OUTLINE 1.1 2.1 3.1 4.1 Introduction Indus Valley Period The Vedic Period Epic Period 4.1.

1 Mahabharatha 4.1.2 Ramayana 5.1 Manusmriti and women 6.1 Status of Women in South India 7.1 Mauryan Period 8.1 Emergence of Devadasi System 9.1 Reform and Other Movements 9.1.1 Tantrism 9.1.2 Lingayats 9.1.3 Shaktism 9.1.4 Bhakti Movement 10.1 Reflections 11.1 Conclusion

Hinduism: Women and Patriarchy

A Brief Survey

Mathews George, BD III, MTT Seminary, KTM

1 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y

Hinduism: Women and Patriarchy

1.1 Introduction Almost all of the scholars who have produced considerable works on women in Indian history (Winternitz, Altekar, Chaudhury, Upadhyay and Shastri, etc.) are of the opinion that the position of Indian women deteriorated through successive periods of history. They trace it to be a gradual decline from a state of enjoying a considerable degree of freedom to a state of dependence under the full control of their husbands.1 Some of the reasons for the same are given below; a. The imposition of Brahmin austerities on the society;

b. Foreign invasions of India affecting womens status adversely; c. The introduction of the non-Aryan wife into the Aryan household; d. Discontinuance of Upanayana of girls; e. Lack of educational facilities for women; f. The role of caste system, joint family system, etc. This paper will attempt to survey the status of women under the following topics of Indian history through the eyes of Hinduism, in relation to their very connection to a patriarchal social system:

Prabhati Mukherjee, Hindu Women. Normative Model (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1978), 5.

Mathews George, BD III, MTTS Kottayam / September 2012

2 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y Indus Valley Period, The Vedic Period, Epic Period, Manusmriti and women, Status of Women in South India, Mauryan Period, Reform movements and other movements.

2.1 Indus Valley Period Very little information is available on the status of women in the Indus Valley civilization. However archaeological findings provide some clues. The discovery of figurines indicating goddesses suggest the presence of female deities in the pantheon of this culture. It may also indicate matriarchal social conceptions, in a culture where the Phallic cult as well as the lingam - yoni cult was popular. Linga-Yoni cult where women were revered. worship indicates a fertility

From the figure of women from that period,

scholars suggest that a Mother Goddess or Shakti was worshipped. Pruthi and Sharma view the famous Bronze figurine from Mohenjodaro

called Dancing Girl as an indication of merchants of southerly caravan routes who brought with them exotic dancing girls who "tickled the fancies of tired businessmen of Harappa and Mohenjodaro."

Archaeological findings further suggest a highly sophisticated urban culture with highly developed sense of fashion, suggested by semi-precious stone and metal jewellery, studded ear-rings, necklaces with pendants, bangles and bracelets of gold, silver an bronze, etc. The use of face-paint, black beauty substance, toilet jars made of ivory, metal and so on "suggest that

Mathews George, BD III, MTTS Kottayam / September 2012

3 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y the belles of Sind attended to beauty and toilet culture." In comparison, the authors of Aryans and Hindu Women suggest that Aryan women were "crude, hardy, camp dwellers who could neither appreciate nor understand these urbane luxuries." The large number of female ornaments, the important mother-goddess worship in religion, the lesser importance of males, in comparison show that the Indus Valley was more favourable to women than men, it possibly being a matriarchate, resembling the type which existed in ancient Egypt.

3.1 The Vedic Period Of the condition of women in Vedic age , Pruthi and Sharma lament, The story Of Indo-Aryan women is a tragic tale of gradual subjection beginning from the legendary age of free love and ending up in the middle ages when

they had lost all individuality and were even made to mount the funeral pyres of their husbands.2 Indo-Aryan literature clearly distinguishes between Aryans and number of non-Aryan tribes, clearly giving the former an upper hand with connotations of purity and superiority to the Aryan group of people. Women, here, are mentioned mostly religious and family contexts. The Aryan laws towards women were stricter compared to non-Aryan ones. The former had a sacramental view of marriages, while non-Aryan marriage and divorce laws viewed the institution differently.
2

Raj Pruthi and Bela Rani Sharma, Aryans and Hindu Women (New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1995), 48.

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4 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y In early Vedic period, the widows had to marry their husbands brother. As found in most ancient patriarchal societies, once a woman was brought into

the family of the marriage, she was a field of this family to raise crops. The girl, after marriage, lived in her husbands house. However, marriage didnt seem compulsory then. In Rig Vedic times, women also participated in the intellectual and

spiritual life of the community. Husbands and wives offered sacrifices and oblations together. These are evident in some sacrificial prayers mentioned in the Veda, mentioning joint participation. Some of the songs of the Veda were composed by women. Visvavara, Apala, Lopamudra, etc. are some names mentioned as composers of hymns. The later Vedic period display a steady decline in the status of women. The reason attributed for this includes the development of certain

eschatological notions which led to a belief that sons alone were competent to redeem their parents from hell. When this view took root, women began to be viewed merely as vehicles for bearing children and if unwilling or unfit to perform that function, they were considered useless. One of the hymns in Atharva Veda prays, O Prajapati, Anumati, Sinivali, give a daughter

elsewhere but here a male. Later Vedic literature also reveals the development of a notion that embryos are basically male and birth of daughters were due to activities of

malignant Spirits, who during the course of the development of the foetus

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5 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y turned into female. However, the position of women during later Vedic period was better than medieval.

4.1 Epic Period We see the notion of ideal womanhood laced throughout the epics. It dealt with the fidelity and chastity of ideal women. The married women considered her husband a god. This is evidenced in Yudhishtiras conversations with Markhandeya in Mahabharatha. Attributes included devotion to her husband, respect for elders in the family and looking after dependents in the house. A good woman toiled and moiled hard in this world to gain happiness in the next.3 Dr. Shakambari Jayal even has a section in her book The Status of Women in the Epics4, titled The birth of a daughter How far the source of anxiety, reflecting the general environment into which a girl child was born. 4.1.1 Mahabharata Mahabharata depicts an age when inter-racial marriages were common. Most times, the men would be Aryans and women from non- Aryan groups described as Asuras, Nagas, and so on. Pratilomsa marriages, in which lower caste women married men of lower castes, was condemned Hindu texts. At the same time, men could marry below their own caste.

3 4

Mukherjee,op. cit., 16-17. Shakambari Jayal, The Status of Women in the Epics (Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, 1966), ix.

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6 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y Characters of Kunti and Draupadi are praised for their love and devotion to their families. Kunti is also portrayed as criticizing the inaction of her sons, while in exile and also as concerned for her daughterin-law,

Draupadi.

4.1.2 Ramayana The Simian tribes of India mentioned in the Ramayana, had relaxed moral codes. Matrimonial ties were loose and both polygyny and polyandry were prevalent. We also see that royal women like Sita, Kaikeyi, etc. having a comfortable

position in the palace. However they were subject to patriarchal rulings and allegations and were unable to defend themselves, as seen in the case of Sita who was parted from Rama due to the allegations of possible infidelity during the her time in Lanka. She is left to live in a forest with her sons and a Sage. Sita, Savitri and Parvati are considered the eternal triumvirate of the Hindus by Mukherjee.5 It reflects the perception of women in the period

which also gives us an idea of the Patriarchal notions. Sita is considered an ideal woman, docile, uncomplaining and a silent sufferer. She would die rather than question the justification of her husbands conduct and waver in her loyalty to him. Savitri is equally noble and her name is considered auspicious. Parvati stands for a chaste woman. She is found to attain this
5

Mukherjee,op. cit.,50.

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7 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y position by refusing to tolerate the character assassination of her husband by her father. She preferred death to hearing it. Interestingly, all three had an encounter with death on account of their husbands. Thus whatever was non-threatening and pleasurable for males was considered noble and women praised for the same.

5.1 Manusmriti and women Manusmrithi is considered the most authoritative work on Hindu Law given by Manu. Some laws of Manu give a high regard to women6: Where women are honoured, Gods are pleased, but where they are not honoured, no sacred rite yields rewards. (iii.56) By honouring father, his mother, and his teacher, all that ought to be done by man is accomplished; that is clearly the highest duty (iii.237) However, Manu disapproved of remarriages. Regarding the base nature of women, Manu agreed with Vedic and post- Vedic literature. Some of his verses emphasize and warn men regarding their disloyalty, gullibility, lack of discernment and aesthetic taste and even propagated that women are created by the Lord with a love for the bed, ornaments, impure desires, dishonesty, malice and bad conduct. Further a wife, slave and a son are declared by law to not have wealth of their own. her physical attraction. A girls desirability was determined on

Chitralekha Singh and Prem Nath, Hinduism (New Delhi: Crest Publishing, 1996), 27.

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8 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y 6.1 Status of Women in South India South India has a far longer history than the Aryans. Protected by the Vindhya mountains, they were almost immune from foreign aggression, also perhaps due to the peninsular geography. Historical data suggests that South Indians stubbornly resisted Aryanisation, and clung to their ancient ways. However Aryan culture could not be stopped from spreading in these regions. The ruling classes, generally accepted the supremacy Brahmins seemed to have. In South India, marriage among the Tamils was a private affair. Classic works like Silappadikaram describe a form of marriage called with vigorous courtships and no particular nuptial ceremony. The open form of marriage known as Karpu, was influenced by Brahmin Ayyars. Tolkappiyam, a classic

work reveal that the approved form of marriage among ancient Tamils was Kalavu (secret), which was nothing but straightforward love marriage. The authors suggest that it was a matriarchate where the function of the male was mainly biological, without any economic or domestic responsibilities to his wife and children, since Kalavu marriages were possible perhaps only in a society like that.7 At the same time Pruthi and Sharma tell us that ancient Tamils were a hardy, martial people whose triple objective in life was war, women and wine. However, they add that before the Aryan influences curtailed their liberty, South Indian women were a free, hardy type, not enslaved by sacramental
7

Pruthi and Sharma, op. cit., 30.

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9 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y notions of marriage, Sati, child-marriage, Purdah and other evil

institutions of Aryans of the North. However in Kerala, a strong matriarchal system existed, which even

influenced the Brahmin and even Kshatriyas to make compromises, eventually adjusting to it. Even today the Kings in the Royal family have matrilineal first names. The Nairs were the dominant matriarchs of Kerala. A type of socially approved affair known as Sambandham existed there, where the girl remained in her own house after Sambandham. The husband, living in his own house would visit the girl in her home for his conjugal rights and returned home in the morning. Divorces among them were easy and informal. But here, when the husband was no longer wanted, he was politely told that he was not welcome. If the husband stopped coming at nights, it could on the other hand, mean only one thing.

7.1 Mauryan Period Chandragupta Maurya, The Mauryan King who had a vast empire extending from the Hindu Kush mountains all the way to Mysore, had a great advisor called Chanakya, whose famous work is Arthashastra. History tells us that on his advice the closest attendants and the personal security force of the King were all trustable women. There were also another class of women kept for the splendor of Yet the court and the pleasure and its of the King, termed as

prostitutes.

these

prostitutes,

institution

enjoyed

great

privilege, even until as recent as the British period.

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10 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y In the Mauryan period marriage seems to have brought up a number of litigations causing Kautilya ( another name of Chanakya) to remark,

marriage is the basis of all disputes. Arthashstra mentions 8 types of recognized marriages. Punishment of adultery and other such aligned offences were usually fines. Megasthenes, the envoy of Greek king Seleuses to the Mauryan Court noted that women were forbidden from learning the sacred texts. The existence of sati among communities like the Kathas is also found in Greek writings about India.

8.1 Emergence of Devadasi system The Puranic age gave rise to great temples where music, worship song and dance were held all for the pleasure of gods. By the 7th century CE, when Huien Tsang visited India the institution of temple dancers were well established. We see the Bhavishya Purana suggesting dedicating a bevy of dance girls to the sun god as a way to obtain Suryaloka (heaven). This

system prevalent in many temples around India, especially Tamil Nadu and Gujarat has been prevalent even till the early days of the twentieth century. The NGO Arz in Goa has been regularly assisting raids with the Police at certain regions where forced Deva Dasi practices still go on during religious festivals, testifying for the deep rootedness of the system.

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11 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y 9.1 Reform movements and other movements

9.1.1 Tantrism The Tantric concepts are believed to have existed in India since time immemorial. They were a group that held the secret view that women were more superior compared to men. Atharva Veda is believed to have Tantric leanings. The central doctrine of the cult is that the male principle in the universe is inert, and that all active virtues are inspired by the female principle which should be the main object of worship. They condemn Sati and rape, in works like Mahanirvana Tantra. In Tantras, the goddess occupied the central place. While Shiva is a symbol of bondage, Shakthi is considered the cause of liberation.8 In the yantra9 symbol in Tantricism, which represents the goddess as an inverted triangle stands for Sakthi or Prakriti. This identification with

Prakriti, matter rather than spirit implies that the body is the seat of divinity and that too, expresses itself in the form of worship and meditation.10

Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism (New Delhi: Munshiram Manohar Press, 1990), 267. A Tantric symbol of the goddess upon it are inscribed the letters of the alphabet, or short monosyllabic mantras, which constitute the mantra- or shabda-body of the goddess. Klostermaier, op. cit., 271.

10

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12 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y 9.1.2 Lingayats Founded by Basava, a Brahmin who lived in the 12th century CE, this sect believed that Hinduism had fallen from its pristine purity by ignoring its teachers and thus wished to restore it to its ancient glory. Many believe Basava was also influenced by Christian ideas. He propagated the belief that men were not superior to women and that the fairer sex was to be treated with respect and kindness. He also objected to child-marriage, Sati, forcing children to marry, supported widow remarriage and permitted divorce under certain conditions.11 9.1.3 Shaktism Shaktism conceives the goddess as supreme, ultimate godhead. She is the embodiment of energy and dynamism. Shaktism, in a crude form may date back to the Indus Valley civilization and its fertility cult.12 With regard for Devi as the supreme Brahman, all other forms of divinity, male or female, are considered diverse manifestations.

According to Lina Gupta, The Hindu concept of Shakti/ power is utilised by Hindu women to their advantage within the context of Hinduism. This power is different from the western notion of power in that, it is more of an

11 12

Pruthi and Sharma, op. cit., 220. N. N. Bhattacharya, History of the Sakta Religion ( New Delhi : Munshiram Manoharlal, 1996), 6.

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13 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y internal power.13 Thus in Shakti we have a powerful symbol of womanhood, interestingly located in patriarchal culture. 9.1.4 Bhakti movement Bhakti movement emerged as a reaction to the highly intellectual,

philosophical modes of religion which made god inaccessible to the common man. The period between 1000 -1750 CE witnessed the evolution and growth of

the Bhakti movement in the Indian sub-continent.14 It was characterised by the belief that devotion to God alone can help one attain salvation; all people were equal and caste distinctions were meaningless; belief in one supreme God of Love and Grace; exaltation of bhakti above jnana and karma margas through rights and ceremonies; religious expressions through song and dance, etc. The movement gave an otherwise patriarchal sub-continent witness women coming to the fore through the Bhakti mode of religion. This movement ushered in a new era of freedom for women who were treated with respect and as co-worshippers in the tradition. Great saints like Mirabai exerted no small influence through her Prema Bhakti hymns and teachings. Although Meera had to face hardships from her in-laws for her ways of devotion, she nonetheless came to influence a number of people. She was considered an embodiment of love and innocence. Her heart was the temple

13

14

Lina S. Gupta, Hindu Women and Ritual Empowerment, in Women and Goddess Traditions: In Antiquity and Today, edited by Karen L. King (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997), 85. D. S. Sharma, Hinduism through the Ages (Bombay : Bharathiya Vidya Bhavan, 1989), 40.

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14 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y of devotion for Krishna. By the time of her death in 1546 CE, she was made immortal by her love for God and soulful songs.

10.1 Reflections In an introduction to Religion and Women, Katherin K. Young some symbolism that emerge from the book15: Where highlights

feminine symbolism is

common in small scale societies, women have higher religious status- more official ritual roles and leadership positions; abuses of power are common in the transition from small scale to large scale societies, involving state formation. These abuses inspire reforms. General and specific reforms to improve womens lives lead to an increase in feminine symbolism and, ritual roles for women and laws to safeguard their interest. When a religion has reform as it fundamental vision it is easier to call for reforms by calling for the renewal of the fundamental vision. Having surveyed women and patriarchy in India we observe a steady decline in the status of women. Yet, in small but dynamic movements, we see women obtaining sympathy. Some of the feminine deity movements have given certain women some respect too. However, on the whole, women are generally victims of Patriarchy even to this day. This needs a bout of larger awareness. Interestingly, globalisation and the related changes in society has given women more mobility, and income along with a certain level of freedom. Still, we hear reports of discrimination. This requires a constant effort at
15

Katherine K. Young, Religion and Women edited by Aravind Sharma (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1994), 2.

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15 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y conscientization and a will to treat women as equals, which can begin right from school. In a world like today, cultural ideas engage with each other to form newer cultures and values. It gives the possibility to choose

appropriate new values and leave ones which seem oppressive. One may also look into history and identify aspects were women were

respected and cherish those values. Even in the midst of patriarchy, India is not devoid of the potential for a better India for women. In a country where the very name of the country indicates a mother figure (Bharat Maatha) women do have the potential to rise and live as human beings.

11.1 Conclusion The past can teach us lessons and the Indian society may learn a thing or two on how to treat the fellow beings called women. The past practices ought to be improved upon and scriptural portions and practices that affirm the fullness of the female race may be celebrated. Hinduism can also enter into dialogue with other religions (which are also not innocent of treating women harshly) and try to value the worth of women through their religious beliefs. Secular studies like cultural studies, sociology and feminist thought may come together in understanding womens issues of today and negotiate a solution for it.

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16 | HINDUISM W o m e n a n d P a t r i a r c h y : A B r i e f S u r v e y The story of Indian women must not decline any further, but reach and remain in a new glorious period.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bhattacharya, N. N. History of the Sakta Religion. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1996.

Jayal, Shakambari. The Status of Women in the Epics. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, 1966. Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. New Delhi: Munshiram Manohar Press, 1990. Mukherjee, Prabhati. Hindu Women. Normative Model. New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1978. Pruthi, Raj and Bela Rani Sharma. Aryans and Hindu Women. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1995. Sharma, Aravind (ed.) Religion and Women. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1994. Sharma,D. S. Hinduism through the Ages.Bombay : Bharathiya Vidya Bhavan, 1989.

Singh, Chitralekha and Prem Nath, Hinduism.New Delhi: Crest Publishing, 1996.

Mathews George, BD III, MTTS Kottayam / September 2012