Curso System Planning

System Planning
?
System planning is necessary in order to decide - Antenna tower heights - Radio configuration - Antenna size and configuration
System planning. Slide 1
Agenda - Day 1
Wave propagation
k-values ducting multipath
Antennas
gain X-polarisation passive reflectors
Terrain profiles
Fresnel zones Earth bulge Reflections
Power budget
Free space loss Link budget
Precipitation
Characteristics Unavailability due to rain
Field Survey
Procedures Equipment Survey Report
Agenda - Day 2
Performance objectives
G.821 & G.826
Interference
Cross polar interference Adjacent channel Co-channel
Performance Predictions
Fading margin Multipath fading
Frequency Planning
Alternated channel plan CCDP
Diversity
Space diversity Frequency diversity Path diversity
Equipment configurations
Trunk radio Access radio
Chapter
Wave propagation in the atmosphere

Wave Propagation in the Atmosphere

no atmosphere with atmosphere
straight rays
bent rays
It is the radiowaves interaction with the molecules in the atmosphere that bends them. As for visible light, the radiowaves may be treated with ray optics on a large scale. <<d
d
d: characteristic dimension of object
Fundamentals of Ray Optics
- The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection 1= '1 - For a given frequency the angles of incidence, 1, and refraction, 2, are related by
Incident ray Reflected ray
n1.sin1 = n2.sin2
- The relation (1) is called Snell's law. n1 and n2 are
(1)
1 n1 n2
1'
constants characteristic of the media. These constant are called indices of refraction
n=
2
Refracted ray
C __ V
(2 )
c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of the waves in the given medium. The rays bend towards the denser medium
The pool experiment

n = 1
water surface
n
w
= 1 .3 3
Why is c c ?
The index of refraction for the atmosphere

The index of refraction for air, for the frequency of interest is very close to that of vacuum. Due to that, one uses N, radio refractivity, instead of n N = (n-1) .106
77.6 . e (p+4810 . ) T T (3)
N=
(4)
- T is temperature in Kelvin. Degrees in Celsius + 273.15 - p is total air pressure in hPa (=mbar) - e is water vapour pressure in hPa
Since p, e and T all are functions of height also N is a function of height
Ray bending (refraction)

dN N units = 40 dh km
The rays bend towards the region of higher refractivity (densest).
(K=1.33)
* For a normal atmosphere (standard, well mixed) the variation of N with height is
less dense air
h [km] - 40
dense air
N-units
Earth curvature
dN/dh = -40 K=1.33
K - value
K-value is a common used value to indicate ray bending. It includes both: Ray curvature Earth radius
K= 1 1 1 a r = 1 1 1 = 1 dn dn dN 1 a ( cos 1 + a 1+ a 10 6 n dh dh dh
n nearly one is nearly zero
For a normal atmosphere dN/dh=-40 :
K=
1 = 1.33 1 + 6370 (40) 10 6
h(km)
3 2 K= -2/3 1 T R 4/3 1 2/3 K -2/3 4/3 K=, ray is parallel with the earth
1 2/3 EARTH RADIUS a = 6370 km
300
N-UNITS
Ray bending (refraction)

dN N units = 78 dh km
dense air - humid air
dN N units =0 dh km
Equal distributed density
dN N units < 157 dh km
less dense air - dry air
less dense air Earth curvature h [km] 78 Earth curvature h [km] 0
dense air Earth curvature h [km] >- 157
N-units
N-units
N-units
dN/dh = 0 K=1 dN/dh =78 K 0.66

(K=0.66, subrefracted) Same as no atmosphere (K=1, subrefracted)
dN/dh < -157 K<0

(Ducting region K<0) When the ray is bent downwards with a radius less than that of the earth, occurs the possibility of ducting.
Transmitter situated in a ground-based duct

In duct, close to earth: Uniform dM/dh<0 Above duct: (dN/dh<-157N/km)
dM dN = + 157 dh dh
Uniform dM/dh>0 (dN/dh>-157N/km)
Martin P M Hall
dN/dh=-157 N - value
Atmospherical Multipath Propagation

Multipath propagation occurs when there are more than one ray reaching the receiver. Multipath transmission is the main cause of fading. Multipath can only happen when dN/dh varies with height.
Ground base duct The figure shows a ground based duct. The atmosphere has a very dense layer at the ground with a thin layer on top of it. There will be nearly total reflection from this layer boundary.
Re flecting At mo spheric L ayer Bo undar y

1 1
REG ION 2
2 d 2 z
1 3 4
M= M1 -M2 M1 M2 M
REG ION 1
dM dN = + 157 dh dh
Elevated duct
Rays propagating from a transmitter situated below an elevated duct.
Martin P M Hall
dM dN = + 157 dh dh
Formation of a Duct
dM >0 dh
T his regio n is coo led b y th e grou nd
dM <0 dh
Morni ng
Daytime
Calm night
Convection mixes the atmosphere

dN Constant dh
No convection Temperatureinversion
Ground based duct rises to become an elevated duct
Ducting Probability
The figure shows the percentage of time the dN/dh is less than -100 N units/km in May. This figure gives a good indication where it is most likely to experience ducting. It is seen from the figure that the equatorial regions are most vulnerable to ducts. In temperate climate the probability of formation of ducts is less. This difference in duct probability can be explained by the difference in temperature and most of all by the difference in humidity.
Chapter
Terrain profiles
The Bristol channel path
The Bristol channel path

Site:ILFRACOMBE Altitude:203.0 m amsl. Antenna:10.00 m. 250 Path length:58.65 km. K:1.33 Fresnel zone:1.00 Frequency:7.70 GHz. Grazing angle:3.47 millirad. Site:ST. HILARY Altitude:126.0 m amsl. Antenna:10.00 m.
200
150
100
50
0.0
15.0
30.0 Distance in km.
45.0
Drawing path profile
Earth bulge - Refraction
Refraction Refraction Earth curvature
Earth curvature Refraction - Earth bulge
Earth bulge
In order to draw the line of sight straight in a path profile, the ray bending due to variations in k value is added to the terrain heights. The modification of the terrain heights is give by d 1 . d2 M= 12.74 . k d1 , d2 distanes in km
k - k value. Includes both earth and ray curvature
k= 0.6
M
SITE A
k= 1.33 SITE B k= Real ground height from map 8
d1
d2
Fresnel zone
d3 F1 A d1 d2 B
TheFresnel zoneis the locus of points where d3 - (d1 + d2) = /2 Theradius F1 is approximately F1 = 17.3
d1 . d2 f . d
f - frequency in GHz d1, d2 and d = d1 + d2 in km

ITU-R clearance criteria

1. Determine the antenna heights required for clearance for the first Fresnel zone (F1)
over the highest obstacle calculated with k = 4/3 2. Obtain the value of ke (99.9%) from figure below for the path length. And calculate the antenna heights required for the value of ke and the following Fresnel zone clearance radii:
1
Temperate climate 0.0 F 1 if there is a single isolated path obstruction. 0.3 F 1 if the path obstruction is extended along a portion of the path.
Tropical climate 0.6 F 1 for path lengths greater than about 30 km.
0.9
0.8 ke 0.7
0.6
0.5 10 20 50 path length in km 100
3. Use the larger of the antenna heights obtained by steps 1. and 2.

Ref. ITU-R P.530-7
Antenna heights for a hop over flat terrain

100 90 2 GHz 80 70 Antenna height [m] 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Path length [km ] 45 50 55 60 4 GHz 6 GHz 8 GHz 11 GHz 15 GHz
Clearance criteria according to ITU-R P.530
Diffraction loss
Diffraction loss for obstructed line-of-sight microwave radio paths
Ref. ITU-R P.530-7

Ground reflections
Rx
Received signal is the sum of the direct and reflected rays.
Tx
The more conductive the ground is, the stronger the reflection will be. (sea mash, etc.)
Typical reflection coefficients for different types of terrain

hills with trees 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7 -0.8 -0.9 -1.0
hills with bushes
cultivated fields
steppes with no vegetation
water
Height - Gain Curves

Received signal sum of direct and reflected rays
Signalstrength as function of height

strong signal this curve varies with k weak signal
To counteract the effect of groundreflections one uses space diversity

One antenna at maximum and one at minimum signal strength
Optimum antenna separation
1(2)
Design methods
Methods for finding reflection point and optimum antenna separation: 1. Analytical using series expansion 2. Geometrical
using Fresnel zones
Determination of the reflection point

q= h1 h2 h1 + h2
q - parameter to be used in formulas h1 - height of antenna above reflection point at site A in m h2 - height of antenna above reflection point at site B in m
Q=
k 51(h1 + h2 ) 2d 2
Q - parameter to be used in formulas k - effective Earth radios factor d - total path length in km
V=
q 1 1+ Q
h2 h1
V - parameter to be used in formulas
V 2i Z =V i i = 0 (1 + Q )
d1 d=d1 +d2
d2
Determination of the reflection point
Simplification:
V2 V4 V6 Z V 1 + +3 2 + 12 3 1+ Q (1 + Q) (1 + Q)
d d 1 = (1 + Z ) 2
d2 = d (1 Z ) = d d 1 2
Optimum antenna separation

Difference in path length:
2 d12 d 22 = h1 h2 10 3 12.74 k 12.74 k d
h1(2)
Corresponding pitch distance:
1(2)
1 =
d h2 12.74 k 0.3 d 1 2 = 10 3 2 d1 2 f h1 12.74 k
0.3 d 2 f
1
2 2
10 3
at site 1
at site 2
L Rx
Optimum antenna separation:

h1 =
1
2
at site 1
h2 =
2
2
at site 2
Chapter
Field survey
What is a survey ?
A visit in the field in order to plan a microwave system. A visit in the field to already planned microwave sites in order to verify the feasibility of the system. A study of the propagation conditions for a planned system. A study of the infrastructure in an area where a microwave system is planned.
Objectives of a field survey
Verify exact site location. Verify line-of-sight Confirm space in existing stations Check propagation conditions Check frequency interference possibilities Check soil conditions for new towers Check site access and infrastructure in the area
Survey procedures
Preparations Map Work. Locating sites on the map. Making of path profiles. Check line-of-sight, antenna heights, organizing transport and accommodation. Field work Location of sites. Check if the terrain at the chosen map locations is convenient. Verify position and altitude of the sites. Verify line-of-sight between sites. Check altitude of obstacles. Measure up and marking of site area. Soil investigations. Checking of site access. Road construction. Investigate propagation conditions. Make interference measurements. Survey report Report from the findings and calculations of system quality has to be done.
Geodetic Datum
Geodetic datums define the size and shape of the earth and the origin and orientation of the co-ordinate systems used to map the earth. Hundreds of different datums have been used to frame position descriptions since the first estimates of the earth's size were made by Aristotle. Different datums might use same reference ellipsoid.
Datum Differences
Referencing geodetic co-ordinates to the wrong datum can result in position errors of hundreds of meters.
Survey report
System description Site description and layout Antenna and tower heights Path profiles System performance calculations Frequency plans Photographs
Checklist for survey of existing stations

Type of building. Concrete, wood, prefabricated shelter Material used in ceiling, walls, floor Measurements of rooms. Height of ceiling Space fore new equipment in the equipment room How to fix waveguide and cables to walls, ceilings Waveguide outlets through walls etc. New air dryer for waveguide necessary? Available power. AC - DC Existing battery capacity. New batteries necessary? Can existing tower be used? Distance from building to tower How to lay the waveguide safely outside Space for new antenna at the right height in the tower Check of grounding system for the tower, station Possible interface problems when connecting to existing equipment Possible interference problems with existing equipment
Difficult areas for microwave links

Overwater paths Always difficult due to sea reflections. High reflection coefficient. High possibility of ducting. Swamps and rice fields Can cause strong ground reflections. High possibilitiy of multipath fading. May look different at different times of the year. Rainy season, monsoon. Desert areas Can cause ground reflections. Sand does not have a high reflection coefficient. High possibility of multipath fading due to temperature variations. Hot and humid coastal areas High degree of ducting probability Arabian gulf, West africa, parts of the west indies and parts of the mediterranean.
Typical survey equipment

Maps (1:50 000) Camera (digital) Binoculars Theodolite Compass Antenna horns Altimeter Thermometer Signalling mirrors Low Noise Amplifier / Spectrum Analyser Portable PC Walkie-talkie or cellular phone (verify coverage)
Tape measure Satellite navigation equipment (GPS)
Chapter
Error performance and availability objectives

Outline of ITU objectives

G.821 High grade Medium grade
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
G.826 International portion

Terminating country Intermediate country
National portion
Long haul section Short haul section Access section
Local grade
Objectives conceptions
Performance
Error performance should only be evaluated whilst the connection is in available state SAvail
Availability / Unavailability
SAvail = SObservation time - SUnavail
The connection is unavailable when:
Equipment failure Human activity (maintenance) Outage due to rain SES for for more than 10 consecutive sec.
SES (Severely Errored Second)

G.821 - bit error 1 sec. period with BER 10-3 G.826 - block error 1 sec. period which contains 30% EB or at least one Severely Disturbed Period (AIS, LOS, LOF,.)
SESR (Severely Errored Second Ratio)

The ratio of SES to total seconds in available time during a fixed measurement interval
T SESR = SES S Avail

As a rule of thumb:
Let 1/3 of total unavailability be occupied by unavailability due to rain
0 SESR 1
Scaling of the end-to-end objectives. G.821

End-to-end, 27500km, error performance objectives is:
BER = 1 10 3
SES 0.2%
27 500km 1250 km T-reference point LE 25 000 km 1250 km LE T-reference point
Local grade
Medium grade
High grade
Medium grade
Local grade
Local grade
High grade
Medium grade
* 15% block allowance to each end of half of the total allowance * Block allowance of 0.05% to a 2500km HRDP of radio relay system Ex.:
SES ( 0.1% 15% ) + 0.05% 0.065%
G.821
* 15% block allowance to each * Each 2500km portion may contribute end of half of the total not more than 0.004% allowance * Block allowance of 0.05% to a 2500km HRDP of radio relay system Ex.: Ex.: L= 1200 km SES 0.1% 15% ( 0.004% + 0.05% ) SES
0.015%
0.054%
High Grade Objectives

Objectives for radio-relay systems
Performance
ITU-R Rec. F.594-4 and F.634-4
SES for no more than :
0.054
L [%] 2500
where 280km < L <2500km
Availability / Unavailability Total unavailability : 0.3
ITU-R Rec. F.695
L [%] 2500
L [%] 2500
where 280km < L <2500km
Unavailability due to rain : 0.1
The percentage being considered over a period sufficiently long to be statistically valid. The value is probably greater than one year. L is the system length
G.821
Medium Grade Objectives

Performance for SES

Block allowance for each class
ITU-R Rec. F.696
Class 1 0 < L < 280km 0.006 %
Class 2 0 < L < 280km 0.0075 %
Class 3 0 < L < 50km 0.002 %
Class 4 0 < L < 50km 0.005 %

ITU-R Rec. F.696
Block allowance for each class
Class 1 0 < L < 280km 0.0033%
Class 2 0 < L < 280km 0.05 %
Class 3 0 < L < 50km 0.05 %
Class 4 0 < L < 50km 0.1 %
L is the system length

G.821
Local Grade Objectives

Performance
Block allowance.
ITU-R Rec. F.697-2
SES for no more than: 0.015 %
L < 50km
Availability / Unavailability Not yet defined by ITU

L is the system length
G.821
Performance objectives
ITU-T Recommendation
G.821 G.821
G.826 G.826
System planning. Slide 51 IIR1-
Block-Based error Performance

Errored block (EB) one ore more errored bits in a block. Errored second (ES) one ore more errored blocks in one second period. Severely errored second (SES) one second period with >30% errored blocks or at least one severely disturbed period.
SDP: Loss Of Signal Loss Of Frame Alarm Indication Signal High Order Path AIS Low Order Path AIS Loss of AU pointer Loss of TU pointer
Background block error (BBE) one block with error, not a part of SES.
G.826
Error Performance Objective for Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP)

End-to end error performance objectives ( ITU-T rec. G.826)
Rate Mbit/s Bits/ block ESR SESR BBER 1.5 to 5 2000-8000 0.04 0.002 2104 *) > 5 to 15 2000-8000 0.05 0.002 2104 > 15 to 55 4000-20 000 0.075 0.002 2104 > 55 to 160 6000-20 000 0.16 0.002 2104 0.002 104 > 160 to 3500 15 000-30 000
*) For systems designed prior to 1996: 3x10-4

G.826
Scaling of the end-to-end objectives. G.826

End-to-end, 27500km, error performance objectives (Rate Mb/s 1.5 to 3500) is:
BER 5 10 5
Terminating Country
SESR 0.2%
Intermediate Country
PEP
IG
IG
IG
IG
Inter-Country Terminating Country (e.q. Path carried over a Submarine PEP IG Cable) National Portion
International Gateway 1%
National Portion
International Portion Hypothetical Reference Path 27 500 km PEP = Path end point
National portion
* 17.5% fixed block allowance * Plus a distance based allocation which is 1% per 500km, where the actual system length is rounded up to the nearest multiple of 500km Ex.: L=600km SESR 0.2% (17.5% + 2% ) 0.039%
International portion
* 1% for each terminating country * 2% per intermediate country * Plus a distance based allocation which is 1% per 500km, where the actual system length is rounded up to the nearest multiple of 500km Ex.: Norway - Sweden- Denmark L=1200km SESR 0.2% 1% { Nor } + 2% { Swe } + 1% { Den } + 3% {dist } 0.014%
G.826
International portion Digital radio-relay systems

Error performance objectives for constant bit rate digital path at or above the primary rate carried by radio-relay systems which may form part of the international portion of a 27 500km hypothetical reference path
Rec. ITU-R F.1092-1 1999
G.826 - all mediums F.1092-1 - radio-relay system in international portion

G.826
International Portion of HRP

Performance
Block allowance: Intermediate country: 2% of total allowance Terminating country: 1% of total allowance + Distance based allowance *: 1% per 500km of total allowance
* actual system distance is rounded up to next multiple of 500km
Not yet defined by ITU

G.826 - > F.1092
International Portion of HRP

Performance
SESR:
0.2 (FL + BL) [%]

FL = 0.01 LR 500
for rate 1.5 to 160Mbit/s
Distance allocation factor: Block allocation factor: Intermediate countries:
LR is the rounded value of L rounded up to nearest multiple of 500km
L BR 0.02 R Lref BL = B 0.02 R

for Lmin < LR Lref for LR > Lref

for Lmin < LR Lref / 2 for LR > Lref / 2
Terminating countries:
Where
0 < BR 1 (BR=1 under study)
Lref = 1000km (provisionally)

G.826 - > F.1092
International portion Digital radio-relay systems

Error performance objectives for real digital radio links used in the international portion of a 27 500km hypothetical reference path at or above the primary rate
Rec. ITU-R F.1397 1999
G.826 - all mediums F.1092-1 - radio-relay system in international portion F.1397 - scaled down obj. from F.1092-1
G.826
International Portion of HRP, scaled down

Performance
SESR: 0.2 (FL + BL) LLink/LR

Distance allocation factor: Block allocation factor: Intermediate countries:
FL = 0.01 LR 500
[%]
LR is the rounded value of L rounded up to nearest multiple of 500km

for Lmin < LR Lref for LR > Lref

for Lmin < LR Lref / 2 for LR > Lref / 2
Terminating countries:
Where 0 < BR 1 (BR=1 under study)
Lmin = 50km (provisionally) Lref = 1000km (provisionally)

G.826 - > F.1397
National portion Digital radio-relay systems

Error performance objectives for constant bit rate digital path at or above the primary rate carried by digital radio-relay systems which may form part or all of the national portion of a 27 500 km hypothetical reference path
Rec. ITU-R F.1189-1 1999
G.826 - all mediums F.1189-1 - radio-relay system in national portion

G.826
Basic sections of national portion of HRP

Path end-point Local exchange Note 1 International gateway
Access C
Short haul B
Long haul A
Note 1 In dependence of the country network architecture, this centre may coincide with a primary centre (PC), a secondary centre (SC) or a tertiary centre (TC) (see ITU-T Recommendation G.801).
Performance
Fixed block allowance + Distance based allowance 17.5% of total allowance
(Ex.17.5%*0.2%=0.035%)
1% per 500km of total allowance

(Ex.2500km: 5*1%*0.2%=0.01%)
Not yet defined by ITU

G.826 - > F.1189
National portion
Performance
SESR:
0.2 Z
[%]
Long haul section Short haul section Access section
Z=A
A = A1 + (LR/500)
A1 = 1 - 2 % B = 7.5 - 8.5 % C = 7.5 - 8.5 %
Z = B fixed block allocation only Z = C fixed block allocation only
A1% + B % + C % shall not exceed 17.5% and B % + C % are in the range 15.5% to 16.5%. LR is the rounded value of L rounded up to the nearest multiple of 500 km; where L is the actual system length
G.826 - > F.1189
Chapter
Antennas
Antenna Gain
Gain = 10 log
( . A . 4 ) dBi
2
where = aperture efficiency (typical 0.5 - 0.6) = aperture area = wavelength

squared GHz Gain [dBi]
Gain = 17.8 + 20 log ( D . f )

constants decibel m
where D = antenna diameter f = frequency
Half Power Beam Width
-3dB
The angular width of the main beam at the -3 dB points
3 dB = 35 . degrees D where = wavelength D = antenna diameter
RPE Comparison at 6 GHz

Typical 3.0 m Antennas
10 Antenna directivity; dB down from Main Lobe 20 30 SUPER HIGH X PERFORMANCE 40 50 60 HIGH X PERFORMANCE 70 80 CROSS POLARIZATION 5 10 15 30 45 60 75 90 105120135150165180 Azimuth Degrees from Main Lobe CROSS POLARIZATION
D ifferent P erforman ce levels accordin g to system requirem ents. S tandard P e rforma nce H igh P erformance H igh X Performance Supe r H igh X P erformance
Mechanical stability
Deflection angle [deg]
Passive repeaters
There are two basic types of passive repeaters: - plane reflectors - back-to-back antennas
Plane reflector Back-to-back antennas
Passive repeaters
Link budget with passive repeaters The free space loss is substituted by:
AL = A fsA G R + A fsB [dB]
Plane reflector Back-to-back antennas
A B
Path loss variations

Good:
Path loss with 6 m reflector
2
Distance leg 2 [km] 45 43 41 Path loss [dB] 195-200 190-195 185-190 180-185 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5
Poor:
175-180 170-175 165-170 160-165 155-160 150-155 145-150 140-145 135-140 130-135
Good:
3 1 Distance leg 1 [km] 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45
Gain of plane reflector
Reflector gain [dB]
GR = 20 log(139.5 f 2 AR cos
[dB]
Gain of back-to-back antennas
A 1
A 2
The gain of back-to-back antennas are given by:
GR = G 1 A + G 2 [dB] A c A
Chapter
Rx
Power budget
Free Space Loss

Sphere
B
A
P is radiated energy in A Radiated energy through the sphere is P Radiated energy pr. unit area is P1 ~ Received energy in B is P1 ~ d
P 2 12 f P 4d 2
d
Isotropic radiation
Maximum radiated energy from a point source ~ Received energy in B P1 ~

1 2 2 f d
GHz
(Maxwell)
squared
Free space loss: 92.45 + 20 log (d . f) dB

Constants ( etc.) decibel km
Atmospheric attenuation
Starts to contribute to the total attenuation above approximately 15GHz
Specific attenuation due to atmospheric gases P=1013 hPa T=15C rho=7.5 g/m3
Aa = a d
Parameters in a:
Frequency Temperature Air pressure Water vapour
[dB]
Specific attenuation [dB/km]
0.1
dry air 0.01 w ater vapour dry air+w ater vapour 0.001 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Frequency [GHz]
Link Budget
Antenna Feeder
TX
Tx output power - Feeder loss + Antenna gain - Free space loss - Atmospheric attenuation + Antenna gain - Feeder loss = Rx level - Rx threshold = FADING MARGIN
Atmosphere Transmitter
+30dBm -2dB +38dB
Antenna Feeder
RX
Receiver
-144.5dB
(6.7GHz, 60km)
0dB
+40dB -3dB -41.5dBm -75dBm 33.5dBm
Why Fading Margin ?

Level
Atm ospherical dis turbance F adin g margin
R eceiv er Threshold O utage
Tim e
Atmospherical disturbance
....... ........ ....... ...... ........ SIGN AL SPREAD
Multipath
Rain (10 GHz
Chapter
Precipitation
Characteristics of precipitation
OROGRAPHIC Forced uplift of moist air over high ground
Prevailing wind direction Moist air is forced up
Dewpoint
Cloud with little water content
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BERGEN OSLO
Convectional
Anvil head
Builds up in the afternoon due to convection of hot humid air.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strong vertical wind A hot summers day
May give intense rain (hail) + thunder
Cyclonic
Large scale vertical motions associated with synoptic features such as depressions and fronts.
Connective pillar clouds Stratiform layer clouds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BERGEN
Cold air
Rain
Rain
Cold air
Weather forecast: Rain, later showers

Tropical Cyclone Storms

(Hurricanes, Typhoons)
Severe depression
Moving circular storms with intense convective rain 50-200 km in diameter
MONSOON RAIN Intense stratiform rain fall. Several hours a day and extended over several hundreds of kilometers.
Rain Measurements
Drop counter Tipping bucket
Typical rain gauges
Rainfall is measured in mm Rain intensity is measured in mm/h (= amount/duration) Integration time= time between readings (1 min, 5 min, 10 min, hour, day) Example: a shower lasting 7 minutes
mm 30 20 10 1 minute m inutes
1 min 30, 90, 60, 30, 30, 30, 60 mm/h 5 min 48, 18 mm /h 10 min 33 mm/h 1 hour 5.5 m m/h
Precipitation Intensity versus duration

The figure shows generalized relationship between precipitation intensity and duration for Washington, DC.
8 7 Mean rainfall intensity (in/h) Mean rainfall intensity (cm/h) 15 6 5 10 4 3 5 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Duration of storm (minutes) Source: Yarnell 1935 0 100
20
World record of precipitation

The figure shows the world record rainfalls and the envelope of expected extremes at any place. The equation of the envelope line is given, together with the state or country where each record was established.
Rain cell size as a function of rain rate

5 Average rain cell size, km 4
3 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Rain rate, mm/h
Average rain cell size as a function of a rain rate
Rain drop shape as function of size
Due to the shape of the falling raindrop the vertical polarization has the least spread (attenuation)
Variation in the shape of water drops in air by size: (a) ao = 0.11 cm, (b) a o= 0.14 cm, (c) ao = 0.18 cm, (d) ao = 0.20 cm, (e) ao= 0.25 cm, (f) a o= 0.29 cm, (g) ao= 0.30 cm, (h) ao= 0.35 cm, (i) ao= 0.40 cm (from [Pruppacher and Pitter, 1971]).
Drop size versus intensity
Per cent of total volume contributed by drops of various sizes for three rainfall-rates, as computed for 0.25 mm intervals of diameter Law, Parsons
Precipitation (Rain, snow, sleet, ice particles, hail)

The energy is attenuated due to reradiation (scatter) absorption (heating)
For wavelengths long compared with drop size: For wavelengths long compared with drop size: attenuation due to scatter > attenuation due to absorption. attenuation due to scatter > attenuation due to absorption. For wavelength short in relation to drop size: For wavelength short in relation to drop size: attenuation due to absorption > attenuation due to scatter. attenuation due to absorption > attenuation due to scatter.
Microwave absorption in water

Under water experiment
P = Po e
-z
1 cm -1
Attenuation log
1 e
= 4.3dB/cm
Specific rain attenuation
The rain rate R is connected to the drop size distribution and terminal velocity of the rain drops. Knowing R it is possible to calculate the amount of rain drops and the size within the Fresnel zone.
Specific attenuation is given by
r=kR
[dB/km]
These parameters vary with frequency and polarization R is the rain intensity in mm/h for 0.01 % of the time
Rain intensity for 0.01% of the time
0.01 %
52.56 minutes
(1 minute integration time)
Rainfall contours for 0.01% of the time Asia and Australia
The k and
Frequenc y (GHz) 1 2 4 6 7 8 10 12 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 150 200 300 400 kH 0.0000387 0.000154 0.000650 0.00175 0.00301 0.00454 0.0101 0.0188 0.0367 0.0751 0.124 0.187 0.263 0.350 0.442 0.536 0.707 0.851 0.975 1.06 1.12 1.18 1.31 1.45 1.36 1.32 kv 0.0000352 0.000138 0.000591 0.00155 0.00265 0.00395 0.00887 0.0168 0.0335 0.0691 0.113 0.167 0.233 0.310 0.393 0.479 0.642 0.784 0.906 0.999 1.06 1.13 1.27 1.42 1.35 1.31 H 0.912 0.963 1.121 1.308 1.332 1.327 1.276 1.217 1.154 1.099 1.061 1.021 0.979 0.939 0.903 0.873 0.826 0.793 0.769 0.753 0.743 0.731 0.710 0.689 0.688 0.683 v 0.880 0.923 1.075 1.265 1.312 1.310 1.264 1.200 1.128 1.065 1.030 1.000 0.963 0.929 0.897 0.868 0.824 0.793 0.769 0.754 0.744 0.732 0.711 0.690 0.689 0.684
Vertical polarization least attenuated. This is due to the shape of the falling rain drops.
Rain attenuation as a function of frequency and rain rate
Specific attenuation [dB/km]
Effective path length

Since rain has a tendency to cluster (especially at high rain rates), only parts of a typical radio link path will be affected by rain. The effective path length containing rain cells is given by
d d 1+ 35 e 0.015R
for R > 100 mm/h : R = 100 mm/h
where d is the path length in km R is the rain intensity in mm/h (integration time 1 minute).
Effective path length
Effective path length [km]
Fade depth due to rain

Attenuation due to rain in 0.01% of time may be found from:
A0.01% = r
[dB]
Unavailability due to rain, Prain, for a path with fade margin, F
( F = 0.12 A0.01% Prain0.546 + 0.043log10 Prain ) [dB]

This formula scales to other percentages of time than 0.01%
The unavailability may be found by solving the equation above with respect to Prain
Prain = 10
11.628 0.546 + 0.29812 + 0.172log ( 0.12 A0.01% / F )
[%]
To avoid imaginary values, use r / F = 0.155 in case where r / F < 0.154023.
SDH typical path performance

Usable path lengths 155 Mb/s 18 GHz
25 Path length [km] 20 15 10 5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Rain rate [mm/h]
Antenna , polarization 1.2m V 1.2m H 0.6m V 0.6m H
Path length Path length limited by outage limited by outage due to rain due to rain 1/3 of total 1/3 of total unavailability unavailability objective objective System gain System gain (B - -B): (B B): 96.0 dB 96.0 dB Branching loss: Branching loss: 3.6 dB 3.6 dB
Chapter
Performance predictions
Prediction methods for terrestrial line-of-sight systems

ITU-R P.530-7 1997
P.530-7
Planning methods
ITU-R PN.530-7 gives prediction methods for ITU-R PN.530-7 gives prediction methods for calculation of worst month outage probability. calculation of worst month outage probability. The methods are derived from fading data paths The methods are derived from fading data paths with lengths 7 -- 95 km, frequencies 2 -- 37 GHz, with lengths 7 95 km, frequencies 2 37 GHz, path inclinations 0 -- 24 mrad and grazing angles path inclinations 0 24 mrad and grazing angles in the range 1 -- 12 mrad. in the range 1 12 mrad. Checked up to 273 km and down to 500 MHz. Checked up to 273 km and down to 500 MHz.
P.530-7
Multipath fading
Fading due to layering of the atmosphere is the dominating factor of degradation of radio-relays.
Non-selective or flat fading Selective fading Outage due to clear-air cross-polarization for system co-channel
Pns + Ps + PXP Ptot = 0.75 0.75 1.33 + PXP Pdns + Pds
if diversity is used
where Pns Pdns Ps Pds PXP non-selective (flat) outage non-selective outage with diversity selective outage selective outage with diversity outage due to clear-air cross-polarization for co-channel systems
P.530-7
Flat fading
Pns = P0 10
F 10
[%]
Fading occurrence factor:
P0 = K d 3.6 f 0.89 (1 + p ) 1.4

K d f
- Geoclimatic factor - Path length (km) - Frequency (GHz)
p =
h1 h2 d
: Path inclination (millirad)

P.530-7
Classification of path types

Inland
Terrain height less than 100m above mean sea level
Costal, medium or large size of water
Large size of water: English Channel, the North Sea, the larger reaches of the Baltic and Mediterranean Sea, Hudson Strait, and other bodies of similar size or larger.
Distance > 50 km
Distance < 50 km
Terrain height less than 100m above mean sea level
Terrain height 100m above mean sea level
Inland
Medium size of water: The Bay of Fundy (east coast of Canada) and the Strait of Georgia (west coast of Canada), the Gulf of Finland, and other bodies of similar size.
Distance > 0 km
Inland
Entire path profile above 100m altitude
Distance > 0 km
P.530-7
Inland paths
K = 5.0 10 7 PL1.5 10 0.1(C0 C Lat C Lon )
where
C0
C Lat
- type of terrain and lower antenna altitude - path latitude
C Lon - path longitude

PL
- percentage of time refractivity gradient 100 N km
P.530-7
Coastal paths
Medium sized water: Large water:
K = 10(1rc ) log Ki +rc log Kcm for Kcm Ki
K = 10(1rc ) log Ki +rc log Kcl
for Kcl Ki
for Kcl < Ki
K = Ki
Kcm = 100.5( log Ki +log Kcl )
for Kcm < Ki
K = Ki
Kcl = 2.3 104 100.1C0 0.011
Ki - the inland geoclimatic factor

rc - fraction of the path profile below 100m
altitude above the mean level of the water
P.530-7
Inland links coefficients

Unknown type of terrain:
Lower antenna altitude Low altitude: For lower-altitude antenna in the range 0 - 400 m above mean sea level Medium altitude: For lower-altitude antenna in the range 400 - 700 m above mean sea level High altitude: For lower-altitude antenna more than 700 m above mean sea level Value of C 0 [ dB ] 1.7
4.2
7.4
P.530-7
Inland links coefficients

Type of terrain and low er antenna altitude Inland plains - Low altitude: O verland links in inland areas w ith lo w er antenna altitude less than 400 m abo ve mean sea level, located in largely plains areas Inland hills - Low altitude: O verland links in inland areas w ith lo w er antenna altitude less than 400 m abo ve mean sea level, located in largely hilly areas Inland plains - M edium altitude: O verland links in inland areas w ith lo w er antenna altitude in the range 400 700 m abo ve mean sea level, lo cated in largely plains areas Inland hills - M edium altitude: O verland links in inland areas w ith lo w er antenna altitude in the range 400 700 m abo ve mean sea level, lo cated in largely hilly areas Inland plains - H igh altitude: O verland links in inland areas w ith lo w er antenna altitude higher than 700 m abo ve mean sea level, located in largely plains areas Inland hills - H igh altitude: O verland links in inland areas w ith lo w er antenna altitude higher than 700 m abo ve mean sea level, located in largely hilly areas Inland m ountains - H igh altitude: O verland links in inland areas w ith lo w er antenna altitude higher than 700 m abo ve mean sea level, located in largely mountainous areas
C 0 [ dB ] 0
3.5
2.5
6.0
5.5
8.0
10.5
P.530-7
Geographical coefficients
CLat = 0 (dB)
53 S 53 N
o o
CLat = 53 + (dB)
CLat = 7 (dB) CLon = 3 (dB) CLon = 3 (dB)
53 N or S < < 60 N or S
o o o o
60 oN or oS
Longitudes of Europe and Africa Longitudes of North and South America All other longitudes
P.530-7
CLon = 0 (dB)
PL Contour Maps
Percen t ag e o f t im e g r ad i en t - 1 0 0 (N /k m ) : F ebr u a ry
Percen t ag e o f tim e g r ad i en t - 1 0 0 (N /k m ) : M a y
PL Contour Maps
Per cen tage o f t i m e g r ad i en t - 1 0 0 (N /k m ) : A u g u st
Percen t ag e o f ti m e g ra d ien t -1 0 0 ( N /k m ): N o vem b er
Path types summary

Inland Plains - Low Altitude Inland Hills - Low Altitude Inland Plains - Medium Altitude Inland Hills - Medium Altitude Inland Plains - High Altitude Inland Hills - High Altitude Inland Mountains - High Altitude Coastal - Medium Water Coastal - Large Water
P.530-7
Ratio of path in coastal region
Parts of the path profile is located in the coastal region
Large or medium size of water
100 m a.s.l.
0 m a.s.l. 0 km 7 km 10 km
Ratio of path in coastal region = 70%

P.530-7
Frequency selective fading

Some of the spectral components will be reduced, causing the spectrum to be distorted.
5 Notch depth [dB] Radio channel 0
-5 Attenuation [dB]
-10
-15
-20
-25 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Interm ediate frequency [MHz]
30 MHz channel spacing

P.530-7
Frequency selective fading

m2 Ps = 430 sf 0
where :
3/ 4 P0 = 1 exp 0.2 100
[%]
where 0 = 6.3 ns
is often called the fading activity factor
d m = 0.7 50
1.5
m is the typical path echo delay
d - is the path length in km sf - is the equipment signature factor
P.530-7
Signature factor
0 60
65
70
75Minimum 80 phase
Notch depth dB
10
B
20
1 sf = WM 10 BM / 20 +WNM 10 BNM / 20 2
WM : BM : WNM : BNM :
30
40
minimum phase signature width (GHz) minimum phase signature depth (dB) non-minimum phase signature width (GHz) non-minimum phase signature depth (dB)
30
Notch depth dB
20
0 60
65
70
75
W
10
10
Nonminimum
phase
20
80
0 60 65 70 75
30
received spectrum
Frequency MHz P.530-7

Chapter
Diversity
Diversity
Two (or more) independent channels carry the same information (redundancy).
Nominal input level

Fading margin
Input level
channel 1
channel 2
Receiver threshold time
Diversity types
Space diversity Frequency Combined space and frequency diversity 4 receivers, Combined diversity 2 receivers, Hybrid diversity Angle diversity
Space diversity
Space diversity on path in Africa
Protection from ground reflections Protection from ducting
Number of samples
10000000
1000000
100000
10000
No samples with low input level on both channels simultanously.
1000
100
10
Main
chan nel
Spa
nn e cha ce
Space diversity
1.04 ( F V ) 10 4 0.87 0.12 0.48 P 0 10 I sd = 1 exp 3.34 10 S f d 100
V = Gs1 Gs 2
d F f Gs1, Gs2 P0 S path length (km) fade depth (dB) for the unprotected path frequency (GHz) gains of the two space diversity antennas (dB) fading occurrence factor in % vertical separation (centre-to-centre) of receiving antennas (m)
2 GHz < f < 11 GHz 43 km < d < 240 km 3 m < S < 23 m
Reasonable accuracy down to 25km

P.530-7
Space diversity
Calculate non-selective outages :
Pdns =
Pns I sd
[%]
Pns is the outage due to the non-selective component
Calculate selective outages :
Ps2 Pds = 100 1k s2
Ps is the non-protected selective outage
where the selective correlation coefficient, ks, is calculated from:
0.8238 0.109 0.13log(1 rw ) k s2 =10.195(1rw ) 10.3957(1r )0.5136 w
for for
rw 0.5 rw >0.9628
Continue ..
P.530-7
for 0.5< rw 0.9628
Space diversity
Continue .. where the correlation coefficient, rw, of the relative amplitudes is given by:
10.9746 1k 2 2.170 ns rw = 2 1.034 10.6921 1k ns
( (
) )
2 for k ns 0.26 2 for k ns >0.26
The square of the non-selective correlation coefficient, kns:
P I sd ns 2 100 k ns =1
is the fading activity factor
The total outage due to multipath fading is calculated from :
P.530-7
Space diversity
Distance [km] 80
Path length [km]
75
low land low land PL=10 % PL=10 % 7.5 GHz 7.5 GHz 3.0m antennas 3.0m antennas
70
65 0 5 10 15 20 25
Vertical antenna separation [m ]
Frequency diversity
1 1
Combined Combined channels channels
Frequency diversity
I fd
f f d F
-
80 f = 1010 f d f
F
{I
fd
5}
frequency spacing between rf-channels in GHz carrier frequency in GHz distance in km fading margin in dB
1.7 GHz < f < 13 GHz 20 km < d < 75 km f / f < 0.05
P.530-7
Frequency diversity
Pns Pdns = I fd
[%]
Ps2 Pds = 100 1k s2
Ps is the non-protected selective outage
0.8238 0.109 0.13log(1 rw ) k s2 =10.195(1rw ) 10.3957(1r )0.5136 w
for for
rw 0.5 rw >0.9628
Continue ..
P.530-7
for 0.5< rw 0.9628
Frequency diversity
Continue .. where the correlation coefficient, rw, of the relative amplitudes is given by:
10.9746 1k 2 2.170 ns rw = 2 1.034 10.6921 1k ns
( (
) )
2 for k ns 0.26 2 for k ns >0.26
The square of the non-selective correlation coefficient, kns:
P I fd ns 2 100 k ns =1
The total outage due to multipath fading is calculated from :
P.530-7
Frequency diversity improvement

68 66
64
Branching loss included Branching loss included
62 Path distance [km]
60
58
56
54
52
50 1+1 2+1 3+1 4+1 5+1 6+1 7+1
Combined diversity,
4 receivers
Using frequency and space diversity at the same time

Pdns = Pns I sd + I fd
Pds =
Ps I sd + I fd
Ps is the non-protected selective outage NOTE: This method differs from the method described in ITU-R rec. 530-7
P.530-7
Hybrid diversity,
2 receivers
An arrangement where a 1+1 system has two antennas at one of the radio sites only
1 2 1 1
1 2
2 2
Pdns =
Pns I sd
P.530-7
Hybrid diversity,
2 receivers
Ps2 Pds = 100 1k s2
0.8238 0.109 0.13log(1 rw ) k s2 =10.195(1rw ) 10.3957(1r )0.5136 w

10.9746 1k 2 2.170 ns rw = 2 1.034 10.6921 1k ns
for for
rw 0.5 rw >0.9628
for 0.5< rw 0.9628
where the correlation coefficient, rw, of the relative amplitudes is given by:
( (
) )
2 for k ns 0.26 2 for k ns >0.26
The non-selective correlation coefficient, kns:
k ns =k ns , s k ns , f
P.530-7
System configuration 1+0
C C
Hot standby configuration
Hot standby configuration
Chapter
Cross-polar interference
Double transmission capacity by crosspolar co-channel operation

1.24 Gbit/s - 8 x STM-1 Alternated Polarization Vertical Horisontal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8'
N+1 protection switching

2.48 Gbit/s - 16 x STM-1 Co-Channel Operation Vertical Horisontal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
28 MHz
1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8'
2x(N+1) protection switching
Co-Channel Transmission
STM-1
MOD
TX
f I(v)
Vertical Polarisation
RX
ATDE XPIC
DET
STM-1
LO
Horizontal Polarisation
XPIC
STM-1
MOD
TX
f I(H)
RX
ATDE
DET
STM-1
Realised with 4D-128TCM XPIC improvement factor > 25 dB
Depolarization mechanisms
Depolarization of :
a reflected component of the co-polarised signal due to scattering or reflection from land or water surfaces
a reflected component of the co-polarised signal due to reflection from an atmospheric layer a direct component of the signal due to refractive bending in the atmosphere the direct co-polarised signal by tropospherical turbulence.
Reduced interference with ATPC
XPD variations
During multipath fading not only the input level, but also the amount of XPD will vary
XPD variation distribution Chasseral - Geneva June 96
69 65 61 57 53 49 45 41 37 33 29 25 21 10000000 1000000 100000 10000 1000 100 10 1 17 13 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 32 35 38 41 44 2 5 -4 -1 8 6-7 5-6 4-5 3-4 2-3 1-2 0-1 Fading depth [dB] XPD [dB]
Number
The figure shows measurements performed on a 130 kilometre path in Switzerland, and indicates a dB to dB relation between fading depth and the amount of XPD
Outage due to reduction of XPD

Prediction of outage due to clear-air effects
if diversityisused
Prediction of outage due to precipitation effects

The total outage probability due to rain is calculated from taking the largest value of Prain and PXPR.
PRain ,tot
Prain = PXPR
if Prain > PXPD if Prain < PXPD

P.530-7
Prediction of outage due to clear-air effects

1 2 3
XPD g + 5 XPD0 = 40 for XPD g 35 for XPD g > 35
4 5
C = XPD0 + Q
M XPD 10
= 1 e
0.2 ( P0 )
0 . 75
Pxp = P0 10
where
k xp Q = 10 log P0
where
XPD
C0 C I = C C 0 + X P IF I
w ithout X P IC w ith X P IC
k xp
0.7 2 st = 1 0.3 exp 4 10 6
one transmit antenna two transmit antennas
Prediction of outage due to precipitation effects

1
U = U 0 + 30 log f
U 0 (a vera g e) 1 5 d B
U 0 ( m in im u m ) 9 d B
A p = 10(
(U C0 / I + XPIF ) /V )
Set XPIF=0 if no XPIC is used
19.002 for f < 8GHz V ( f ) = 12.8 f 0.19 for8 f 20GHz 22.6 for 20 < f 35GHz
23.26 log A p m= 40
( (0.12 A ))
0 .01
if m 40 otherwise
6 7
n = 12.7 + 161.23 4 m 2
Determine the path attenuation exceeded for 0.01% of the time
PXPR = 10( n 2 )
A0.01 = r
Chapter
Interference
Interference
Thermal noise
Pn = kTB
or
TYPICAL
[W] [dBm]
T = 300 K B= 6 MHz P =-106 dBm n
Pn = 10 log(kTB)
where
k - Boltzmann's constant
(k = 1.38 10
23
J K
T - temperature in Kelvin B - bandwidth of noise spectrum [Hz]
Noise factor :
F=
available S N power ratio at input available S N power ratio at output
Noise in digital systems

10-3
Bit Error Ratio (BER)
Noise impact on BER and subjective system quality
10-4
10-5
Most disturbing, barely understandable, sync. loss Disturbing, understandable Audible, understandable Barely audible Not audible BER
-6
10-6
10-7
S/I 20 dB 16 dB
10
10 -5
10 -4
-2 10 -3 10
10-8 -85 -80 -75 -70
Receiver input level [dBm]
Signal-to-noise ratios
The required S/N-ratio for a specified BER is given by:
S / N ( dB ) = LTe 10 log( kTB ) F( dB )

Undisturbed receiver threshold level
Radio type 4x2 Mb/s 34 Mb/s 140 Mb/s 155 Mb/s
Threshold (BER 10-3) -87.0 dBm -82.5 dBm -73.0 dBm -73.0 dBm
Noise figure 5.0 dB 4.5 dB 4.1 dB 4.5 dB
IF bandwidth 6 MHz 26 MHz 27 MHz 27 MHz
S/N theoretical 14 dB 13 dB 23 dB 22 dB
CR
practical 15 dB 14 dB 24 dB 23 dB
Typical parameters for Nera equipment, co-channel

Co-channel interference
LTeI = LTe + 10log 1 + 10 (( LTe +C R + LI ) /10 )
-70 dBm Degraded threshold due to interference
)
BER 1E-3 BER 1E-6
LTeI
Threshold [dBm]
-62
-64
-71.5 dBm
Undisturbed receiver threshold level
LTe
-66
-68
-92 dBm
Noise floor with interfering signals
LI
-70
-72 20 25 30 S/I [dB] 35 40
-93.5 dBm
Thermal noise floor
re-written
LI = LTe C R + 10 log 1 + 10
(( LTeI LTe ) / 10 )

-75
-77 -79
-75
Receiver threshold [dBm] LTeI
Receiver threshold [dBm]
-77 -79 -81 -83 -85

-87
L Te= -87 dBm C R = 14 dB
L Te = -87 dBm C R = 14 dB
-81 -83 -85 -87
L TeI
-103
-89
-91
-93
-95
-97
Interference level [dBm]
-99
-107
-109
-101
-105
14
LI
Signal-to-interference ratio [dB] L TeI /L I
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
Adjacent channel interference

Adjacent channel interference 28 MHz
channel 1
channel 2
-62
-64
BER 1E-3 BER 1E-6
Threshold [dBm]
-66
Interference
-68
channel separation
-70
-72 -5 0 5 S/I [dB] 10 15
Adjacent channel interference

-77 Receiver threshold [dBm] L TeI -79 -81 -83 -85 -87 0 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2
L C
Te R
= -87 dBm
= -12 dB
Radio Frequency Frequency Filter CR type band separation attenuation practical 4x2 Mb/s 15 GHz 7 MHz 25 dB -10 dB 34 Mb/s 7 GHz 14 MHz 30 dB -16 dB 140 Mb/s 6 GHz 40 MHz 36 dB -12 dB 155 Mb/s 6 GHz 29.65 MHz 26 dB -3 dB
Signal-to-interference ratio [dB]
L TeI/L
Examples of CR-values for adjacent channel interference.

I
Chapter
Propagation aspects in interference calculations

Short-term interference mechanisms
Chapter
Frequency planning
Frequency Planning
Power station ? Hill Headquarter Downtown V/H ? Training centre A-station B-station ? Mt. High
- International frequency plans - Frequency allocation - Interference calculation - Threshold degradation - Countermeasures
CASE STUDY
Frequency regions
Region 2
Region 1
Region 3
The three frequency regions of the world
Frequency bands
ITU gives recommendations for frequency band utilisation. Frequencies < 4 GHz used by mobile radio. Frequency bands 4 - 11 GHz suitable for long haul systems. Back bone systems. Frequency bands 11- 18 GHz suitable for short haul systems. Access network. Frequency bands 18 - 56 GHz suitable for intra city systems. Office to Office Link Access network.
ITU-R frequency arrangements

Band (GHz) 1.5 2 Frequency range (GHz) 1.427-1.53 1.427-2.69 1.7-2.1; 1.9-2.3 1.7-2.3 1.9-2.3 1.9-2.3 1.9-2.3 2.3-2.5 2.5-2.7 3.8-4.2 3.6-4.2 3.6-4.2 4.4-5.0 4.4-5.0 4.4-5.0 4.54-4.9 5.925-6.425 5.85-6.425 6.425-7.11 6.425-7.11 Recommendation ITU-R F-Series 746, Annex 1 701 382 283 1098 1098, Annexes 1, 2 1098, Annex 3 746, Annex 2 283 382 635 635, Annex 1 746, Annex 3 1099 1099, Annex 1 1099, Annex 2 383 383, Annex 1 384 384, Annex 1 Channel spacing (MHz) 0.5; 1; 2; 3.5 0.5 (pattern) 29 14 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 14 10 1; 2; 4; 14; 28 14 29 10 (pattern) 90; 80; 60; 40 28 10 (pattern) 40; 60; 80 40; 20 29.65 90; 80; 60 40; 20 80
L6 U6

Band (GHz) 7 Frequency range (GHz) 7.425-7.725 7.425-7.725 7.435-7.75 7.11-7.75 8.2-8.5 7.725-8.275 7.725-8.275 8.275-8.5 10.3-10.68 10.5-10.68 10.55-10.68 10.7-11.7 10.7-11.7 10.7-11.7 10.7-11.7 11.7-12.5 12.2-12.7 12.75-13.25 12.75-13.25 12.7-13.25 Recommendation ITU-R F-Series 385 385, Annex 1 385, Annex 2 385, Annex 3 386 386, Annex 1 386, Annex 2 386, Annex 3 746, Annex 4 747, Annex 1 747, Annex 2 387, Annexes 1 and 2 387, Annex 3 387, Annex 4 387, Annex 5 746, Annex 5, 3 746, Annex 5, 2 497 497, Annex 1 746, Annex 5, 1 Channel spacing (MHz) 7 28 5 28 11.662 29.65 40.74 14; 7 20; 5; 2 7; 3.5 (patterns) 5; 2.5; 1.25 (patterns) 40 67 60 80 19.18 20 (pattern) 28; 7; 3.5 35 25; 12.5
10
11
12 13

Band (GHz) 14 15 Frequency range (GHz) 14.25-14.5 14.25-14.5 14.4-15.35 14.5-15.35 14.5-15.35 17.7-19.7 17.7-21.2 17.7-19.7 17.7-19.7 17.7-19.7 21.2-23.6 21.2-23.6 21.2-23.6 21.2-23.6 21.2-23.6 21.2-23.6 22.0-23.6 Recommendation ITU-R F-Series 746, Annex 6 746, Annex 7 636 636, Annex 1 636, Annex 2 595 595, 595, 595, 595, 637 637, 637, 637, 637, 637, 637, Annex Annex Annex Annex 1 2 3 4 Channel spacing (MHz) 28; 14; 7; 3.5 20 28; 14; 7; 3.5 2.5 (pattern) 2.5 220; 110; 55; 27.5 160 220; 80; 40; 20; 10; 6 3.5 13.75; 27.5 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 112 to 3.5 28; 3.5 28; 14; 7; 3.5 50 112 to 3.5 112 to 3.5
18
23
Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex
1 2 3 4 5 1

Band (GHz) 27 Frequency range (GHz) 24.25-25.25 24.25-25.25 25.25-27.5 25.25-27.5 27.5-29.5 27.5-29.5 27.5-29.5 31.0-31.3 36.0-40.5 36.0-37.0 37.0-39.5 38.6-40.0 39.5-40.5 54.25-58.2 54.25-57.2 57.2-58.2 Recommendation ITU-R F-Series 748 748, Annex 3 748 748, Annex 1 748 748, Annex 2 748, Annex 3 746, Annex 8 749 749, Annex 3 749, Annex 1 749, Annex 2 749, Annex 3 1100 1100, Annex 1 1100, Annex 2 Channel spacing (MHz) 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 56; 28 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 112 to 3.5 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 112 to 3.5 112; 56; 28 25; 50 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 112 to 3.5 140; 56; 28; 14; 7; 3.5 50 112 to 3.5 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 140; 56; 28; 14 100
31 38
55
ITU-R Rec. 384-7 (Upper 6 GHz)

1 Let f0 fn be the frequency of the centre of the band of frequencies occupied (MHz), be the centre frequency of one radio-frequency channel in the lower half of the band (MHz),
f ,n be the centre frequency of one radio-frequency channel in the upper half of the band (MHz), then the frequencies (MHz) of individual channels are expressed by the following relationships: lower half of the band: upper half of the band: where n=1,2,3,4,5,6,7or8; fn = f0 350 + 40 n f ,n = f0 10 + 40 n
that the preferred centre frequency f0, is 6 770 MHz; other centre frequencies may be used by 12 agreement between the administrations concerned.
Adjacent-Channel Separation
Common antenna and common path
Examples 2+1 system: One polarization Ch. 1V,3V,5V Both polarization Ch. 1V,2H,3V
Vertical Horisontal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8'
Co-channel operation
155 Mb/s STM-1 Alternated Polarization Vertical Horisontal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8'
155 Mb/s STM-1 Co-Channel Operation Vertical Horisontal 1 2

28 MHz
3 4 5
6 7 8
1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8'
Allocation of Radio Frequencies
1 2
Select frequency arrangement
Draw a network diagram to scale and angle the geographical layout of your system Power station
Hill Headquarter Downtown
Select frequency half-band
A-station: Tx lower halfband B-station: Tx upper halfband
Training centre A-station B-station Mt. High

Rule !
Transmitters at one station should be operating in the same half-band
Meshed networks
a)
even number of stations
b)
odd number of stations R
c)
odd number of stations R Different frequency band P
A/B-station P A-station B-station Q Q
Frequency Determination
Determine frequencies and polarization
Power station
1,3 V
Hill
1,3 V
Tx- and Rx-frequencies

Ch. # Tx1 Tx2 Rx1 Rx2 1 3 1 3 Power station (A) 6460 MHz / V 6540 MHz / V 6800 MHz / V 6880 MHz / V Headquarter (B) 6800 MHz / V 6880 MHz / V 6460 MHz / V 6540 MHz / V
Headquarter
1,3 V
Downtown
1,3 V
Training centre A-station B-station

1,3 V
Mt. High
Backbone network
1+1 frequency plan
1,3 V I II III 2,4 H IV V 1,3 V VI
1,3 H
2,4 V
A-station B-station
Frequency plan avoiding overshoot problems
Chapter
Interference calculations
RF-coupling
Calculation Procedure
Necessary information:
- Network diagram (Stations, positions, distances, angles) - Network data (Radio frequencies, antenna types, etc.) - Radio equipment data (Output power, threshold levels, etc.) - Antenna radiation patterns
Threshold degradation
LRx L I C R
el hann C o- c
LI2
The degraded receiver threshold level is found by (( LTe + C R + LI ) / 10 )
LTeI = LTe + 10 log 1 + 10
LI1 or
Co el ann -ch
LI = LTe C R + 10 log 1 + 10(( LTeI LTe ) /10 )
-66
n
LI = 10 log 10
i =1
( LIi Aj ) / 10
-68 -70
LI = 10 log 10 LI 1 /10 + 10 LI 2 /10

LRx CR LI LIi Aj
-72 -90 -94 -98 -102 -106 -110
... Input level during fading free time ... Numeric constant reflecting the receiver's ability to
withstand interference signals (normalised S/I-ratio).
Combined interference level [dBm]
... combined level in dBm of all interfering signals. ... level in dBm of an individual interfering signal. ... adjacent-channel attenuation in dB of the interfering
signal by the receiver.
Interference Calculations
L Tx Tx
ATx
G Tx
Afs AA
G Rx
ARx
Li Rx
DTxCp Disturbing Station
D RxCp Disturbed Station
Co-polar operation: L i = LTx - ATx + G Tx - DTxCp - A fs - AA + G Rx - ARx - DRxCp
Interference Calculations
L Tx Tx
Vertical component DTxXp
ATx
GTx
Afs AA
GRx
ARx
LIiV Rx
DRxCp GRx LIiH Rx
L Tx Tx
ATx
GTx
Afs AA
ARx
Horizontal component DTxCp Disturbing Station on vertical polarization X-polar operation: Li = 10 log (10 + 10
DRxXp
Disturbed Station on horizontal polarization
((LTx - ATx + G Tx - DTxXp - A fs - AA + G Rx - ARx - DRxCp) /10) ((LTx - ATx + G Tx - D TxCp - A fs - A A + G Rx - A Rx - D RxXp) /10)
Interference Calculations Example

Headquarter
Disturbing station: Downtown LTx 29 2.5 40.3 0 30 dBm dB dB dB dB
Disturbed station: Headquarter GRx DRxCp DRxXp ARx 43.6 46 53 3.1 dB dB dB dB
35 Downtown
ATx GTx DTxCp
Training Centre
DTxXp
Distance:
12 km
Frequency: 6.77 GHz Afs = 130.6 dB
Co-polar operation: LICo= -69.3 dBm X-polar operation: LIX = -76.3 dBm
Antenna Selection
What is needed antenna discrimination when fade margin is known
LTeA1 =-74dBm LTeI =-73dBm CR = 23dB GA1 = 40dBi Needed antenna discrimination:
A 1 2
LTeA2=-75dBm GA1 = 38dBi

MF
-C A2
D A1 = LIi + G A1 L IRx
Calculate the level of the interfering signal from C :

L Ii = L T e A 2 G A 2 + M F A 2 C
Ii
Calculate accepted level of the interfering signal : ( ( L L ) / 10 ) L IR x = L TeA 1 C R + 10 log 1 + 10 T eI T eA 1 Difference in antenna gain: G = G A 1 G A 2 = 40 38 = 2 dB Difference in threshold level of the receivers:
C
=3 0d B
Interference paths
L T e = L T e A 1 L T e A 2 = 7 4 7 5 = 1d B
LIi Measured or calculated level of an individual interfering signal.

(The level of the interfering signal in to the radio : LIRx =LIi+ GA1 - DA1)
LTeI receiver threshold level in dBm in the presence of LIi . If a

receiver without threshold degradation of 1dB is accepted then LTeI = 1 + LTeA1 LTeA1 receiver threshold level in dBm without LIi . D . antenna discrimination [dB]
D A1 = M F A 2 C + G LT e + C R (( L T e I L T e A 1 )/ 1 0 ) 1 0 lo g 1 + 1 0 D A1 = 3 0 + 2 1 + 2 3
( ) 1 0 lo g 1 + 1 0 ( 7 3 7 4 / 1 0 ) D A 1 = 5 9 .9 d B
Antenna Selection
What is needed antenna discrimination when distance and transmitter data is known
LTeA1 =-74dBm LTeI =-73dBm CR = 23dB GA1 = 40dBi
A 1 2
f = 8GHz
Calculate accepted level of the interfering signal :

( ( L L TeA 1 ) / 10 ) L IR x = L R xA 1 C R + 10 log 1 + 10 TeI ( ) L IR x = 74 23 + 10 log 1 + 10 ( 73 74 / 10 ) L IR x = 102 .9 dB m
d= 84
km
Ii
Interference paths
LTx = 30dBm GC = 36dBi
Calculate the level of the interfering signal from C : L I i = L T x + G C 9 2 .4 5 2 0 lo g ( d f ) L I i = 3 0 + 3 6 9 2 .4 5 2 0 lo g ( 8 4 8 ) L Ii = 8 3d B m

C
LIi Measured or calculated level of an individual interfering signal.

(The level of the interfering signal in to the radio : LIRx =LIi+ GA1 - DA1)
Needed antenna discrimination:
LTeI receiver threshold level in dBm in the presence of LIi . If a

receiver without threshold degradation of 1dB is accepted then LTeI = 1 + LTeA1 LTeA1 receiver threshold level in dBm without LIi . D . antenna discrimination [dB]
D A1 = L Ii + G A1 L IR x D A 1 = 8 3 + 4 0 1 0 2 .9 D A 1 = 5 9 .9 d B
Interference Study
Power station
38 km 1,3 V 1,3 V
Angles: Power station - Headquarter - Hill
degrees: 117 140 175 103 68 35 130
Hill
Headquarter
1,3 V
Downtown
1,3 V 42 km
Power station - Headquarter - Downtown Power Station - Headquarter - Training centre Hill - Headquarter - Downtown
Training centre
45 km 1,3 V
Hill - Headquarter - Training centre Downtown - Headquarter - Training centre Headquarter - Training centre - Mt. High
A-station B-station
Mt. High
Spread-Sheet Set-Up
Training centre Interference from Item Frequency Distance Tx output power Antenna gain Tx Losses Tx Dir. discr. Tx (pol) Net power out Space loss int. Rx input level (nom) Antenna Gain Rx Losses Rx Dir. discr. Rx (pol) Interference level S/I (no fading) Threshold 1E-3 Threshold 1E-6 S/I BER 1E-3 S/I BER 1E-6 Towards Unit GHz km dBm dB dB dB dBm dB dBm dB dB dB dBm dB dBm dBm dB dB HeadHill -> C-pol 6.77 15 29 40.3 2.3 0 67 132.5 -32.9 43.6 3.1 46 -71.0 38.1 -73 -69 -2.0 2.0 Quarter Head X-pol 6.77 15 29 40.3 2.3 30 37 132.5 -32.9 43.6 3.1 53 -78.0 45.1 -73 -69 5.0 9.0 Down -> Head C-pol X-pol 6.77 6.77 12 12 29 29 40.3 40.3 2.5 2.5 0 30 66.8 36.8 130.6 130.6 -32.9 -32.9 43.6 43.6 3.1 3.1 46 53 -69.3 -76.3 36.4 43.4 -73 -73 -69 -69 -3.7 3.3 0.3 7.3 Power -> C-pol 6.77 38 29 43.6 3 0 69.6 140.6 -32.9 43.6 3.1 55 -85.5 52.6 -73 -69 12.5 16.5 Head Train -> X-pol C-pol 6.77 6.77 38 42 29 29 43.6 43.6 3 3 30 55 39.6 14.6 140.6 141.5 -32.9 -32.9 43.6 43.6 3.1 3.1 62 0 -92.5 -86.4 59.6 53.5 -73 -73 -69 -69 19.5 13.4 23.5 17.4 High X-pol 6.77 42 29 43.6 3 62 7.6 141.5 -32.9 43.6 3.1 30 -93.4 60.5 -73 -69 20.4 24.4
With 1 dB threshold degradation must LI be less than -94.9dBm :
LI < LTe C R + 10 log 1 + 10(( LTeI LTe ) /10 ) = 75 14 + 10 log 1 + 10 (( 74 75 ) /10 ) = 94.9 dBm
Countermeasures
New radio-channels:
Power station
1,3 H
Hill Headquarter - Downtown Training centre - Mt. High Reduced output power: Hill Headquarter - Downtown HP antennas in nodal point:
Hill
2,4 H
2,4 V
Headquarter Downtown
1,3 H
Training centre A-station B-station

2,4 H
Headquarter Changed polarization: Power station - Headquarter Hill Headquarter - Downtown
Mt. High
The Frequency Plan
1,3H
1 ,3V 1', 3'
2,4V
Power station
1', 3'
Training centre
2', 4'
Training centre
2,4H
Headquarter
2,4V 2',4'
Hill
2',4'
Downtown
Reduced interference with ATPC
without ATPC on B
with ATPC on B
without ATPC on A with ATPC on A
Increased capacity with ATPC

Example
155Mb/s 7.5GHz Co-channel operation ATPC dynamic = 15dB 3.0m SHXP antennas Required S/N with ATPC = 50dB Required S/N without ATPC = 65dB
Without ATPC With ATPC With ATPC 67 15 Without ATPC 9 5
Same polarization
Opposite polarization
Antenna radiation patterns

RADIATION PATTERN ENVELOPE ANTENNA TYPE: HIGH PERFORMANCE FRE QUENCY : 6.425 - 7.125 GHz DIAMETER : 2.0 m 0 dB GAIN * : 39.8 dB 0.2 3 dB BEAMW IDTH: 0.85 VSWR 1.08 * At center frequency -20 -20 0 dB GAIN * : 43.0 dB 0.2 3 dB BEAMWIDTH: 0.55 VSWR 1.08 * At center frequency HOR. OR VER. POL CROSS POL -30 RADIATION PATTERN ENVELOP E ANTENNA TYPE: HIGH PERFORMANCE FRE QUENCY : 6.425 - 7.125 GHz DIAMETER : 3.0 m
-10
-10
HORIZONTAL POL VERTICAL POL CROSS POL
-30
-40
-40
-50
-50
-60
-60
-70
-70
-80 0 5 10 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
-80 0 5 10 15 30 45 60 75 90 105120 135 150 165 180
Antenna radiation patterns
Threshold-to-Interference versus Frequency

T/I versus Frequency separation NL29x - 155MB/s - 128TCM
40 < 1 dB threshold degradation < 3 dB threshold degradation 30
35
T/I versus Frequency separation NL29x - 155MB/s - 64TCM

< 1 dB threshold degradation < 3 dB threshold degradation
BER=1E-3
20 Threshold-to-Interference [dB]
Threshold-to-Interference [dB]
25
BER=1E-3
15
10
-5
-10
Band width of interferes source is the same as the band width of the radio 28MHz.
-15
-20
-25
Band width of interferes source is the same as the band width of the radio 40MHz.
-30
-35
-40 -55
-45
-35
-25
-15
-5
15
25
35
45
55
-45 -60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
Frequency offset [MHz]
Frequency offset [MHz]
Chapter
Reliability
Reliability Failure Probability

The probability that electronic equipment fails in service is not constant with time.
Probability Initial fa ilu of failure
Random failures Burn-in period Useful lifetime
rWea
Wear-out period
ou tf
During the time called the useful lifetime, the failure rate are random and the equipment reliability can be predicted using analytical methods.
res
s re ilu a
time
Equipment Failure Rate

After the burn-in period, the equipment failure rate is constant until the wear-out period starts. If the failure rate per unit time equals , the average time between failures is given by
t = 1
t =
t is called MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures).

MTBF is more convenient to use than when calculating unavailability.
=
1 MTBF [hour]
Definition of Availability and Unavailability

The MTBF of a system can be predicted from reliability analysis. The mean time to restore, MTTR, must be assessed taking maintenance policy and accessibility into account
Availability
A= MTBF MTBF + MTTR
Unavailability
N= MTTR MTBF + MTTR
The relation between A and N is as follows
N = 1 A
For telecommunication systems MTBF >> MTTR, and unavailability can be approximated to
N
MTTR MTBF
Calculation of Unavailability
Unavailability of one equipment module
N
N=
MTTR MTBF + MTTR
Example Transmitter group 140 Mb/s - 64 QAM MTBF = 125000 hours MTTR = 10 hours
N=
10 10 = 8 10 5 125000 + 10 125000
Unavailability of cascaded modules

N1 N2 Ns
The system will be available only if all the modules are available simultaneously.
N3
Nn
Availability of the total system

As = Ai = (1 N i )
i =1 i =1 n n
n n N s = 1 As = 1 (1 N i ) 1 1 N i = N i i =1 i =1 i =1 n
The unavailability of a cascaded module is the sum of unavailability of its individual modules
Unavailability of parallel modules

N1 N2 Ni
Ns
The system will be unavailable only if all the modules are unavailable.
N s = Ni
i =1
Unavailability of a n+1 Redundant System

N1 N2
n protected channels
N3 Nn
The unavailability of the unprotected channels are all N.
n+1 unprotected channels
A protected channel is unavailable if two (more than two channels unavailable is assumed very little) of the unprotected channels are unavailable. The unavailability of one protected channel in a n+1 system is given by
(n + 1)! N 2 (1 N )(n+1)2 1 N n +1 = 2 !((n + 1) 2) ! n

Unavailability of one channel only Two failing All others not failing
N n +1
n +1 2 N 2
Example
N 3+1
3 +1 2 N = 2N 2 2
Summary of Unavailability calculations

If MTTR (Mean Time To Restore) is common for all modules is it convenient to use failure rate
Cascaded modules
2
Ns
N S = MTTR S = MTTR (1 + 2 + 3 n )
Parallel modules
1 2 n
NS
N S = MTTR S = MTTR (1 2 n )
Example: NL190 64QAM 140 Mb/s

Modulator XMTR RCVR Demod
Cable equalizer
Relay unit
XMTR switch
Modulator
XMTR
RCVR
Demod
RCVR Distr.
Simplified block diagram of NL190
Module Cable equalizer Modulator Transmitter Receiver Demodulator Relay unit Transmitter switch Receiver distribution unit
MTBF 830 000 hours 375 000 hours 290 000 hours 200 000 hours 315 000 hours 3 300 000 hours 555 000 hours 830 000 hours
Failure rate, 1.210-6 2.710-6 3.510-6 5.010-6 3.210-6 0.310-6 1.810-6 1.210-6
Example: Equipment Unavailability

The failure rates for the two redundant paths are
r1 = (2.7 + 3.5 + 5.0 + 3.2) 10 6 = 14.4 10 6
r 2 = (1.8 + 2.7 + 3.5 + 5.0 + 3.2 + 1.2) 10 6 = 17.4 10 6

The failure rate for common units:
c = (1.2 + 0.3) 10 6 = 1.5 10 6

Unavailability
N r1 MTTR r1 = 4.32 10
5
Mean time to repair MTTR=3 hours for all units.
r1
Modulator XMTR RCVR Demod
N r 2 MTTR r 2 = 5.22 10 5
Cable equalizer
Relay unit
N c MTTR c = 4.5 10 6
The equipment unavailability is thus
XMTR switch
Modulator
XMTR
RCVR
Demod
RCVR Distr.
r2
N e = N c + ( N r1 N r 2 ) = MTTR (c + (r1 r 2 )) = 4.50226 10 6

The path unavailability and availability are
N p = 2 N e = 9 10 6 (or 4.5 min /year)

Ap = 1 N p = 0.999991 (or 99.9991%)

Curso System Planning

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System Planning

System planning. Slide 1

System planning. Slide 2

System planning. Slide 3

Wave propagation in the atmosphere

Wave Propagation in the Atmosphere

d: characteristic dimension of object

System planning. Slide 5

Fundamentals of Ray Optics

System planning. Slide 6

The pool experiment

System planning. Slide 7

The index of refraction for the atmosphere

Since p, e and T all are functions of height also N is a function of height

System planning. Slide 8

Ray bending (refraction)

less dense air

dN/dh = -40 K=1.33

System planning. Slide 9

For a normal atmosphere dN/dh=-40 :

1 = 1.33 1 + 6370 (40) 10 6

1 2/3 EARTH RADIUS a = 6370 km

Ray bending (refraction)

dN N units < 157 dh km

less dense air - dry air

less dense air Earth curvature h [km] 78 Earth curvature h [km] 0

dense air Earth curvature h [km] >- 157

dN/dh = 0 K=1 dN/dh =78 K 0.66

dN/dh < -157 K<0

System planning. Slide 11

Transmitter situated in a ground-based duct

Uniform dM/dh>0 (dN/dh>-157N/km)

System planning. Slide 12

Atmospherical Multipath Propagation

Re flecting At mo spheric L ayer Bo undar y

System planning. Slide 13

Rays propagating from a transmitter situated below an elevated duct.

System planning. Slide 14

Convection mixes the atmosphere

Ground based duct rises to become an elevated duct

System planning. Slide 15

System planning. Slide 16

The Bristol channel path

System planning. Slide 18

The Bristol channel path

30.0 Distance in km.

System planning. Slide 19

Drawing path profile

Earth bulge - Refraction

Refraction Refraction Earth curvature

Earth curvature Refraction - Earth bulge

System planning. Slide 20

k= 1.33 SITE B k= Real ground height from map 8

System planning. Slide 21

f - frequency in GHz d1, d2 and d = d1 + d2 in km

ITU-R clearance criteria

0.5 10 20 50 path length in km 100

3. Use the larger of the antenna heights obtained by steps 1. and 2.

Antenna heights for a hop over flat terrain

Clearance criteria according to ITU-R P.530

System planning. Slide 24

Ref. ITU-R P.530-7

Received signal is the sum of the direct and reflected rays.