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MP0211NUCLEARENERGY Topic1.

Introduction
Globalconsideration Energy and matter Energyandmatter Atomicandnuclearphysics

Worldenergyconsumption
Demandforenergyinducedbypopulationincrease.

Globalconsideration Global consideration


Worldenergyconsumption Worldnuclearenergyconsumption W ld l ti Motivationfornuclearenergy Miscellaneousfacts

World energy consumption Worldenergyconsumption


Projectionsarenominal.

Worldnuclearenergyconsumption
Percentageofnationalelectricitygeneration. Percentage of national electricity generation

Worldnuclearreactors
Reactors by country/region operating as of 2009 Reactorsbycountry/region,operatingasof2009
Source:WNA 2010 Country/Region C t /R i USA p Europe Russia Canada China OtherAsia EasternEurope Eastern Europe Latin America Other Total 2009 104 149 31 18 11 79 16 6 21 435 2030(Expected) 2030 (E t d) 106 111 46 20 80 112 21 11 73 580

Motivationfornuclearenergy 1.Verylowcarbonfootprint(lowpollutiontoo) 1 Very low carbon footprint (low pollution too)

Motivationfornuclearenergy
2.Energysecurity 2 Energy security
Smallvolume,easytransportandstorageofnuclearfuel ensuremorereliableenergysupplyinacontingency. li bl l i i Relatively,nuclearfuelcostislow,andisasmallpartof overallenergycost.Hencenuclearenergyislesssensitive ll t H l i l iti tofuelpriceincreases.Highcapitalplantcostisoffsetby lowfuelcost. low fuel cost Nuclearfuelcostisstable,asuraniumoccursmore homogeneouslyovertheworldandislesssusceptibleto homogeneously over the world and is less susceptible to cartelsqueezes.Top6inreservesareAustralia, Kazakhstan,Canada,SouthAfrica,RussiaandBrazil. Nuclearenergyisidealasbaseloadsupporterinan electricitygenerationmix.

Motivationfornuclearenergy
3.Well establishedtechnology 3 Wellestablished technology
In2007therewere440unitsoperatingwith376,341MWe capacity.

Motivationfornuclearenergy
4.Extensivepotentialreserve
Worldenergyreservesaredifficulttobeestimatedwell. gy Newreservesareconstantlydiscovered.Fueleconomicsand technologicaladvancesaffecttherecovery.Thefollowingare veryroughandbasedoncurrentconditions. h db d t diti Oil:160billiontonnes 42yearsleft Oil: 160 billion tonnes 42 years left Naturalgas:180trillioncubicmeters 66yearsleft Coal:909billiontonnes 325yearsleft y Nuclear:2.6milliontonnes(U) 40 1200 4800yearsleft Thenewmethanehydrates potentialfor800years Renewables:??

Motivationfornuclearenergy 5.Energyofthefuture f h f
Infuture,advancementsinbothnuclearfission andnuclearfusiontechnologywillensure practicallyinfinitesourcesofenergyneededby practically infinite sources of energy needed by man. Thehydrogeneconomyisenvisagedasthe futurethatusescleanhydrogenfuelforenergy storageandtransport,replacingoilbasedfuelin d l i il b d f l i importance.Nuclearenergycanprovidetheclean y p y g waytoproducehydrogen.

Theconcernsonnuclearenergy1
Themainconcern The main concern
Themotherofallconcernsisthatnuclearenergyinvolves radioactivematerialsandisnotsafe. di ti t i l di t f Rebuttal Notethattheharnessingofthedangerouselectricityand g g y toxicchemicalsintheserviceofmanrequiredeep understandingandproventechnology.Fireisanother.Even benignwaterrequiresscienceandtechnologytocontrol benign water requires science and technology to control safelytheuseofscaldingsteamandtheextractionofmassive hydropower. Similarly knowledge and experience can conquer the use of Similarly,knowledgeandexperiencecanconquertheuseof radioactivematerialstoserveman. Theperceptionofunsafenuclearenergyisdeeprootedfrom thehistoriceventsofnuclearweaponsandtheChernobyl th hi t i t f l d th Ch b l nuclearaccident.Publicdenialcanoverwhelmtechnicalities.

Theconcernsonnuclearenergy2
Specificconcerns Nuclearpowerplants(NPPs)aredangerous andmayblowuporhave seriousaccidents. Untrue.NPindustrysaferthanmanyindustries.Moststringentrules. y y g NPPcannotexplodetothescaleofanuclearweapon.Thedesigned physicsmakesitimpossible. TheChernobylNPPwasbuiltforRussiannuclearweaponmaterials The Chernobyl NPP was built for Russian nuclear weapon materials anddidnothavetheusualsafetyfeaturesofcommercialNPPinthe West.The1986accidentcausedoverheatingandledtoexplosionof therapidevaporatingwateraswellasfiretothegraphite.Therewas th id ti t ll fi t th hit Th nousualcontainmentbuildingtosealtheradioactivematerials releasedtotheatmosphere.Moreover,thepooremergencyplan plusstatesecrecyaddedmanymorecasualtiestotheaccidentthan l t t dd d lti t th id t th theimmediatevictims.Itwastheworst,andthenuclearindustry believethiscannothappenagain. Thenextmostseriousaccident,atThreeMileIsland7yearsearlierin 1979,hadzerocasualtyandnegligibleenvironmentalresult.

Theconcernsonnuclearenergy3
[Withrebuttals] Encouragesproliferation ofnuclearmaterialstomakenuclear weaponsbyterroristsandunscrupulousparties. [Difficult toexploitacommercialNPPtomakeweapons.IAEA [Diffi lt t l it i l NPP t k IAEA stepsintoregulateusage.Morelikelythataroguestate secretlyoperatesanuclearweaponfactorysomewhere.] Encouragescreationofdirtybombs. [Therearefareasierwaystogetsourcesofradioactive materialsusedinthecivilianenvironmentthattheterrorists cangetholdof.] can get hold of.] Createtargets forterroristsabotage. [NPParewellguardedandsecurelydesigned.Thereareother fareasiertargetswithgreaterconsequences.]

Theconcernsonnuclearenergy4
Nuclearenergywilladdmoreradiationtotheworldandthe public,becauseoftheuseofradioactivematerials. [Over concerned.Additionisminusculecomparedtoother [Overconcerned. Addition is minuscule compared to other existingradiation.]
AllRadioactiveSources(IAEAdata) Natural
Manmade medicaluse Man madenucleartesting Manmade nuclear testing ManmadeChernobylaccident Manmadenuclearenergy

PublicExposure
86% 14% 0.18% 0 18 % 0.07 % 0.007%

Therearealternativerenewableenergysourcesthatcan replacenuclearenergy. [ [Alternativesaregoodtohave,butnotenough,andnot g , g , desirabletoreplaceallconventionalenergiesastheyareless reliable.]

Theconcernsonnuclearenergy5
NPPgivesradioactivewaste thatcannotbedisposed permanentlyandisathreattopublicsafety.
Rebuttal b l TheusedfuelfromNPPcanbedisposedsafelyandpermanentlyby beingburiedindeepundergroundrockchamberswhicharestable andhavenowateraccess. However,presentlytheyarestoredinwasterepositoryonshortor mid term(exceptSweden),eitherattheNPPorelsewhere. midterm (except Sweden) either at the NPP or elsewhere Thisisbecausetheusedfuelhaseconomicvalue,notacomplete waste.Itcontainsenergythatcanbeextractedbyreprocessing, andusedbythefuturegenerationsofNPPs. and used by the future generations of NPPs Fuelreprocessingextendstheusefulnessofuraniumgreatly,aswell asmadepossibleextractionofotherusefulmaterials,whilethe finalwastefromthereprocessingismuchsmallerandmore manageable.

Rankingofcontributionstodeath g

Somefactsonsafetyrecords Some facts on safety records

Energyandmatter Energy and matter


Units for mass and energy Unitsformassandenergy Massandenergyequivalence Atomicandnuclearstructure i d l

Unitsformassandenergy1
Types of forces: gravitational electrostatic electromagnetic Typesofforces:gravitational,electrostatic,electromagnetic, nuclear.Unitisnewton or[N] Energyisneededforaforcetoactagainstaresistance.[unitJ] Abodywithmassmandspeedvhaskineticenergy

Ek =mv2
Example:Ek =(1kg)(1000m/s)2 =500,000(kgm/s2)(m) =510 = 5105 Nm = 5105 J =510 J Foratomicorsubatomicparticles,theunitofmassisatomicmass unit[amu]. 1amu =1.661027 kg.Thisisdefinedas1/12ofthemassofa carbonatom. Hydrogenatomisabout1amu. H d i b 1 mp =1.67261027 kgmn=1.67491027 kgme=9.10931031 kg
(SeeAppendixinMurray)

Unitsformassandenergy2
Theaveragekinetic energyofamolecule, energy of a molecule duetovibrationunder temperature T,is p 3 =kT 2
whereT isinunitofK k =Boltzmannsconstant =1.381023 J/K /

Anelectromagnetic(EM) wavehasnomass.Itsenergy Eisgivenby Ei i b E=h


where h=Plancksconstant =6.631034 Js =frequencyoftheEMwave f f th EM inunitofs1

Frequency and wavelength andwavelength arerelatedbyc=


wherec =speedoflight where c = speed of light =3108m/s

K=oC+273

Unitsformassandenergy3
Thermalorelectricalenergy isalsogiveninunitofJ Power isenergyrate,orenergyperunittime,withunitof[J/s]or watts[W]
Alargeunitofpoweris1000Wor[kW] Alargerunitofpoweris1000kWor[MW] Anevenlargerunitsare106 Wor[GW],and1012 Wor[TW] M=mega G=giga T=tera Example:Singaporehasatotalelectricpowercapacityofabout11.5GW. E ample Singapore has a total electric po er capacit of abo t 11 5 GW Tuas PowerStation.Stage1has2unitsof600MWeachinthe plant.Stage2has4unitsof367.5MWeach.Totalcapacityis2.67GW.

Anotherunitof energyisWhour orjust[Wh] Alargerunitofenergyis1000Wh or[kWh]

Unitsformassandenergy4
Foratomicparticles,anotherunitofenergyis electron volt[eV] electronvolt [eV] 1eV =1.60221019 J1MeV =1.60221013 J 1eV istheenergyneededtomoveoneelectron throughanelectricfieldof1volt. through an electric field of 1 volt Example:Ittakes13.5eV toremovetheelectron fromhydrogenatom. from hydrogen atom.

Massandenergyequivalence1
Einsteinsfamousequationisthebasisofnuclearenergy. Itstatesthatmatterwithmassmhasanequivalent energygiven q gy g by

E=mc2
wherec isthespeedoflight,3108 m/s. Example:Anelectronwhencompletely convertedintoenergyhas E l A l h l l di h E =(9.11031 kg)(3108 m/s)2 =8.1910 = 8 191014 J =8.191014 J/{1.601013 J/MeV}=0.51MeV 1amu hasanenergyequivalentof931MeV gy q

Massandenergyequivalence2 Mass and energy equivalence 2


1 kg of a fuel if it can be completely converted 1kgofafuelifitcanbecompletelyconverted intonuclearenergywillgive91016 Jof energy. energy 1kgofpetrolwillgivethroughchemical combustion510 Jofenergy. combustion 5107 J of energy Sonuclearenergyismorethanamilliontimes morecompactthanchemicalenergy. h h i l

Massandenergyequivalence3
Einsteinstheorysaysthat anobjectwithspeed vhas kineticenergyEk givenby Therelationshipbetween restmassandmovingmass rest mass and moving mass is m

m=

Ek =(m mo (

)c ) 2

1 (v / c ) 2

where mo =restmassofobject m=movingmassofobject c=speedoflight

Theincreaseinmassisnot significantunlessthespeed significant unless the speed isatleastafew%ofc.

Effectofaddingheattoasolid1 Effect of adding heat to a solid 1


ExampleofH2O Progressivelyandtypically thesolidmeltsintoaliquid thenvaporised intoagas. then vaporised into a gas. Furtherheatingathigh temperaturewilldissociate themoleculesintoatoms. the molecules into atoms Atextremetemperatureof billionsofdegrees,the atomswillbreakdowntoits ill b k d i subparticlesinacloudof plasma.

Effectofaddingheattoasolid2 g
Forcalculatingtheheat absorbedbyapuresolid absorbed by a pure solid orliquidorvapour/gas, use Q=mcT
where Q=heatabsorbed[J] [ g] m =massofsubstance[kg] c =specificheat[J/gK]or[J/goC] T=temperatureincrease[oC]

Forcalculatingheat absorbedduringa absorbed during a phasechange,where temperatureis temperature is constant,use Q Q=mL


where Q=heatabsorbed[J] m =massofsubstance[kg] L=latentheat[J/kg]offusion orvaporization i ti

Atomicandnuclearstructure1
Asimplemodeloftheatomconsistsof asmallnucleussurroundedbyelectrons inlargecircularorbits. Thenucleusconsistsof2typesofdense particlescalledNucleons: (a)Proton apositivelychargeparticle. (b)Neutron anunchargedparticle. Eachelectronisnegativelycharged.The electronsdeterminetheunique chemicalpropertiesoftheelement. Theatomasawholehasnonetcharges. Thenumberofprotonsequalsnumber ofelectronstomaintainneutrality. of electrons to maintain neutrality
AtomicnumberZofanelementisthe numberofprotons(electrons)inanatom. MassnumberAofanelementisthetotal numberofnucleonsinanatom. Example:Lithium7.Z=3,A=7 Insymbol,7Li3 No.ofneutrons=AZ=4 Neutronnumber=AZ

Atomicandnuclearstructure2
Isotopes areatomsofthe sameelementthathavethe sameZbutdifferentA. same Z but different A Forexample,theelement hydrogen(Z=1)existsin3 isotopes,withA=1,2and3. Denoted by H1, H2, H3, they DenotedbyH 1,H 2,H 3,they arealsocalledhydrogen, deuterium,andtritium. They have the same chemical Theyhavethesamechemical propertiesbutdifferent physicalproperties.

Thenuclearfuelelementuranium hasZ=92,butcanoccurnaturallyas h Z 92 b t t ll U238,U235,U234,andthrough nuclearreactionstherearealso U236andU233. U 236 and U 233 Ageneralnameforaspeciesof atomcharactorized bythenucleus iscalledanuclide. is called a nuclide.

Atomicandnuclearstructure3
Moreexamples

Atomicandnuclearstructure4 Atomic and nuclear structure 4


ewatermoe e water moe Ionized atoms or Ionizedatomsor moleculesare thosewithlessor extraelectronsin theorbit. H2O=H+ +OH Cl +e =Cl Ca 2e =Ca++

Atomicandnuclearstructure5 Atomic and nuclear structure 5


Size
Example,thehydrogenatomH1 hasaradiusofabout510 m. has a radius of about 51011 m Theradiusofthenucleus(hereproton)or anelectronisabout1015 m,muchsmaller. Aroughruleforradiusofany nucleusisR=1.41013A [cm]

Mass
AtomicmassMisthemassofthe [i k ] atom[inamu orkg]. MofC12=12amu (Definition) MofH 1 1 007274 amu M of H1 =1.007274amu MofH2=2.014102amu MofH3=3.016049amu Mofproton=mp =1.007276amu Mofneutron=mn =1.008665amu Mofelectron=me =0.000549amu (>1800timeslighterthana (>1800 times lighter than a nucleon) Question:Dotheparticlemasses addedupmatchthemassofthe atoms?

Atomicandnuclearstructure6
Bohrtheoryofelectronorbitsin hydrogen atom. Thistheorygivessizeofelectron Thi th i i f l t orbitsasradiusRn=n2 R1,where R1 isthesmallestorbitwithvalue 0.5310 m,andn=1,2,etc. 0 531010 m and n=1 2 etc OrbitshaveenergylevelsE1,E2,etc. withE1=13.5eV,En=E1/n2 Whenthebaseelectronis Wh th b l t i sufficientlyexcitedbyexternal energy,itcanjumptoahigherorbit. Whentheelectronreturnstoitsfirst When the electron ret rns to its first orbit,thesameenergyisemitted.

Atomicandnuclearstructure7
(Gram)Atomicweightofanelement (Gram) Atomic weight of an element isthemass oftheelementexpressed ingramspermole[g/mol],orper 6.021023 numberofatoms. ThatnumberistheAvogadros numberNa,whichisthenumberin1 moleofanyonetypeofatomor molecule[unit:#/mol].

Thenumberofatomsormolecules in1cm3 ofanymaterialisgivenby N= Na/M where = density. Example:Naturaluraniumhas M=238.03g/mol, =19 gm/cm3 238 03 / l 19 / SoN=4.811022 #/cm3 oratoms/cm3

Theatomicweightcanberegardedas aweighedaveragevalueforan a weighed average value for an Example:Water(H20)hasdensity element,whenthereareisotopes 1.0g/cm3,M=2(1.008)+16.0018.0 presentintheelement.Thisworks g/mol wellinchemistrywherenodistinction inisotopesisinvolvedandanelement in isotopes is involved and an element N = = isassumedtobeuniformfromall 3 23 sources.ThesymbolM isalsousedin (1.0g/m )(6.0210 #/mol)/(18 g/mol) thetextbook.

=3.310 = 3 31022 #/cm3 or molecules/cm3 ormolecules/cm

Bindingenergy
T di Todissociateanatomintoseparate i i particles,ittakesexternalenergyto overcomethepotentialenergyof binding. ThatbindingenergyBofanucleusis calculatedbythemassdifference y betweentheseparatenucleonsandthe wholenucleus. Example: A tritium atom Example:Atritiumatom
B=Nmn +Zmp Mnucleus

BNmn +ZmH M
SoB=2m +m So B = 2 mn + mH MH3 B=2(1.008665)+(1.007825) (3 016049) (3.016049) =0.009106amu =8.48MeV,theenergy equivalent i l Theoretically,iftheparticles wereunitedtoformthe nucleus,B amountofenergy willbereleased.

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