Physical Activity and Basic Movement Development in Early Childhood: A Review of Literature

Mike Jess, University of Edinburgh Linda Gagen, Old Dominion University, Virginia, USA Jan McIntyre, City of Edinburgh Jon Perkins, University of Edinburgh James McAlister, University of Edinburgh

Executive Summary
Young childrens physical activity and basic movement are topics of political, professional and academic interest. With anxieties about inactivity, sedentary lifestyles and obesity, national and local initiatives have been introduced to help all young children develop the positive habits and basic movement foundation needed for a lifelong involvement in physical activity. However, there are concerns about the quality of the physical activity and basic movement experiences children receive in the home, pre-school, early school and community settings. The aim of this review is to inform all those involved in young childrens physical activity and basic movement development about our current understanding of the key issues in this area. The review will investigate four key questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. What do we mean by physical activity and basic movement development in young childhood? What do we know about young childrens physical activity? What do we know about young childrens basic movement development? What do we know about the different contexts in which young children take part in physical activity and basic movement development?

The review will conclude by presenting key recommendations for the future of young childrens physical activity and basic movement development.

Contents Executive Summary Contents 1. An Introduction to Physical Activity and Young Children 2. What is Physical Activity in Early Childhood? 3. What do we Know about Young Childrens Physical Activity? 4. What do we Know about Young Childrens Basic Movement Skill Development? 5. What do we Know about Young Childrens Opportunities to Develop Physical Activity and Basic Movement Competence? 6. Conclusion and Recommendations References Page 1 2 3 6 10 25 38 49 52

Section 1: An Introduction to Young Childrens Physical Activity and Basic Movement Development

The importance and value of physical activity across the lifespan is being recognised as never before, with the benefits of a lifelong involvement in regular physical activity now well-documented and generally accepted (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). As a result many new developments, new programmes and new initiatives for all ages are being instigated across Scotland and throughout the rest of UK (Scottish Executive, 2003). However, physical inactivity and sedentary lifestyles in adulthood are still a major concern and, for a number of reasons, it is unclear how successful adult interventions are in solving these problems (Scottish Health Survey, 1998).

Subsequently, attention has gradually been moving towards the childhood years as the best time to develop a foundation for lifelong physical activity (Health Education Authority (HEA), 1998). As such, young childrens physical activity and basic movement development is now being acknowledged as a key issue and it is widely accepted that the early childhood years are the time to begin the development of the skills, the knowledge and the attitudes that lead to active and healthy lifestyles (NASPE, 2000). In Scotland, this has led to increased government support through the National Physical Activity Strategy (Scottish Executive, 2003), a National Review of Physical Education (Scottish Executive, 2004), the introduction of the Active Schools Programme (sportscotland, 2003)

and the inclusion of physical activity as part of the Health Promoting Schools Unit (Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2005).

However, although children remain the most active group in society, they are less active than previously thought (Scottish Health Survey, 1998) and become increasingly less active as they move through the adolescent years (Armstrong, Balding, Gentle and Kirkby, 1990; Cale, 1996). This would suggest that there is much work still to be done if a solid foundation for lifelong physical activity is to be developed for all young people.

In comparison to other age groups, there is still relatively little research or literature on early childhood physical activity, but this situation is beginning to change and we are now able to make more robust observations about our understanding of this important area. Subsequently, this review will consider what we currently know about physical activity and basic movement development in early childhood and will also discuss the different contexts in which physical activity habits and basic movement skills are developed. The review will conclude by considering recommendations for future developments.

SUMMARY POINTS An Introduction to Young Childrens Physical Activity and Movement Development

The benefits of physical activity across the lifespan have been recognised, but adult inactivity is still of major concern.

The importance of developing physical activity habits and basic movement skills early in life as the foundation for lifelong participation is now being acknowledged as never before.

There are also concerns about childrens and adolescents physical activity levels and sedentary behaviour.

In Scotland, a number of government initiatives and programmes are beginning to highlight childrens physical activity as a key issue.

Section 2: What is Physical Activity and Movement Development in Early Childhood?

What is physical activity?

Physical activity is a broad term to describe the movements of the body that use energy (Scottish Executive, 2003). As such, the First International Consensus Statement on Physical Activity, Fitness and Health (cited in Scottish Executive, 2003), recognises that physical activity is an umbrella term (see Figure 1). Beneath this umbrella are different types of physical activities which can be split into six different categories.

Physical Activity

Active Living

Recreational Activity

Sport

Play

Exercise

Dance

Figure 1: The Physical Activity Umbrella (Scottish Executive, 2003)

For good health, physical activity develops the health-related aspects of our fitness, which include cardiovascular fitness (heart, lungs and circulatory systems), muscle strength and endurance, flexibility and body composition (percentage of body fat). However, it is important to stress that health-related physical activity does not necessarily mean vigorous physical activity. It includes moderate physical activity e.g. brisk walking. Therefore, the notion of no pain, no gain is not necessary for health gains from health-related physical activity and, as such, most of the population are able to participate in this type of physical activity.

For physical activity performance in games, sport and dance we develop the movement skill-related aspects of fitness i.e. power, speed, agility, balance and reaction time. Although there is a genetic element to these aspects, most of the population can participate in this type of physical activity at a level which will allow them to access many different games, sports and dance activities.

Therefore, there are two interrelated types of physical activity: health-related and performance-related physical activity.

What is physical activity and movement development in early childhood?

In this review, early childhood is the period from 3 to 6 years of age; it therefore covers the transition period from the pre-school years (ages 34/5) to the early part of schooling (ages 4/56). Children in early childhood will be referred to as young children.

In early childhood, physical activity and movement development supports childrens current physical activity participation and underpins their future health and performance-related physical activity through two interrelated components:

1.

Lifestyle physical activity, which includes all the different physical activities children take part in during their normal daily living, e.g. physical play, walking, etc

2.

Basic movement skill activity, which helps them access physical activities requiring a degree of movement competence.

Both types of physical activity are important for young children as they have the potential to help them form positive physical activity habits early in life and can also assist with current and future participation in activities requiring movement competence.

This is supported by the National Association for Sport and Physical Activity in the USA, which has noted that:

Adopting a physically active lifestyle in early life increases the likelihood that infants and young children will learn to move skilfully. Early motor skills form the foundation for later sport, dance and exercise activities. (NASPE, 2002, p 3)

SUMMARY POINTS What is Physical Activity and Movement Development in Early Childhood?

Physical activity is an umbrella term covering active living, recreation, sport, play dance and exercise.

Health-related and performance-related physical activity are the two interrelated categories of physical activity in adulthood.

Young children from the ages of 3 through to 6 are considered to be in early childhood.

There are two main interrelated categories of physical activity in early childhood: i. Lifestyle physical activity ii. Basic movement skill

Section 3: What do we know about young childrens physical activity?

Introduction

With the technological and digital age now here, computers, DVDs, televisions, travel by car and many other labour saving devices are a regular part of life. Although these innovations have many benefits, the functional physical activity of most people is now much less than it once was and has resulted in todays children expending approximately 600 kcal of energy less per day than their counterparts 50 years ago (Boreham and Riddoch, 2001). The population, quite simply, is becoming more sedentary and less active with each passing decade. Concerns are regularly voiced in the media and professional and academic journals about young childrens physical activity levels, their obesity and the couch potato culture they now live in.

However, whereas much is now known about the benefits and hazards of physical activity in adulthood, in comparison, there is relatively little known about children and young peoples physical activity (Riddoch, 1998). Fortunately, the research base is beginning to grow and we are now able to make more accurate comment about young children and their physical activity.

This section will consider what we know about:

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o Guidelines for young childrens physical activity o Young childrens current physical activity levels o Young childrens physical activity and its links to health, obesity, academic achievement and cognitive development o The assessment of young childrens physical activity.

Physical Activity Guidelines for Young Children

Physical activity guidelines (and physical education curricula) are important as they present a clear indication, given our current knowledge, as to the most appropriate type of physical activity experiences we should be offering children. However, although there is strong agreement about the frequency, intensity, time and type of physical activity appropriate to help develop and maintain adult health, the evidence base is much less strong for children (HEA, 1998).

In the 1980s, numerous attempts were made in North America to develop guidelines for children but these tended to mirror adult recommendations and it soon became clear that given the many developmental differences, these were inappropriate. Even although the scientific base is still relatively weak, considerable progress has been made over the last decade. Developments stem largely from the more age-related Childrens Lifetime Physical Activity Model (Corbin, Pangrazi and Welk, 1994), which has led to subsequent guidelines being developed in England (Biddle, Sallis and Cavill, 1998; HEA, 1998), Scotland (Scottish Executive, 2003) and most recently the USA (NASPE,

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2004). In addition, NASPE (2002) has also developed one of the few sets of guidelines for young children in the 35 age group.

Physical Activity Guidelines for School-Aged Children

Although childrens guidelines are different around the world a key recommendation is that children should accumulate at least one hour of moderate activity on most days of the week (HEA, 1998). In Scotland, the National Physical Activity Strategy (Scottish Executive, 2003) supported this recommendation but highlighted the need for quality experiences that help establish the underpinning attitudes, skills and behaviours for lifelong physical activity and health. As such, there is a need for lifestyle physical activity to become a positive habit in early childhood.

At this time, the most recent guidelines for pre-school and school-age children include the following:

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Physical Activity Guidelines for Children aged 512 (NASPE, 2004) 1. Accumulate at least 60 minutes, and up to several hours, of age-appropriate physical activity on all, or most, days of the week. 2. Participate in several bouts of physical activity lasting 15 minutes or more each day. 3. Participate each day in a variety of age-appropriate physical activities designed to achieve optimal health, wellness, fitness and performance benefits. 4. Extended periods (periods of two hours or more) of inactivity are discouraged for children, especially during the daytime hours. Physical Activity Guidelines for Children Aged 35 (NASPE, 2002) 1. Accumulate 60 minutes structured physical activity daily. 2. At least 60 minutes, and up to several hours, of daily, unstructured physical activity and not to be sedentary for more than 60 minutes at a time except when asleep. 3. Developing competence in movement skills that are building blocks for more complex movement tasks. 4. Have indoor and outdoor areas that meet or exceed recommended safety standards for performing large muscle activities. 5. Individuals responsible for the wellbeing of pre-schoolers to be aware of the importance of physical activity and facilitate the childs movement skills.

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Given the importance of developing positive habits early in life, these guidelines have a number of important strengths. The 60 minutes of moderate physical activity per day, around the level of brisk walking, is attainable by most young children and moves away from the notion of No Pain, No Gain, which some children and adults find off-putting. They also highlight that children will have different levels of physical activity on different days and that there is a need to combat long bouts of sedentary behaviour. It is also encouraging to see movement skill development, structured and unstructured activity, and both indoor and outdoor activity included in the guidelines.

Finally, it is helpful that the Scottish guidelines have been differentiated in that inactive children should start with less time per day, e.g. 30 minutes (Scottish Executive, 2003).

Child-related guidelines are a relatively new addition to the physical activity literature and give children, physical activity professionals, parents, teachers and other adults a clear indication of the most up-to-date suggestions that will help young children meet appropriate physical activity levels.

How physically active are young children? Over the last 15 years, reports about the physical activity participation of older children and adolescents have become more evident in the literature. It is only recently that studies of younger children have begun to emerge, particularly in Scotland through the work of staff at the University of Glasgow (Reilly et al, 2002).
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A number of important trends are beginning to emerge from this work and should impact upon future developments in terms of interventions and programme development. 1. Young children are less active than older children

Pre-school children have been found to be less active than older children (see Figure 2) (Davies et al, 1995, Scottish Health Survey, 1998). However, given the developing bodies of younger children and their inability to sustain physical activity for longer periods of time, this is not as surprising a finding as may at first be expected.

100 Percentage 80 60 40 20 0 2-3 4-5 6-7 8-9 Age 10-11 12-13 14-15 boys Girls

Figure 2: Percentage of children and young people reaching recommended level of physical activity (Scottish Health Survey, 1998)

With the growing evidence that many older children and adolescents do not meet the physical activity guidelines it must be of concern that large numbers of young children are already so inactive.

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2.

Young Children are becoming more sedentary It is becoming apparent from recent evidence that young Scottish children are particularly sedentary, with 3-year-olds spending 79% and 5 year olds 76% of their times inactive (Reilly et al, 2004). These figures have been replicated elsewhere, e.g. in Ireland (Kelly et al, 2005). Interestingly, although television viewing is a significant sedentary behaviour, it is unclear if this actually causes young children to be less physically active.

3.

Young boys are more active than young girls The evidence consistently suggests that young boys are more active than young girls (Montgomery et al, 2004; Kelly et al, 2005). Although this finding has often been reported in late childhood and, in particular, adolescence, this disparity at such a young age suggests that the problem of girls inactivity may develop much earlier in life than originally thought. If this is the case, consideration may need to be given to the types of physical activity, movement development and physical education programmes offered to young boys and young girls.

4.

Young childrens physical activity is mostly of low intensity Recent studies on both young and older children have revealed that most of childrens physical activity is both transitory and low intensity, with very occasional bursts of moderate or high intensity activity (Cale and Harris, 2005). As noted earlier, this may not be surprising given the physical, cognitive and affective developmental level at which young children are functioning.

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5.

Young childrens physical activity appears to track through early childhood Although there is still some dubiety about the extent to which physical activity in childhood tracks through to adulthood (Malina, 2001), there is some evidence not only that young children become more active as they get older but that those who are active at a younger age tend to remain active in early childhood (Pate et al, 1996). However, it is important that future physical activity programmes seek to ensure that physical activity participation continues as children get older, particularly through the adolescent years into adulthood.

6.

Active and inactive children are polarised An additional issue in older children, but one that may start in early childhood, is the apparent polarisation between more active children and non or less active children. While many children meet the physical activity guidelines, there is a substantial number (possibly as high as 20%) who are almost sedentary throughout most of their daily lives (Cale and Harris, 2005).

7.

Physical play is still very important Although physical play is often considered to be less common than in previous generations, spontaneous play is still the most likely source of physical activity for many children (Scottish Executive, 2003).

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Therefore, it would appear that a number of themes are beginning to emerge from the physical activity studies in early childhood. However, as the number, size and duration of studies carried out in this area are relatively limited, it has been suggested that future developments should include the implementation of large-scale, longitudinal studies spanning childhood and young adulthood. Boreham and Riddoch (2001, p 915)

Young Childrens Physical Activity and its Links to Health, Obesity, Academic Achievement and Cognitive Development

Physical Activity and Health

In recent years there is increasing evidence that physical activity brings about direct health benefits for young children, some of which may pass into adulthood.

In young children, skeletal health and bone mineral density are aided through weight-bearing activities (Kemper, 2000; McKelvie, Kahn and McKay, 2000) and it has been suggested that this enhanced bone mass from physical activity has the potential to reduce the risk of osteoporosis and associated fractures in later life (Boreham and Riddoch, 2001). In addition, there is also evidence that physical activity reduces the risk factors for heart and circulatory diseases (Scottish Executive, 2003). However, physical activity does not seem to impact

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on blood lipids and blood pressure during childhood and adolescence (Twisk, 2000).

Over the last decade the links between physical activity and mental health benefits in adults have become increasingly well established (Biddle and Biddle, 2001). However, there is a distinct lack of studies in childhood, particularly with young children, but Sallis (2000) has suggested that the strongest health benefit of physical activity for children and young people may actually be improved psychological health. Therefore, because psychological health is known to affect the daily wellbeing of young people and adults, this may be reason enough to ensure that children and young people are regularly active in an appropriate manner.

Physical Activity, Obesity and Overweight

Obesity and overweight are major health issues at the start of the 21st century. Once considered adult problems, both recently emerged as significant paediatric concerns, with terms like epidemic regularly used in professional and academic journals.

In Scotland, more children are becoming overweight and obese at an alarming rate with an estimated 20% overweight (HEBS, 2005), 8.6% of 34-year-olds and 15% of 14-year-olds obese (Armstrong et al, 2001), when the UK reference standard is 5%. There is no apparent difference between boys and girls, but the figures are a sizable increase from the early 1990s. Of greater concern, however,

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is the evidence that obesity tracks or persists from childhood into adulthood (Baranowski et al, 2000; Steinbeck, 2001).

At this time, it is uncertain how effective physical activity is in both the prevention and treatment of obesity. Reilly et al (2002) have noted that childhood obesity is difficult to treat because of the uncertainty surrounding aspects like prevalence, diagnosis and treatment. However, it would appear that successful treatment interventions are both complex and resource intensive involving multi-faceted approaches developed around diet, inactivity, physical activity, schools and family (Goran et al, 1999; Gortmaker et al, 1999).

Action, however, is necessary as the problem of obesity is not only getting worse but pre-school children with low levels of physical activity have been shown to gain considerably more fat than more active children (Moore et al, 1995). With paediatric obesity such a serious problem in Scotland, a multiorganisational collaborative study involving the British Heart Foundation, Glasgow City Council, the University of Glasgow and Yorkhill Hospital may soon offer important support and guidance. The project, Movement and Activity Glasgow Intervention for Children (MAGIC), is investigating how different forms of physical activity can reduce the likelihood of cardiovascular and obesity risk factors in pre-school children. The intervention involves 36 nursery schools in Glasgow and will measure a wide variety of different factors. Initial results should be available in early 2006.

Nevertheless, even with the controversy surrounding the role of physical activity in obesity at present, it would seem appropriate to take the advice offered by Steinbeck (2001) when he proposed that:

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On balance, increasing physical activity in children is an attractive and non-restrictive approach to obesity prevention. To adopt this approach requires the support and involvement of many community sectors other than health. (p 117)

Physical Activity, Academic Achievement and Cognitive Development

The issue of the relationship between physical activity and academic achievement and cognitive development has long been debated but the links are still equivocal.

There is general acceptance that, given the developmental level of infants and young children, physical activity is an important component of early brain development and learning (NASPE, 2002) and there is considerable evidence that it also helps develop childrens perceptual development in terms of spatial awareness and kinaesthesis (Haywood and Getchell, 2004). However, as children get older, and their cognitive abilities develop, the link becomes less obvious.

In terms of academic achievement, the research findings, generally with older children, are less clear. Shephard (1997) and Almond and McGeorge (1998), reviewed findings from a number of longitudinal studies and came to the same conclusion that more time spent in physical activity or physical education in school does not negatively impact on academic performance (Williams, Hughes

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and Martin, 1982; Pollatschek and OHagan, 1989) and may actually lead to improvements (Shephard and Lavalee, 1994). Recently, a large-scale crosssectional study in the USA reported that children aged 10, 12 and 14 who were physically fitter consistently achieved higher academic scores (California Department of Education Department, 2002). As yet, however, although claims are often made, the reasons underpinning these academic gains are as yet unclear and more studies are needed to ascertain if physical activity itself is a significant reason for these improvements.

Although there have been a limited number of studies investigating the impact of young childrens physical activity on health, obesity, academic achievement and cognitive development, there are encouraging signs that involvement in physical activity can have positive benefits to the lives of young children. However, there is a need for more studies, particularly longitudinal, in the future.

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Assessing Young Childrens Physical Activity

The assessment or monitoring of young childrens daily physical activity is not yet a common occurrence. However, without this information, adults will find it difficult to develop appropriate physical activity programmes or interventions to help children meet national physical activity guidelines. It is therefore important that efforts are made to collect accurate information about childrens physical activity levels in relation to these guidelines.

However, assessing physical activity is a complex process, particularly with young children. This is due to their intermittent patterns of low intensity activity interspersed with short bouts of moderate to vigorous activity, their less well developed cognitive skills, the differences in their metabolism and the lack of efficiency in their movements (Welk, Corbin and Dale, 2000).

Subsequently, self-report studies, the most common assessment tool with older children and adolescents, are inappropriate for this age group and the more complex physiological methods of assessment, namely indirect calorimetry and the double labelled water, are only really appropriate for more detailed research studies (Cale and Harris, 2005). However, reports by parents or significant adults, physical activity observations, the use of pedometers or heart-rate monitors may all be viable alternatives as they are not particularly expensive or time-consuming and will help adults develop a much more accurate account of childrens activity levels.

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If programmes are to be developed that impact upon childrens physical activity levels, accurate ongoing assessment is critical.

SUMMARY POINTS

What we know about young childrens physical activity

Guidelines for early childhood physical activity suggest 60 minutes of accumulated activity on most days of the week. Research evidence suggests 1. Young children are less active than older children. 2. Young children are becoming more sedentary. 3. Young boys are more active than young girls. 4. Young childrens physical activity is mostly of low intensity. 5. Young childrens physical activity appears to track through early childhood. 6. Active and inactive children are polarised. 7. Physical play is still very important. Appropriate physical activity appears to have the potential to positively influence health, obesity, cognitive development and academic achievement. Accurate monitoring of young childrens physical activity levels is important for programme development and tracking purposes.

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Section 4: What do we know about young childrens basic movement skill development?

Introduction

In the UK, the importance of young children developing a basic movement foundation for lifelong involvement in physical activity has received considerable support in much contemporary literature. For example, the National Physical Activity Task Force stated that basic movement skills support all our physical activity in later life (Scottish Executive, 2003, p 43) and the Physical Education Review Group commented that all will need the basic skills and understanding for lifelong activity (Scottish Executive, 2004, p 14).

NB

Basic movement skills are also called fundamental movement skills in much of the literature.

However, the Task Force also commented that there is still a common belief that children naturally develop the competence to enjoy being active (Scottish Executive, 2003, p 43). This view, which stems back to the 1920s and is based on a maturational interpretation of research findings, has been shown not to be the case for, as Gallahue and Ozmun (1998, p 84) have said,

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Although maturation does play a role in the development of fundamental (basic) movement patterns, it should not be viewed as the only influence. The conditions of the environment namely, opportunities for practice, encouragement, instruction and the ecology (setting) of the environment itself all play important roles in the degree to which fundamental movement patterns develop.

Unfortunately, over many years, this maturational perspective has had a significant impact on both the content and delivery of young childrens movement programmes in pre-school and the early years of schooling and has often resulted in basic movement skill development not being the key goal of the programme. However, there is increasing evidence that physical educationists are now much more supportive of basic movement competence as the foundation for lifelong physical activity. This is apparent in both the UK literature (SOED, 1992; Bailey and McFadyen, 2000; HMIE, 2001; Jess and Collins, 2003) and from the rest of the world (Walkley et al, 1993; NASPE, 1995; Whitehead and Corbin, 1997; Graham, Holt-Hale and Parker, 2001; Gallahue and Ozmun, 2002) and has resulted in more programmes emerging to accommodate this viewpoint (Jess, Dewar and Fraser, 2004).

What is basic movement competence?

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The key to the development of a movement foundation is an understanding of basic movement competence. This has been defined as: the ability to consistently perform basic movements in a technically efficient, adaptable and creative manner and then apply these in different games, sports, dance and other contexts (Jess, Dewar and Fraser, 2004, p 23)

Basic Movement Categories

Movement Concepts made adaptable and creative by Space Effort Relationships

Travel Object control Balance and co-ordination

Table 1 Basic Moves Framework

Table 1 highlights the basic movement categories and movement concepts which help children develop technically efficient (or mature), adaptable and creative movement patterns.

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The categories of basic movements are:

Travelling Movements, where the body, usually upright, moves

from one point on the ground to another, e.g. running, jumping and skipping

Object Control Movements involve small objects being sent,

received, travelled with and received, e.g. throwing, catching, dribbling

Balance and Coordination, which underpin and permeate the

travelling and object control categories.

NB

In North America these movement categories are known as locomotor manipulative and stability or non-locomotor (Graham et al, 2001; Gallahue and Cleland-Donnelly, 2003).

The Movement concepts are the means of developing adaptability and creativity. They are not movements, but cognitive and affective factors that help children know where (space), how (effort) and who or what their body moves with (relationships) (see Table 1).

The complex interaction between the developing movement patterns and the movement concepts help children acquire their technical, adaptable and creative movement competence.

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Why is Basic Movement Competence so Important?

Over many years, it has become evident that many basic movements develop from an emerging immature pattern, pass through a transitional phase of development and, over time, reach a mature or efficient phase which helps children access the more complex physical activities they meet in late childhood and later in life (Wickstrom, 1977; Gallahue, 1982; Seefeldt and Haubenstricker, 1982; Roberton and Halverson, 1984). For most children, basic movements appear in their immature form between the ages of 1 and 2 and have the potential to reach maturity by the age of 6 or 7, although this is not common (Gallahue and Ozmun, 1998). This mature level is the key to successful participation as it helps children pass through the proficiency barrier from the early years foundation phase to the more complex activities of the upper primary and secondary school phases (Seefeldt, 1980; Kelly, 1989; SOED, 1992; NASPE, 1995; Jess and Collins, 2003) (See Figure 2). For example, children who are unable to catch a ball efficiently will find it very difficult to take part successfully in many, most or all of the physical activities which include catching.

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Upper primary and Secondary Phase

The Proficiency Barrier

Early Years Foundation Phase

Figure 2

The Proficiency Barrier between Early Years and Upper Primary/Secondary Years

The importance of this proficiency barrier to many children cannot be overemphasised for, as the Physical Education Review Group has recently said,

Without the basic movement skills, pupils will be excluded from participation in many activities, or may find their enjoyment compromised. Therefore, the development of skills is fundamental to continuing involvement and full participation in physical education.

(Scottish Executive, 2004, p 27)

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What we know about young childrens basic movement skills

Studies investigating childrens basic movement skills, particularly in the UK, are few, particularly in the early childhood years. There have been a number of large-scale studies in North America and Australia reporting low levels of basic movement skills in children and adolescents often caused by inappropriate and limited practice opportunities (e.g. Reuchslein and Vogel, 1985; Ross, Dotson, Gilbert, and Kitz, 1985; Walkley et al, 1993; Booth et al, 1997, Cooley et al D, 1997; Okley and Booth, 2004). In Scotland, the longitudinal Basic Moves Study has been under way since 2002 and is tracking the impact of a generic movement programme on six classes of young children in East Lothian (Jess, 2003). Initial results from this study should be available in late 2006.

Generally, differences in basic movement performance between boys and girls are low to moderate during the childhood years but this changes quite markedly after puberty when boys tend to outperform girls (Thomas and French, 1985). However, overarm throwing (and possibly kicking) is the one exception in which younger boys consistently outperform girls.

In recent years, studies investigating individual basic movements have become more common including those looking into developmental changes in jumping (Philips and Clark, 1997), hopping (Roberton et al, 1997), throwing (Langerdorfer and Roberton, 2002; Southard, 2002), catching (Goodway et al, 2002), ball striking (Beak et al, 2002) and locomotion or travelling (Whitall, 2003). A consistent finding from these studies is that movement development to
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maturity usually takes a considerable period of time and that staff working with children must become more aware of the impact of important environmental factors on the performance and learning of the basic movement. These environmental factors include appropriate equipment, cue information, feedback and other pedagogy issues. In addition, findings from these studies highlight the need to reassess the idea of the natural development of basic movement skills.

More recently, given the support for the rationale that basic movement competence underpins lifelong involvement in physical activity, a number of studies have started to investigate the relationship between basic movements and physical activity participation. Young childrens total physical activity and time involved in moderate to vigorous activity (MVPA) have been found to significantly correlate with movement skills, but the time spent in light-intensity physical activity does not. Therefore, as young children are only involved in small amounts of MVPA this finding questions if there is a relationship between motor skills and physical activity levels in young children (Fisher et al 2005). However, Okely et al (2001) have found that fundamental movement skills in adolescents significantly predict the time involved in organised physical activity with this prediction being stronger for girls than for boys. Other studies, however, have presented less positive findings (McKenzie et al, 2002; Reed et al, 2004). Therefore, at this time, the relationship between basic movements and physical activity participation does not appear to be particularly strong, although this may, in part, be due to the fact that few physical education programmes actually focus on this relationship. Further longitudinal study based on appropriate foundation programmes is needed.

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Children with Basic Movement Problems

Children with basic movement problems (often called developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and/or dyspraxia) are a group who have received some attention over the years. This may not be surprising given that up to 20% of children find the performance and learning of motor skills very difficult and, subsequently, find it hard to participate in activities with their peers (Parker and Larkin, 2003). The movement problems experienced by these children include continual misjudgement of distance and time, e.g. bumping into objects/people, tripping over, etc., an inability to coordinate movements needed to take part in age-appropriate activities and difficulties with fine motor skills like writing and dressing. These problems are therefore likely to impact upon their learning in other domains. As Parker and Larkin (2003, p 108) say,

The key issue in movement dysfunction is that children are unable to perform the required actions of daily living in a culturally acceptable way.

From the perspective of physical activity participation, movement problems of this nature will not only interfere with childrens motor development but will also be likely to impact on their social relationships and their opportunities to lead an active life. For example, Losse et al (1991) found that children identified as clumsy at age 6 continued to have motor difficulties as well as social, emotional and educational problems at age 16. Other authors suggest that these

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difficulties may lead to lifelong problems (Cantell et al, 1994; Fitzpatrick, 2000; Rasmussen and Gillberg, 2002).

Identifying children with movement problems early in life is important as this can lead to some form of support being put in place to prevent many of the problems of later life. Two main types of interventions have been used for children. The first is a process-oriented approach used by occupational therapists and psychologists (e.g. Kephart, 1960) focusing on the underlying processes of movement control like sensory reception, perception and integration. This approach is based on the assumption that these processes will underpin improved performance in functional tasks like dressing and writing. It has also been linked to improved academic development, but the evidence for this is equivocal (Kavale and Mattson, 1983; Polatjako et al, 1992). Currently, the more popular approach is the task-oriented approach which is used by physical educators and focuses on the motor skills that children actually need to perform at home and at school (Sugden and Chambers, 1998). Many local authorities throughout Scotland have introduced motor programmes like this to assist children with their movement, and related, problems.

A number of assessment tools or batteries have been created to specifically assess childrens movement problems including Movement ABC (Henderson and Sugden, 1992) and the Tests of Gross Motor Development (Ulrich, 2000).

Basic Movement Skill Assessment

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As with physical activity, it is important for adults and young children to have accurate information about their movement performance so that appropriate programmes can be developed. Without this information, development is likely to be haphazard and left much to chance.

However, the assessment of basic movements has long been an area of some controversy. Should quantitative movement outcomes like times or distances be measured, or should qualitative movement patterns be observed and assessed or should the underlying movement abilities like perception and kinaesthetic awareness be analysed? Increasingly, the value of the quantitative assessments has been considered of limited value to educators, whereas the actual existence of movement abilities has been questioned by many authors (Burton and Miller, 1997). Therefore, in recent years the assessment of the performance of basic movement skills has become much more common as it helps track movement development from the emerging immature pattern through to the efficient mature pattern and can assist adults and children monitor progress and learning.

Two main approaches have been taken to this type of assessment, namely a whole-body approach which considers how the whole body develops through a series of stages (e.g. Gallahue, 1982; Seefeldt and Haubenstricker, 1982) and a more complex body component approach which considers the developmental sequences of the different body parts (Roberton and Halverson, 1984; Clark and Phillips, 1985). Both approaches are useful as they give professionals a clear understanding of the developmental changes that are likely to emerge as children develop their basic movement competence. However, none of these

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assessments have been developed to help assess childrens ability to be adaptive or creative in their movements, although attempts have been made in recent years to more effectively fit basic movement assessment into this more authentic context (e.g. Cleland, 1993; Burton and Davis, 1996).

As with physical activity, if young children are to be offered quality movement and physical education experiences to develop a solid basic movement foundation, it is critical that the adults and children themselves are able to effectively observe and assess the emerging movement competence.

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SUMMARY POINTS

What we know about young childrens movement skill development

Basic movement skills: are believed to underpin lifelong physical activity involvement involve travelling, object control, balance and coordination should be efficient, adaptable and creative help young children pass through the proficiency barrier to more complex physical activities.

Evidence suggests that many children are demonstrating low levels of basic movement skill.

Children with basic movement problems require support early in life as they can be put off taking part in physical activity later in life.

Assessment of basic movement competence is essential for the appropriate delivery of movement experiences that develop childrens learning.

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Section 5: Young Childrens Opportunities to Develop Physical Activity and Basic Movement Competence
Introduction

As children progress through the early childhood years, the contexts in which they have the opportunity to be physically active change and increase in number. These, however, are mainly focused in the home, pre-school, school and local community settings. This section will consider key points emerging from the literature in each of these areas. However, it is important to reiterate the point that spontaneous play will remain the most likely source of physical activity for many children, both indoors and outdoors (Scottish Executive, 2003).

Home and Family

Families play a key role in childrens physical activity and parents influence the quality of a child's physical activity from birth (Scottish Executive, 2003). This influence can be in the guise of positive face value feedback about young childrens physical activity participation or performance (Fry, 2001) but can also be directly through family activities, e.g. trips to the swimming pool, and the transporting of children to physical activity clubs/classes within the community. Parents, however, need support in their efforts to help their children become more active, particularly as its perceived naturalness' appears to influence parental attitudes often leading them to a laissez-faire approach

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(Scottish Executive, 2002). In addition, however, parents also need to be reassured they are offering their children appropriate experiences, particularly during the later early childhood years when developing cognitive skills indicate that the children should be exposed to a greater variety of activities. As a result, parents often turn to pre-school services to provide primary access to physical activity, but also seek out community opportunities for their children in terms of play areas and organised community activity. This then becomes the stage when a number of key barriers to childrens physical activity begin to emerge, e.g. cost, access, awareness of facilities, etc. (Scottish Executive, 2002).

A significant physical activity issue for most parents is safety, particularly in relation to outdoor play. Evidence suggests that children's experiences of outdoor play are changing, with fewer children playing outdoors and younger children tending to play in the areas around their homes (Greenhalgh and Worpole, 1995; Valentine and McKendrick, 1997; Childrens Play Council and Childrens Society, 2001). Parents also appear to see safety as the key factor when selecting outdoor play spaces for their young children (Sallis et al, 1997).

As children grow older, the beliefs, expectations and behaviours of their parents become increasingly important. Parents who recognise and reinforce their childrens interest in physical activity and also model enjoyment of physical activity have been found to pass on a positive message about the importance of physical activity. Consequently, their children tend to develop higher perceptions of competence and are generally more attracted to physical activity (Brustad, 1996). In terms of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), it

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has been found that parents actual physical activity behaviour is not as important as the physical activity beliefs they convey to their children (Kimieciek and Horn, 1998). In fact, it is suggested that childrens perceptions of their parents beliefs and behaviours are actually more important than parents reported beliefs and behaviours.

Physical activity professionals have an important role to play in educating parents and families on how best to support their childrens physical activity. This would appear to be particularly true for parents of girls as there is evidence that parents are more likely to encourage boys to be active (Brustad, 1993).

Pre-school and Early School Physical Education

Pre-school and school settings are the only places able to provide equal
opportunities and a consistent, high quality, safe and developmentally appropriate learning environment for all children (Scottish Executive, 2003). As such, both settings have the potential to play a significant role in the development of young childrens foundation for a lifelong involvement in physical activity. The PE curriculum, and its delivery, in pre-school and primary school, therefore, will have a significant impact on the quality of childrens physical activity and movement experiences.

It is important to acknowledge here that although the pre-school and primary

school years may be the most appropriate time to begin the process of developing this lifelong foundation (Jess and Collins, 2003), both sectors have

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traditionally received much less attention than secondary school physical education and are often considered to be marginalised (Williams, 1989). Consequently, concerns about pre-school and primary physical education are common (Jess, 1992; Carney and Guthrie, 1999; HMIE, 2001). In addition, the transition period between the pre-school and the primary school years does not yet appear to be a progressive, developmental experience as the curriculum changes from being physical development to an expressive art.

The recommendations from the Report of the Physical Education Review Group (Scottish Executive, 2003), however, are beginning to influence the future direction of physical education in pre-school and primary schools in Scotland. These recommendations will soon lead to a new developmental and progressive 318 physical education curriculum, all children receiving two hours of quality physical education per week, an additional 400 physical education teachers working in primary schools and an increase in the amount and quality of continuing professional development opportunities for all pre-school and primary school staff. Physical education in the early years would appear to be entering a new and exciting era.

Pre-school Physical Education

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Physical education in the pre-school sector has only recently become the focus of much attention, which is demonstrated by the many different ways it is portrayed throughout the world. For example, in different countries it is currently called physical education, physical activities, physical coordination, physical development, physical health and understanding, physical development and well-being, body and movement and healthy physical development (Bertram and Pascal, 2002). Therefore, although it is more or less a universal activity in the pre-school setting there appears to be little consensus as to the specific role it plays. In the UK, it has recently been called physical development (SCCC, 1999; QCA, 2001) and includes a range of different physical activity and movement experiences centred on play and the opportunity for social interaction, with only passing mention of the actual development of basic movement skills. In North America, there has been a much clearer focus on developmentally appropriate pre-school movement programmes and NASPE (2002) has developed guidelines for 35-year-olds which include a number of key recommendations worthy of mention. These include:

1.

Teachers of young children are guides or facilitators

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Children learn by doing and by being actively involved in their own learning. Therefore, teachers must construct the learning environment with specific learning outcomes in mind and then guide children towards these goals.

2.

Children should engage in a movement/physical education programme designed for their developmental levels.

In the pre-school years, young children need a range of movement experiences that lead them towards mature basic movement patterns. Teachers therefore need to fully understand the continuum of motor development from infancy through to age 5/6 as the development of childrens basic movements is age related not age dependent.

3.

Young children learn and develop in an integrated fashion

Children learn through an interaction between the motor, cognitive, social and emotional domains. Therefore, in physical education, although children should primarily learn through experiences that focus on basic movement skills, experiences involving the other domains must also be included.

4.

Planned movement experiences enhance play experiences

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A combination of play and planned movement experiences, specifically designed to help children develop basic movement skills, is beneficial in helping young children in their development. In addition, regular and appropriately designed movement experiences are enhanced by regular indoor and outdoor play experiences, giving children an opportunity to freely practise and develop skills.

It is important to reinforce the key role of play, the indoor and outdoor environment, and the developing of basic movement skills in these guidelines. At this time, however, there is no mention of the physical activity guidelines.

Early Years School PE Guidelines

As children move into primary school their physical education experiences are now part of the 514 Expressive Arts programme (SOED, 1992). These PE guidelines are developmental in nature and offer a curriculum that moves through broad activity strands. However, until recently, these strands have had little significant impact on practice with the early years programme still taught through the traditional activities of games, gymnastics and dance (HMIE, 2001). There is evidence that more children have been receiving generic movementbased programmes (Jess, 2005), which are more common in other parts of the world (State of Victoria Department of Education, 1996; Graham et al, 2001; Alberta Learning, 2004). Interestingly, however, there is no mention of the

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physical activity guidelines and little reference is made to the importance of play.

Developments in primary school physical education are very much in evidence at this time with more specialist physical education teachers being employed throughout Scotland, e.g. Clackmannan, the smallest local authority, now has 16 physical education specialists working in its 19 primary schools. It is also encouraging that the role of physical education specialist teachers in primary schools has been praised in recent HMIE reports, but it has also been noted that the number of specialists throughout the country is inconsistent (HMIE, 2001). It is anticipated that the additional 400 new physical education teachers will make a positive impact on both the childrens and generalist staff experiences.

The increased interest in childrens physical activity and movement development has also resulted in a number of national initiatives and programmes being introduced including The Class Moves (HEBS, 2003), Basic Moves (Jess, Dewar and Fraser, 2004), the TOPS programme (Youth Sport Trust, 1996) along with many other national and local developments. In addition, the Active Schools programme (sportscotland, 2003) has seen the addition of almost 300 full-time staff to support the development of physical activity in primary school settings. This is not a physical education curriculum development but one that supports schools in their efforts to increase the physical activity levels of all their children.

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Although progress is evident, a number of concerns have been raised in the literature. These include the minimal curriculum time (particularly in the first two years of schooling), the initial training and continuing professional development of generalist class teachers, the appropriateness of facilities, the low levels of young childrens fitness and the limited number of extra-curricular opportunities for young children (Jess, 1992; Scottish Sports Council, 1999; Carney and Guthrie, 1999; HMIE, 2001; OFSTED, 2005). HMIE (2001) has acknowledged these concerns and has identified six key areas to be improved to raise achievement in physical education in primary schools. These are: raising expectations; developing programmes to increase opportunities in and out of school; improving learning and teaching; making better use of assessment; providing teachers with better advice on how to develop their teaching skills; and improving the management of physical education.

Therefore, although there are many exciting developments currently taking place, and about to take place, in pre-school and primary school physical education, there are still a number of important issues to be addressed.

Community Activities

As society becomes more sedentary, community opportunities for young children to be physically active and take part in physical play have tended to be

46

relatively limited, along with safety concerns being voiced about parks and playgrounds and fewer children walking to school (Scottish Executive, 2003). As noted above, more and more play is taking place within the home environment. There are also a number of different commercial and local authority movement classes available throughout the country, along with homebased activities, e.g. The Play @ Home pre-school programme developed by Fife Regional council (Fife Council, 2000). Traditionally, however, as children move through early childhood they are introduced to more organised, semistructured activities such as swimming, football, gymnastics, dancing or martial arts. These activities include a degree of instruction and competition, with a view to the child developing greater (and often more specific) physical skills (Scottish Executive, 2002). These opportunities are likely to increase in the future as the Active Schools programme develops further (sportscotland, 2003) and national governing bodies of sport develop introductory programmes as part of sportscotlands Long Term Athletic Development programme (sportscotland, 2004).

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SUMMARY POINTS Young Childrens Opportunities to Develop Physical Activity and Basic Movement Competence

Young children take part in physical activity and movement development activities at home, in pre-school and school and also in the local community.

Parents and families have a critical role in supporting young childrens physical activity early in life, but may need assistance to effectively support their children.

Exciting developments are planned for pre-school and primary physical education, i.e. a new 318 physical education curriculum two hours of PE per week 400 new teachers - primary PE specialist.

Concerns about the quality of the physical education curriculum in pre-school and primary school settings still exist.

Children should be involved in unstructured and structured physical activities in the community.

Spontaneous play is still the most likely physical activity for many young children.

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Section 6 Conclusions and Recommendations

These are very exiting times for all involved in the physical activity experiences and basic movement development of young children. Although universally included across the pre-school and school sectors, physical activity and basic movement development have often been marginalised. However, they are now beginning to play a more prominent role in the life of young children. Fortunately, we have a better understanding of the different types and amount of physical activity that are important for young children and are more aware of how to develop a solid basic movement foundation for lifelong participation.

Nevertheless, much has still to be done. The problems of inactivity, sedentary behaviours and obesity will be difficult to overcome and will need well thought out, integrated programmes involving adults from all different sectors. The quality of physical education provision in pre-school and primary school settings is still of some concern but efforts are being made to address many of these issues, particularly the amount of curricular time and staff development.

On the basis of this review, the following key recommendations are presented.

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To ensure all young children develop positive physical activity habits and basic movement foundation in early childhood the following recommendations are made:

National guidelines for early childhood physical activity and basic movement development should be created to help all young children and adults track progress and learning. These guidelines should be communicated to all key stakeholders and decision makers.

Physical activity, movement and physical education programmes for young children should be:

developed to take account of what is currently known about physical activity and basic movement skill development in early childhood

delivered in a developmentally appropriate, progressive and inclusive manner.

All adults involved in young childrens physical activity and movement development should be appropriately trained in terms of the knowledge and skills needed to deliver quality physical activity, movement and physical education programmes. This should include parents, students, teachers, volunteers and other physical activity professionals.

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Opportunities for young children to develop positive physical activity habits and a basic movement foundation should be integrated across different sectors, including the home, the pre-school and school settings and the local community.

Support is needed for longitudinal research projects that identify and track the significant factors that will help all children develop a foundation for lifelong involvement in physical activity.

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