problem in all municipalities. Public health, air pollution, odor disturbance, hazardous gas emissions are among the common phenomena occurring in urban areas. In general, MSW disposal requires an adequate environmental control from waste collection to disposal and finally regular monitoring of disposal sites. The local authority in most of the municipalities in Malaysia is responsible for the collection service of solid waste, even though some municipalities or city hall (for example Kuala Lumpur City Hall) has outsourced to private companies. The monitoring of the overall MSW management however, is still under their responsibility. The situation of MSW management in Malaysia is similar to other Asian countries. These processes are being managed, directly or indirectly at all three levels of government: federal, state and local authority; that a part of this department has their own role to establish.

1. Role of the State Government State-level policy and formulation programme;

 Consultation and coordination with federal government; Promotion and coordination of local authority cooperation; Allocation of land and facilities; Approval of inter-state movement of waste and location of facilities; Assisting, monitoring and auditing local authorities; Financial and other assistance for local authorities; Formation of coordinating MSW committee.

2. Role of the Local Authorities Assist state government in formulation of policies; Enforce SWM legislation at the local level; Monitor, audit and enforce concessionaire service levels; Incorporate local requirements in operational plans; Raise public awareness and promote education on waste minimization and recycling; Provide advice on planning, sitting and operating local facilities; Enforce laws on illegal dumping, littering and open burning; Collect tariffs and make payments as appropriate; Collect, collate and disseminate appropriate data and information

3. Role of Services Provider Cooperate and assist government and local authorities in implementation of policies; Continuously improve expertise and efficiency; Promote and develop expertise and efficiency of sub-contractors; Adopt a long-term business vision for adequate levels of equipment, facilities and service levels; Self-regulate and minimize the need for local authority intervention; Promote public education and awareness; Promote waste minimization and reduction strategies; Collect, collate and disseminate useful data;

The MSW collection method: In collection, solid waste is picked up and placed into empty containers with separate parts for recyclable materials. Then, the collection vehicles collect the waste around the disposal centers manually before disposing into the disposal sites. The party that had a responsible to handle this part of MSW management such as city employees (municipal collection- city council, district council, city hall, etc), collectors from private firms that contract with city government (contract on colnicipal collection- Alam Flora Sdn. Bhd., ) or collector s from private firms that contract with private residents (private collection). There three basic methods are: (1) curbside or alley pickup, (2) set-out,set-back collection, and (3) backyard pickup or tote barrel method. I. The curbside or alley pickup The quickest and most economical point of collection.Using standard container that has been design by city council.It costs only one half as much as backyard collection.The crews collect from both sides of the street at the same time.When the containers must be placed at the curb or in alley for pickup, and how long they may remain after pickup, it usually specify by the municipal ordinances or administrative regulations. Common limits are out by 7 a.m and back by 7 p.m.. When solid wastes are loaded in curbs or alleys, work progresses rapidly. A typical crew consists of a driver and two collecters. Aside from the cost advantage of this method, it is also eliminates the need for the collectors to enter private property, and amount of service given each homeowner is relatively uniform. However, many citizens dislike having to set their solid waste out at certain times and object to the unsightly appearance on the streets.

II.

Set-out, set-back pickup collection

These kind of method eliminates most of the disadvantages of the curb method, but it does require the collector to enter private property. This method consist of

the following operations: (1) Collectors have to enter property, (2) Set out crew carries full containers from resident storage location to curb/ alley before collection vehicle arrives, (3) Collection crew load their refuse into vehicle, (4) Set-back crew return the container to storage area. Any of the crew may be required to do more than one step or the homeowner may required to do one of the steps. This method has not been shown to be more economical or advantageous than the backyard method.

III.

Backyard pickup or tote barrel method

Backyard pickup is usually accomplished by the use of tote barrels. In this method, the collector enters the residents property, dumps the container into a tote barrel, carries it to the truck, and dumps it. The collector may collect refuse from more than one house efore returning to the truck to dump. The primary advantage of this system is in convenience to homeowner. The major disadvantages is the high cost. Many homeowners object to having the collectors to enter their private property.

Disposal methods
Improper and unscientific techniques adopted for MSW disposal are economically non - viable and socially unacceptable, due to this selection of proper disposal method is necessary. Quantity and characteristics of the MSW are two major factors, which are to be considered as the basis for the design of efficient, cost effective and environmentally compatible disposal method. One can choose the appropriate disposal method which is generally categorized as follows For large Scale disposal: i)Open dumps The cheapest and the oldest easy method of MSW disposal is 'open dumping' where the waste is dumped in low - lying areas on the city outskirts and leveled by bull - dozers from time to time. Open dumping is not a scientific way of waste disposal. Open dumps refer an uncovered site used for disposal of waste without environmental controls. The waste is untreated, uncovered, and not segregated. In spite of its simplicity in execution, the financial involvement for this traditional method of waste management has been quite high particularly for the big metropolis. Uncontrolled, open dumps are not a sound practice. Open dumps are exposed to flies and rodents. It also generates foul smell and unsightly appearance. Loose waste is dispersed by the action of wind. Drainage from dumps contributes to pollution of surface and ground water and also the rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates nearby land and water thereby spreading disease. A WHO Expert Committee (1967) condemned dumping as a most unsanitary method that creates public health hazards, a nuisance, and severe pollution of the environment. Dumping should be outlawed and replaced by sound procedures. ii)Landfill Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a common practice in most countries. Landfills are generally located in urban areas where a large amount of waste is generated and has to be dumped in a common place. The equipment required to operate is relatively inexpensive and can be used for other municipal operations as well serious threat to community health represented by open

dumping or burning is avoided. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. Unlike an open dump, it is a pit that is dug in the ground. The waste is dumped and the pit is covered at the dumping ground with debris/ soil and spread evenly in layers. At the end of each day, a layer of soil is scattered on top of it and some mechanism, usually an earthmoving equipment is used to compress the garbage, which now forms a cell. Thus, every day, garbage is dumped and becomes a cell. The organic waste undergoes natural decomposition and generates a fluid, which is known a leachate, and is very harmful to the ecosystem. After the landfill is full, the area is covered with a thick layer of mud and the site can thereafter be developed as a parking lot or a park. Sanitarylandfills An alternative to landfills or modern landfill which solves the problem of leaching to some extent is a sanitary landfill which is more hygienic and built in a methodical manner. Designed landfill means a waste disposal site for the deposit of residual solid waste in a facility designed with protective measures against pollution of ground water, surface water and air fugitive dust, wind-blown litter, bad odour, fire hazard, bird menace, pests or rodents, greenhouse gas (Methane) emissions, slope instability and erosion. These are lined with materials that are impermeable such as plastics and clay, and are also built over impermeable soil. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity. Fully operated landfills may even enhance property values. Constructing sanitary landfills is very costly and they are having their own problems. By and large, crude dumping of waste is done in the most of the cities without following the principles of sanitary landfilling. As negligible segregation of waste at source takes place, all waste including hospital infectious waste generally finds its way to the disposal site. Quite often industrial hazardous waste is also deposited at dump sites meant for domestic waste. The waste deposited at the dump site is generally neither

spread nor compacted on a regular basis. It is also not covered with inert material. Thus, very unhygienic conditions prevail on the dump sites. The workers handling waste do so in highly unhygienic and unhealthy conditions. Leach ate if not treated properly it penetrates the soil and, if not prevented, pollutes the ground water. iii)Incineration The process of burning waste in large furnaces at high temperature is known as incineration. Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste material. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. Incineration facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy or energy-from-waste is broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam and/or electricity. At the end of the process all that is left behind is ash. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about micro pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as dioxins which may be created within the incinerator. Both the fly ash and the ash that is left in the furnace after burning have high concentrations of dangerous toxins such as dioxins and heavy metals. Disposing of this ash is a problem. Cost of incinerator and additional investment on pollution control devices make the process capital - intensive. Under Indian conditions large scale incineration plants are economically non - viable in view of their capital intensive character and the low calorific value of city garbage available.

For Small Scale disposal: i) Composting Decomposition and stabilization of solid organic waste material has been taking place in nature ever since life appeared on this planet. Composting is the process of decomposition and stabilization of organic matter under controlled condition. Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. It is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, convert degradable organic waste into humus like substance. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. There is a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps, to industrial-scale enclosedvessel digestion of mixed domestic waste. Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or anaerobic methods, though hybrids of the two methods also exist. Organic matter constitutes 35%40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This waste can be recycled by the method of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. Apart from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of disposable garbage. Each one MT of wet garbage can yield 200 to 300 kgs. of organic fertilizer. It increases the soil's ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to cultivate. Vermi-composting is very successful at community level but it is yet to develop at commercial scale. Manual composting is carried out in smaller urban centres. Although mechanical composting plants were set up in cities but presently, only few plants out of them continues to be in operation. The High cost of mechanical composting plants and the non - utilization of by-products are among the factors which make the process an uneconomic proposition. The most critical link in the process of composting is the

segregation operation. Hand sorting of garbage at the compost plant is expensive and unsanitary. Depending upon the availability of land and its topography, economic viability, Types of waste, quantity of waste and social conditions; one can choose any one or more or Combination of two of the said techniques for waste disposal.

Landfill Sitting, Design, Operation Maintenance and Post-Closure Maintenance: In planning a landfill it is useful to think about the facility in terms of four key phases from initial concept to final closure. These phases are: 1. Sitting 2. Design 3. Construction, operation, and environmental monitoring 4. Closure and post-closure. The key considerations for sound management of the facility are listed in the adjoining box. Attention to these issues is important for achieving safe and effective MSWM at the landfill. Such sound management can be enhanced by the judicious use of resources at each phase of landfill development. 1. Sitting Sitting can be one of the most difficult processes in the landfill process. The main considerations are: Capacity: In the sitting process, the available land area is a key consideration. In order to minimize the transaction costs associated with design, permitting, sitting, and closure and post-closure requirements, it is desirable to have a facility that will operate for at least two to three years. In practice, many short-term facilities turn into long-term facilities, so it is important that all aspects of the sitting process be observed even when planning a short-term controlled dump. Ideally, a site should be sought with sufficient capacity for 10 - 20 years of operation, particularly in the case of sanitary landfills. Higher environmental standards are increasing the construction, operation, and closure costs of landfills. In combination with a landfill capacity crisis in some countries, these factors are leading to the construction of regional landfills that can respond to environmental concerns in a cost-effective way. Such regional landfills serve a larger region than would normally be served by a municipal

landfill. These considerations apply in developing countries as well as industrialized ones. The construction and use of transfer stations will reduce the higher transport costs brought about by the use of more distant, regional landfills. Public involvement in the sitting process: Public opposition can be strong and protracted. The planner must be prepared to involve potentially affected communities in the sitting process. He or she must establish a dialog and working relationship with representatives from the candidate communities and address their concerns in the design and implementation of the landfill plan. Hydro-geology: It is desirable to take advantage of the geology of a site. In particular, the types of soil and rock underlying the landfill and the thickness of each soil layer can restrict the migration of the leachate toward groundwater and reduce the concentration of contaminants. For example, clay soils significantly slow the migration of leachate and can reduce the concentration of heavy metal contaminants. A bedding of igneous rock also serves to contain leachate. Sand, on the other hand, will do little to slow leachate migration and has little capacity to remove contaminants. Cover material: The availability of cover material is also an important consideration in the sitting decision. As discussed in the section on landfill operations below, the compacted MSW must be covered by 15-30 centimeters of soil at the end of each day's operations. This creates a large demand for cover material and can lead to prohibitive costs if this soil has to be trucked over distances far from the landfill site. Access: To contain hauling costs and discourage the use of illegal dump sites, it is important that a landfill be located reasonably close to the area it is designed to serve. At the same time, sitting a landfill too close to a populated area will expose local residents to the environmental and health threats that landfills may pose. Since urban areas are growing rapidly, especially in developing countries, an area near the edge of existing settlements will very likely be too close to populated

areas in the foreseeable future. The ideal location would therefore be sufficiently far from the city to allow for future population growth, but close enough to be reasonably accessible. In many cases, the use of transfer stations within a city can facilitate the sitting of a landfill at a greater distance from population centers. The Collection and transfer part of the Sound Practices section addresses the issue of transfer stations in further detail. The roads that provide access to a landfill must be adequate to handle the types and quantity of vehicles that will be used. Planning a landfill requires evaluation of existing and new roads, and must include provision for maintenance of the roads needed to reach the site. Accessibility notwithstanding, the geological considerations described above are paramount in ensuring the environmental soundness of a landfill. Even when it is necessary to site a landfill far from a city, the expense that results from additional road construction and increased hauling costs may well be less than the cost of remediating a contaminated drinking water supply. Proximity to airports: A landfill should not be sited closer than two kilometers from the nearest airport. Birds converging at the landfill may pose a problem for aircraft and the landfill may pose other problems for airport operations if the facilities are located too close to each other. The required separation may be larger depending on the size and type of the landfill and of the airport. 2. Design The design of a landfill will significantly affect its safety, cost, and effectiveness over the lifetime of the facility. These considerations may have different implications for controlled dumps and sanitary landfill facilities. The facility should be designed to operate effectively given the mix of capital, labor, and expertise available to its owners. Thus, labor-intensive controlled dumps should be designed where capital is severely limited, labor is available at low cost, and there is a shortage of expertise and infrastructure to service a highly

mechanized facility. Such conditions prevail in the cities of many developing countries. However, an appropriately designed facility can still avail such cities of safe and dependable land filling.
a)

Capacity Planned capacity may not be protected by zoning and land use restriction guarantees provided by municipal authorities. The landfill planner must use the designated site strategically to minimize the risk of future incursion by municipal development and maximize the total area available for land filling over the lifetime of the facility. Municipal planners must also ensure that appropriate sites with the required capacity are always available for future needs

b)

Public/private ownership/operation Owned and operated by local governments or other public agencies. Available in the private sector, municipal planners should explore the option of privatizing landfill operations on a contractual basis. Should be weighed carefully as it involves issues of cost recovery and the payment of fees for tipping privileges at the landfill.

c)

Monitoring and control of leachate A key factor in safe landfill design and operation. The natural decomposition of MSW, in combination with rain infiltration into the site, causes potentially toxic contaminants to flow toward the bottom of the landfill. The geology of a site can exacerbate or reduce the amount of leachate that enters the environment. A variety of wastes can contribute contaminants to landfill leachate such as paint pigments, household batteries and etc.

Figure 5.1: Classification of different level of landfill in Malaysia

d)

Monitoring and control of landfill gas Landfill gas is primarily a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide produced by the decomposition of organic matter in the MSW. Landfill liners help keep methane from escaping from the landfill and help maintain the anaerobic conditions necessary for methane production.

e)

Access and tipping area Fencing should be designed to restrict unauthorized access to the landfill and to keep out vermin and stray animals. The perimeter of the facility should be patrolled to minimize vandalism. A staffed gate should be the point of entry to the facility for vehicles and any waste pickers. Separate provisions must be made for access to emergency vehicles and equipment.

f)

Pre-processing and waste picker policy Mechanical equipment, such as compactors and bulldozers should be restricted to separate resource recovery facilities or prohibited altogether from the site.

Alternatives may be provided for the displaced workers and operating procedures set for safe landfill operations. Reduces the risks to sorters from the equipment and activity at the active cell. Reduces the amount of material that has to be transported to the cell.

g)

Operations and safety manuals The provision of ongoing monitoring and control of the facility after its useful life is an unavoidable reality of landfill management. To ensure their continued safety to the health of surrounding communities and the environment for periods that may exceed 30 years after their closure. Cost recovery programs may be instituted during the operation of the facility to provide funding for these activities.

h)

Closure and post-closure plans The provision of ongoing monitoring and control of the facility after its useful life is an unavoidable reality of landfill management. To ensure their continued safety to the health of surrounding communities and the environment for periods that may exceed 30 years after their closure. Cost recovery programs may be instituted during the operation of the facility to provide funding for these activities

i)

Community relations program The designer should establish a program for ongoing dialog with the community.

Should be based on transparency in landfill operations and procedures and a commitment to addressing community concerns. Some facilities offer give-backs to their host community such as free street paving to compensate for the heavy vehicles in transit to the landfill and others.

3. Construction, operation, and environment monitoring Construction The amount and type of construction depends on the class of landfill, on physical conditions at the site, and on local regulatory requirements. Construction issues include:

construction of access roads erection of fences, gates, and the tipping area site preparation for the diversion of precipitation and the control of runoff installation of the leachate and gas monitoring systems installation of the leachate and gas treatment systems construction of administrative offices, physical plant, and other buildings at the facility

preparation of the general working area, including:

o o

land clearing, grading, and excavation compaction of the base and application of the liner installation of the leachate collection system

Operation Operations at the landfill may be classified into three main areas: Gate operations: include weighing and recording gate receipts, tipping (if direct access to the working cell is not available), pre-processing (including materials recovery and composting if practiced at the site), and the transportation of the tipped waste to the lift site at the working cell. Cell operations includes:

Tipping: either of waste directly transported by the haul vehicle or of residues preprocessed at the gate area and transported to the cell.

Spreading and compacting: This may be done manually by workers with rakes and weighted rollers. Mechanical spreaders and compactors are also available. These achieve much higher compaction than manual means. However this equipment is costly and requires specialized maintenance. For many cities in developing countries, manual spreading and compacting is a sound practice. The reader is directed to the waste management literature for further details on spreading and compacting operations and equipment.

Daily cover: It is important to cover new MSW at the end of the day with a layer of soil or compost. This can sometimes be done by applying a 15-30 centimeter layer of soil that was excavated earlier or by using fine construction and demolition residue handled elsewhere at the site. This daily cover is used to control disease vectors such as rats and insects, reduce blowing of waste and odors, and slow down the infiltration of rainwater. It also results in more gas generation, which may or may not be desirable.

Administration: where all the vehicles and any waste pickers need to be register on administration center/office/post guard to keep recording the flow of in and out record at landfill areas.

4. Closure and post-closure Finally when the landfills are full, they must be covered with a low permeable cap in order to prevent the rainwater from filtering through and mix with the waste which would lead to more leachate production. A continuous monitoring of the groundwater quality and the methane gas buildup at the closed landfill site is required in order to prevent the environmental problems associated with those. In the United States, the minimum post-closure maintenance and monitoring period is 30 years. But as concern has been shown by Allen (2001), the waste in the landfill might take longer time period to reach its stabilization state than the

mandatory aftercare period and the durability of the liner is yet to be sure. Thus, there is a possibility of pollutants leaching through the liner and contaminate the environment. This is especially critical for the dry tomb type of landfill where the waste degradation has been slowed down and its impacts has been prolonged to a longer time period which could take a century to reach its stabilization.

The Concepts Of 4Rs: Methods of waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the preferred options when managing waste. There are many environmental benefits that can be derived from the use of these methods.

I.

Reduction Waste reduction should have a top priority in the solid waste management hierarchy. It reduces the amount and the toxicity of waste before them entering the municipal waste stream. By designing, manufacturing, purchasing, or using materials in ways that reduce the amount or the toxicity of trash created, less waste is generated and fewer natural resources are used. Waste prevention, or source reduction, is the strategy behind reducing and reusing waste. By reducing, consumers and industry can save natural resources and reduce waste management costs. The success of source reduction is very much depended on the attitude of producers and consumers which involves legislation, social perception, education and so on. Along with the increasing living standard, Malaysians are developing the use and throw consumption behavior where there are more and more disposable products being consumed. This consumption pattern should be inverted in order to reduce the waste from entering the waste stream. Benefits of Reduction

Saves natural resources. Waste is not just created when consumers throw items away. Throughout the life cycle of a product from extraction of raw materials to transportation to processing and manufacturing facilities to manufacture and use waste is generated. Reusing items or making them with less material decreases waste dramatically. Ultimately, fewer materials will need to be recycled, combusted for energy, or land filled.

Reduces toxicity of waste. Selecting nonhazardous or less hazardous items is another important component of source reduction. Using less hazardous alternatives for certain items (e.g., cleaning products and pesticides), sharing products that contain hazardous chemicals instead of throwing out leftovers, reading label directions carefully, and using the smallest amount necessary are ways to reduce waste toxicity.

Reduces costs. The benefits of preventing waste go beyond reducing reliance on other forms of waste disposal. Preventing waste also can mean economic savings for communities, businesses, organizations, and individual consumers.

II.

Reuse Reuse is often part of the waste prevention strategy, stopping waste at the source by preventing or delaying a materials entry in the waste collection and disposal system. Reusing the product in the same application for which it was originally intended saves energy and sources. Utilization value of any item should be known to people who are using it. For example, a plastic bag can carry groceries home from market over and over again, and polystyrene cup might be used several time before disposal. Private sector involvement should be encouraged, repairing facilities should be offered so goods can be used as per its utilization value. Large production companies such as Electronic appliances, gadgets etc should establish the collection centre, where damaged items can be repaired & reuse

III.

Recovery

Recovery of materials means removing municipal solid waste from waste stream for the purpose of recycling (Franklin Associates,1999). The distinction between source reduction and recovery is the former prevents waste from entering the waste stream while the later retrieves the recyclables from the waste stream.

IV.

Recycling

Recycling turns materials that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources. Collecting used bottles, cans, and newspapers and taking them to the curb or to a collection facility is just the first in a series of steps that generates a host of financial, environmental, and social returns. Some of these benefits accrue locally as well as globally.

Benefits of Recycling

Recycling reduces the need for landfill and incineration. Recycling prevents pollution caused by the manufacturing of products from virgin materials. Recycling saves energy. Recycling decreases emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to global climate change. Recycling conserves natural resources such as timber, water, and minerals. Recycling helps sustain the environment for future generations.

Steps to Recycling a Product Recycling includes collecting recyclable materials that would otherwise be considered waste, sorting and processing recyclables into raw materials such as fibers, manufacturing raw materials into new products, and purchasing recycled products. Collecting and processing secondary materials, manufacturing recycledcontent products, and then buying recycled products creates a circle or loop that ensures the overall success and value of recycling. Step1. Collection and Processing Collecting recyclables varies from community to community, but there are four primary methods: curbside, drop-off centers, buy-back centers, and deposit/refund programs. Regardless of the method used to collect the recyclables, the next leg of their journey is usually the same. Recyclables are sent to a materials recovery facility to be sorted and prepared into marketable commodities for manufacturing. Recyclables are bought and sold just like any other commodity, and prices for the materials change and fluctuate with the market. Step2. Manufacturing Once cleaned and separated, the recyclables are ready to undergo the second part of the recycling loop. More and more of todays products are being manufactured with total or partial recycled content. Common household items that contain recycled materials include newspapers and paper towels; aluminum, plastic, and glass soft drink containers; steel cans; and plastic laundry detergent bottles. Recycled materials also are used in innovative applications such as recovered glass in roadway asphalt

(glass-halt) or recovered plastic in carpeting, park benches, and pedestrian bridges. Step3. Purchasing Recycled Products Purchasing recycled products completes the recycling loop. By buying recycled, governments, as well as businesses and individual consumers, each play an important role in making the recycling process a success. As consumers demand more environmentally sound products, manufacturers will continue to meet that demand by producing high-quality recycled products. Learn more about recycling terminology and to find tips on identifying recycled products.

Mini Experiment Experiment1: Evaluate the waste production Problem: How to evaluate the waste production?

Instruction: For determining the quantity of waste that requires collection and disposal, you have to select a sample area and measure the waste generated at household level.

Material needed: - Sample containers (eg, plastic bags), - Weighing scales, - Buckets, - Gloves, - Data sheets, marker pens. Procedure: 1. Collect the waste generated in the selected areas from houses once a day at a fixed time for 7 successive days to evaluate variation in waste generation in a week. The number of households to be selected depends on the size of the town. 2. Weigh the production of each household and record the weight in the data sheets according to the numbers of inhabitants per household. (g/ house/day) 3. Finally remember to dispose all the waste properly and clean the equipment used. 4. Repeat 1. to 3. everyday for the duration of the study. Result: Refer Appendix 1.

Experiment2: Evaluate the waste density Problem: How is the weight of 1 m3 of waste?

Instruction: Waste density information when coupled with waste generation rates expressed by weight, allow the payload capacity of the collection equipment to be estimated.

Material needed: - Sample containers (eg, plastic bags), - Weighing scales, - Buckets, - Gloves, - Data sheets, marker pens.

Procedure: 1. Select a container whose volume is known 2. Weight the empty container (kg) 3. Fill up the container with waste. 4. Weight the full container (kg) 5. Weight of the waste = Weight of the full container Weight of the empty container 6. Waste density (kg/m3) = Weight of the waste Volume of the container Result: Refer Appendix 2

Experiment 3: Evaluate the waste composition Problem: How to evaluate the waste composition?

Material needed: - A plastic sheet to spread waste over it for sorting

- Gloves (for workers handling the waste) - Buckets whose weight is known - Weighing scale to weigh the waste with an accuracy of 100 grams

Procedure: 1. Collect samples of waste from household, classes, resident areas and etc. 2. Spread the sample over the plastic sheet. 3. Separate the waste on the plastic sheet into different types (e.g. vegetables/putrescibles matter, paper, textiles, plastics, grass/leaves/wood, leather/rubber, metals, glass/ceramic, miscellaneous). Put then the separated waste into different buckets for weight measurement. 4. Measure the weight of each type of waste and record it in the data sheet. 5. Repeat steps 3. , and 4. for each sample. 6. Dump all the waste properly and clean the equipment used. 7. Repeat steps 1. to 6. everyday for the duration of the study. Result: Refer Appendix 3

References: Gilbert M. Masters; Introduction To Environmental Engineering and Science; 2nd edition (1998); Prentice Hall Mackenzie L. Davis, David A. Cornwell; Introduction To Environmental Engineering; 3rd edition (1998); McGraw-Hill Act 672; Laws of Malaysia; SOLID WASTE AND PUBLIC CLEANSING MANAGEMENT ACT 2007 Solid Waste Management; view on http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/ESTdir/Pub/MSW/index.asp Sewerage and Solid Waste Project Unit. 2000. The solid waste management program: Sewerage and Solid Waste Project Unit, Barbados; view on http://www.solid.gov.bb/Resources/Brochures/Programme/program02.asp http://dl.dropbox.com/u/21130258/resources/InformationSheets/WasteDisposal.ht m http://www.unep.org/ietc/InformationResources/Publications/SolidWasteManage mentPublication/tabid/79356/Default.aspx http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/ESTdir/Pub/MSW/index.asp http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/rrr/reduce.htm http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/rrr/recycle.htm Allen, A. (2001). Containment landfills: the myth of sustainability. Engineering Geology, 60, 1-4,3-19 Franklin Associates (1999). Characterization of municipal solid waste in the United States: 1998 update. Report No. EPA-530. Kansas. Zamali Tarmudi, Mohd Lazim Abdullah and Abu Osman Md Tap; An overview of Municipal Solid Wastes Generation In Malaysia; Jurnal Teknologi, 51(F) Dis. 2009; Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Chung Tsung Ping; Malaysia Developing A Solid Waste Management, Model For Penang; February 2008; Published by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Malaysia; view on http://www.undp.org.my/uploads/SWM2008_final.pdf Sanitary Landfills: Toward Sustainable Development; LUMES 2000-2001;

Mentore Vaccari and Daniela Giardina; DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROPRIATE STRATEGY FOR THE SANITATION SECTOR: THE CASE OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:2006

Dr. K.H. Chua, Endang Jati Mat Sahid, Dr. Y. P. Leong; Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management and GHG Abatement in Malaysia; Institution of Energy Policy and Research, UNITEN; 2011

Agamuthu, P. and Fauziah S.H.; Solid waste: Environmental Factors and Health; Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, UM;2008 Agamuthu, P. (2001) Solid waste: principles and management with Malaysian case studies. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. Rami El-Sherbiny, Ahmed Gaber, and Mahmoud Riad; Chapter7: Waste Management; 2011