EX.

NO: 1 DATE:

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SIMULATION OF SPEECH COMPRESSION ALGORITHM DPCM AIM: To perform DPCM encoding & decoding. SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB 7.0 THEORY: The most predictive quantization method is DPCM. A linear predictor has the form. Y(k)=p(l)x(k-l)+p(2)x(k-2)+ +p(m-l)x(k-m-l)+p(m)x(k-m) Where x=original signal Y attempts to predict the value of x(k) P is an m-tuple of real numbers. The initial zero in the predictor vector makes sense if view the vector as the polynomial transfer function of a FIR. A simple special case of DPCM quantizes the difference between the signals current value and its value at the previous step. Thus the predictor is just Y=x (k-1). If encodes a saw tooth signal decodes it & plots both the original decoded signals.

PROGRAM :
clc; clear all; close all; predictor = [0 1]; partition = [-1:.1:.9]; codebook = [-1:.1:1]; t = [0:pi/50:2*pi]; x = sawtooth(3*t); encodedx = dpcmenco(x,codebook,partition,predictor); decodedx = dpcmdeco(encodedx,codebook,predictor); plot(t,x,t,decodedx,'--'); legend('Original signal','Decoded signal','Location','NorthOutside'); distor = sum((x-decodedx).^2)/length(x)

OUTPUT :
distor = 0.0327

OUTPUT WAVEFORM :

RESULT: Thus the given input signal is encoded, original signal is recovered and the Results are plotted.

EX.NO: 2 DATE: SIMULATION OF EZW- IMAGE CODING ALGORITHM AIM: To simulate embedded Zero Tree image algorithm. SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB 7.0 THEORY:

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Generally most of the energy in an image is concentrated in the low frequency region. In particular, level one decomposition would represent the highest frequency sub bands and would be the finest level of resolution. Conversely the nth level would correspond to the lowest frequency sub band & would correspond to the coarse tree resolution. The DTWT coefficients at lower levels corresponding to the same special position would have smaller values. The EZW coding algorithm introduced by Shapiro 919930, exploits these properties to give excellent compression results. Another algorithm that exploits these properties as the set portioning in hierarchical tree (SPIHT) based algorithm proposed and said by Pearlman (1996). The following will be output of each step. The vector component should be arranged. Code b1 to 10. Code b2 to 0 and append it to the output of the previous step.The code now Reads 100. Append 1to the current representation because there is at least one zero component (b4) beyond b2. The code now reads 1001. Append codes for b3 (0) and b4(1 1) to the code to yield 1001011.

Because all the remaining components are zero. append 0 and stop. The first representation is 10010110 which consists of 8 bits.

PROGRAM:
clear all; close all; b=input('give a vector of length 8(1,0,-1):'); b1=b(1,1); b2=b(1,2); b3=b(1,3); b4=b(1,4); b5=b(1,5); b6=b(1,6); b7=b(1,7); b8=b(1,8); Z=[b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8]; Y=[b5 b6 b7 b8]; if b1==0 E1=0; elseif b1==1 E1=10; else E1=11; end if b2==0 E2=0; elseif b2==1 E2=10; else E2=11; end E=cat(2,E1,E2); m=any(Z) if m==0 E=cat(2,E,0); else E=cat(2,E,1); end if b3==0 E3=0; elseif b3==1 E3=10; else E3=11; end if b4==0 E4=0; elseif b4==1 E4=10; else E4=11;

end ET=cat(2,E3,E4); E=cat(2,E,ET); n=any(Y) if n==0 E=cat(2,E,0); else E=cat(2,E,1); end if b5==0 E5=0; elseif b5==1 E5=10; else E5=11; end if b6==0 E6=0; elseif b6==1 E6=10; else E6=11; end if b7==0 E7=0; elseif b7==1 E7=10; else E7=11; end if b8==0 E8=0; elseif b8==1 E8=10; else E8=11; end F=cat(2,E5,E6); G=cat(2,E7,E8); H=cat(2,F,G); E0=cat(2,E,1); E=cat(2,E0,11); disp(E);

OUTPUT:
give a vector of length 8(1,0,-1):[1 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0] m = 1 n = 0 10 0 1 0 11 0 1 11

RESULT: Thus EZW algorithm has been implemented using MATLAB and test vector were given to check the functionality of the algorithm and were found.

EX.NO: 3 DATE: SIMULATION OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA AIM:

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To design a micro strip antenna using the following parameters Er2.2,Fr=1OGHZ, h=O.l588 cms. To obtain with, effective-dielectric constant, actual length and Also plot the field pattern in H plane. SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB7.O THEORY: Microstrip antennas are low profile conformal to planar and non planar surfaces. The microstrip antenna consists of a very thin metal patch placed above the ground plane are separated by dielectric substrate. For the design of microstrip antenna the dielectric constant is should be in the range of 2.2 12. The metal patch is formed by winding the center strip conductor in the microstrip line. The patch acts as a radiating element. The rectangular patch may be rectangular, square, circular or elliptical in shape. The microstrip antenna can often called as patch antennas the patch radiates a signal lobe, linearly polarized pattern normal to the ground plane. Since the microstrip is a semi open transmission, the dielectric support medium and the space above the conductors when the several microstrips are placed under proximity significant mutual coupling will occur.

ADVANTAGES: Simple. Inexpensive. Better Efficiency. Large bandwidth. DISADVANTAGES Low power. Poor Polarization purity. Poor scan performance. Narrow frequency bandwidth. APPLICATION: Aircraft. Spacecraft. Satellite and missile application. ALGORITHM: Step 1: Start the process. Step 2: Get the input values Er, Fr, h. Step 3: Calculate width, effective dielectric constant, and effective length. Step 4: Calculate the field strength value from 0 to 360. Step 5: Plot the field strength in polar plot. Step 6: Stop the process.

CALCULATIONS: W=((Vo/(2*Fr))*(sqrt(2/(Er+l )))); Ereff=[(Er+l)/2]+[(Er-1 )/2*(O+12(h/W))^(l/2))] DL=(0.412(Ereff+O.3)*((w/h0+O.264)/((Ereff-0.258)8((w/h)+0.8)) Lamda=Vo/(fr*sqrt(Eref)) L=(lamda/2)-(2*DL) Lo=L+2DL Et=[j Ko w Voexp(-jKor)/pi8*r] [sinTsin9KohsinT/2)) [sin(KoWcosT/2)/(KowcosT/2)]

PROGRAM:
clc; close all; clear all; Er=input('Enter the dielectric constant = '); Fr=input('Enter the resonant frequency = '); h=input('Enter the substrate thickness = '); r=1; Vo=300000000; Lo=Vo/Fr; Ko=(2*pi)/Lo; W=((Vo/(2*Fr))*(sqrt(2/(Er+1)))); X=(Er+1)/2; Y=(Er-1)/2; Z=sqrt(1/(1+(12*(h/W)))); Eer=X+(Y*Z); a=W/h; b=Eer+.3; c=Eer-.258; d=a+.264; e=a+.8; DL=h*.412*(b/c)*(d/e); L=(Vo/(2*Fr*sqrt(Eer)))-(2*DL); Le=L+(2*DL); disp('a');a disp('Width');W disp('Effective Er');Er disp(DL); disp('Length');L disp('Effective length');Le T=0:0.01:2*pi; f=(Ko*h*sin(T))/2; g=(Ko*W*cos(T))/2; i=(sqrt(-1)*(Ko*W*Vo*exp(-(sqrt(-1))*Ko*r)))/(pi*r); Et=(i*sin(T)*((sin(f)/f)*((sin(g))/g))); subplot(1,1,1); polar(T,Et); xlabel('Angle----->'); ylabel('Field strength----->'); title('FIELD PATTERN OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA');

OUTPUT:
Enter the dielectric constant = 2.2 Enter the resonant frequency = 1000000000 Enter the substrate thickness = 0.00158 a a =75.0541

Width W =0.1186 Effective Er Er =2.2000 8.3627e-004 Length L = 0.1005 Effective length Le =0.1021

OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

RESULT: Thus the field pattern of microstrip antenna is plotted and the effective width, effective dielectric constant and length are calculated.

EX.NO: 4 DATE:

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ESTIMATION OF S PARAMETERS OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLER AIM: To estimate the 8- parameter of a given directional coupler. SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB 7.0 THEORY: Low frequency circuits can be described by two port networks and their parameters such as Z,Y,HABC etc. As per the networks theory, here network parameter relate the total voltage and total current. In a similar way at microwave frequencies we talk of traveling waves with associated powers instead of voltages and currents and the microwave junction can be defined by the port. We have four outputs as discussed earlier. Similarly if we apply inputs to all the port we will have 16 combinations, which are represented in a matrix called scattering matrix. It is a square matrix which gives all the combination of power relationship between the various input and output port of microwave junction. The elements of this matrix are called scattering coefficients of scattering parameters. PROPERTIES OF S PARAMETERS: 1. [S] is always a square matrix of order(n*n) 2. [S] is a symmetric matrix i.e Sij=Sji. 3. [S] is a unitary matrix i.e [S][S]*=[I] 4. The sum of the products of each term of any row(or column) multiplied by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row (or Column) is zero.ie Sik Sij*=0 for K-j where K.j=l,2,3,.n.

5. If any of the terminal or reference balance planes (say the k th port) are moved away from the junction by an electric distance klk.. each of the coefficients Sij involving k will be multiplies by the factor exp(-klk). DIRECTIONAL COUPLER: Directional couplers are flanged. Built in wave guide assembles, which can sample a small amount of microwave power for measurement purposes. They can be designed to measure incident and reflect path to a receiver of perform their desirable operations. They can be unidirectional (measuring only incident power) or bidirectional (measuring both incident and reflected) powers. In its most common form, the directional coupler is four waveguide junctions consisting of a primary main wave guide and a secondary auxiliary wave guide. With matched terminations at all its ports. The properties of an ideal directional coupler can be summarized as follows: A portion of power traveling from port 1 to port 2 is coupled to port 4 but not to port3. A portion of power traveling from port 2 to port 1 is coupled to port 3 but not to port4. A portion of power incidents on port 3 is coupled to port 2 and a portion of the power incident on port 4 is coupled to port 1 but not to port 2. Also port 1 and 3 are decoupled. Pi =incident power at port 1. Pr =received power at port 2. Pf= forward power at port 4. Pb= back power at port 3.

COUPLING FACTOR C:

The coupling factor of a directional coupler is defined as the ratio of the incident power Pi to the forward power Pf measured in dB C=l0logPi/Pf in dB. DIRECTlVITY: The directivity of a DC is defined as the ratio of forward power Pt to the back power Pb expressed in dB. D =10log Pf/Pb in dB. SOLUTION: S parameter for a 10 db directional coupler Given directivity is 30db & VSWR=1.0 C=10 log pl/p4:C is coupling factor Or-10 =10 log pl/p4 Or 10^(-1)= p1/p4=[S41] Or [S41]=0.1=.3162 D=l0 log p4/p3 20= 10 log[S41]/[S31] [S3 l]=.01 S11=(VSWR-1)/(VSWR+1)=0 S11=S22=S33=S44=0 S matrix becomes [0S12 .01 .3162 S21 0 S23 S24 0.01 S32 0 0 3162 S42 S43 0] S13=S31 S12=S21 S23=S32 S42=S24 S43=S34 P1 =P2+P3+P4

Or 1=P2/PI+P3/Pl+P4/p1 Or 1=[S21] +[S31] +[S41] Substituting the values: S2l=.9486 We have S12+S23 +S24=1 S23+S34+10^(-1)=1 Using all these we can find the S co efficient. S11=S22=S33=S44=0 S13=S31=.9486 S12=S21=0.01 S23=S32=0.3162 S14=S41=0.3162 S24=S42=0.3612 S34=S43=0.9486 Thus the required S parameters are [ 0 .9486 .01 .9486 0 .3162 .01 .3162 0 .3162 .01 .9486

3162 .01 .9486 0

PROGRAM:
clc; close all; clear all; d=input('Directivity = '); vswr=input('VSWR = '); c=input('Coupling factor = '); x1=-c/10; x2=10^x1; s41=sqrt(x2); disp('s41');s41 y1=d/10; y2=10^y1; s31=sqrt(s41^2/y2); disp('s31');s31 s11=(vswr-1)/(vswr+1); s21=sqrt(1-s31^2-s41^2); disp('s21');s21 s34=sqrt((1+s21^2-s41^2-s31^2)/2); s23=sqrt(1-s31^2-s34^2); s24=sqrt(1-s41^2-s34^2); z=[s11 s21 s31 s41;s21 s11 s23 s24;s31 s23 s11 s34;s41 s24 s34 s11]; disp('z');z

OUTPUT:
Directivity = 30 VSWR = 1 Coupling factor = 10 s41 s41 = 0.3162 s31 s31 = 0.0100 s21 s21 = 0.9486 z z = 0 0.9486 0.0100 0.3162 0.9486 0 0.3162 0.0100 0.0100 0.3162 0 0.9486 0.3162 0.0100 0.9486 0

RESULT:

Thus the S-parameter of given directional coupler has been estimated and found it to be correct.

EX.NO: 5 DATE:

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PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF SIMULATED CDMA SYSTEM IS-95A FORWARD TRAFFIC CHANNEL CODEC AIM: To construct IS-95 forward traffic channel codec using simulink and to estimate the performance in terms of BER.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB 7.0 THEORY REQUIRED:

The IS-95 forward traffic channel codec demo shows the channel coding at the base station and the corresponding decoding at the-mobile station receiver.The transmitter encodes the data and channel model adds noise to simulate the error in transmission. The receiver retrieves bits by performing the decoding task.

WORKING OF TRAFFIC CHANNEL CODEC: The base station transmitter section performs the CRC (cyclic redundancy check)generation. Convolution encoding symbols repetition and interleaving. The random binary frame generator masked sub system generates random data that act as information bits. The base station transmitter data rate masked subsystem provides the selection of data rate. The IS-95A CRC generator binary block appends the CRC bits to the information bits. These CRC bits are added to detect errors in the data frame at. The receiver. The IS95A forward channel convolutional encoder library blocks convolutionally encode the data

using a half encoder for protection against channel errors. Because IS-95A supports data rate operation, data frame at this stage can have a number of sizes. Depending on the data rate the IS-95A forward channel repeater library block (denoted IS-95A forward channel repeater in this demo) may repeat the bits it receives to create a data frame of 384 symbols. Then IS-95A forward channel interleaver or deinterleaver library block interleaves the data frame for protection against the localized error burst that can occur in the fading channel conditions. This interleaved data is converted to bipolar form and the AWGN channel block adds white Gaussian noise to each symbol of bipolar data. This noise represents the random error in the demodulation of the symbol. The mobile side performs the reverse operation. The IS-95A forward channel interleaved or deinterleaver library blocks (denotes IS-95A forward channel in this demo) derepeates the symbol depending on the symbols rate which involves averaging the symbols that were repeated (if you change the simulation so that it uses rate set). Then the blocks also depuncture the data by inserting zeros in the locations corresponding to the punctured symbols. The resulting frame is then provided is input to the IS-95A forward channel viterbi decoder library block, which retrieves the information that was previously encoded. The decoder information bits and the CRC bits provided to the IS-95A frame quality detector library block. TABULATION:

S.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

SNR(dB)

BIT ERROR RATE

RESULT: Thus IS-95A forward traffic channel codec was constructed using simulink and the

BER performance was evaluated.

EX.NO: 6 DATE: CALCULATION OF EVEN & ODD MODE IMPEDANCE OF MICROSTRIP COUPLER AIM:

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To calculate the even mode & odd mode impedance of the microstrip coupler using following specifications. a =10dB; Zin=50 SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB7.0 THEORY: In microstrip coupler the two coupled lines, are terminated by i/p & o/p. lines of characteristics impedance Zo. In order that the coupler be perfectly matched at all frequencies. It is necessary that the i/p impedance Zin & Zo for all frequencies if, Zo= (Zoo*Zoe) The resulting signals at the four ports of the couplers can be obtained in terms of even & odd mode reflection & transmission coefficient. It should be noted that under the assumption o=e and Zo (Zoo*Zoe) port 3 is perfectly isolated from port 1. port 1 & 3 are coupled. Thus it is a backward coupler. The forward coupling is zero. The backward coupling is given by | E2/E | =CX sin/((1-C)cos) This coupling is maximum when = /2.i.e. the sections of the microstrip are one quarter wave length long. Mid band voltage coupling is C and it given in terms of even & odd mode characteristics impedance also it is important to note that the output E2& E4 are out of phase by 90 all frequencies. This is very important of the coupled

microstrip

directional couplers.

In terms of the mid band coupling the even & odd mode impedance can be calculated from the relations: Zoe =ZoX( (1+C)/(l-C)) Zoo=ZoX( (1-C)/(1+C)) These equations are useful for design calculations ALGORITHM: Step1: Start the process. Step2: Get the alpha value. Step3: Get the input impedance value. Step4: Calculate coupling co-efficient. Step5: calculate Zoe. Step6: Calculate Zoo. FORMULAS TO BE USED: C= 10^ (a/20). Zoe =ZoX ( (1+C)/ (l-C)). Zoo=ZoX ( (1-C)/ (1+C)).

PROGRAM:
clc; clear all; close all; Alpha=input('The desired value of coupler = '); Zin=input('Input impedance = '); c=10^(-Alpha/20); Zo=Zin; Zoe=Zo*sqrt((1+c)/(1-c)); Zoo=Zo*sqrt((1-c)/(1+c)); disp('Zoo');Zoo disp('Zoe');Zoe

OUTPUT:
The desired value of coupler = 10 Input impedance = 50 Zoo Zoo = 36.0380 Zoe Zoe = 69.3713

RESULT: Thus the even & odd mode impedances are calculated for microstrip coupler.

NO: 7 DATE:

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CHARACTERISTICS OF /4 AND /2 TRANSMISSION LINE AIM: To study the characteristics of /4 transmission line further to achieve the impedance matching via /4 SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB 7.0 THEORY: Transmission lines having a length of /4(quarter wave line)or(half wave line)have special properties that can be employed for impedance matching purposes. For example a dipole antenna with a restive impedances can be matched to the main transmission line by means of a quarter wave line having a characteristic impedance Zo=ZoRs. The simple quarter wave transform however suffers from the disadvantage of being sensitive to change in frequency at a new wavelength the quarter wave section will be no longer /4 length. In such case 2 or more stages of /4 line stages may be required for increased range of frequencies broad band impedance matching. A /4 long transmission line can also be used for impedance matching. If the load is placed at the far end of a half wave line the input source impedance will be equal to the load impedance. This property of half wave line is applicable to low loss lines. It however has the disadvantage of frequency dependence and is independent of characteristic impedance. This property can often be helpful when we need to short circuit on the line at a point which is half wavelength away from the desired point. However this is true only for a particular frequency for which the length is exactly /2.

If the line is matched ZL=Zo. Then Zin=Zo regardless of the line length. It is possible to make the input of the line equal to the load impedance Zin (d) = Zo by setting d= /2. if other words in the line is exactly a half wavelength long, the input impedance is equal, to the load impedance independent of characteristic impedance Zo. If d is reduced to /4 then Zin=Zo^2/Z4. This quarter transformer allows the matching of real load impedance to a desired real input impedance by choosing a transmission line segment whose characteristic impedance can be computed as the geometric mean of load and input impedances. Zo=Z4Zin. IMPEDANCE MATCHING VIA /4 TRANSFORMER: To find length width and the characteristics impedance of /4 transmission line to achieve matching between a 50 ohm micro strip line and transistor with input impedance 25 ohms Given operation frequency 500MHz.Dielectric thickness D=1mm.

PROGRAM:
clc; clear all; close all; ZL=input('Load impedance of quater wave line = '); ZI=input('I/P impedance of the quater wave line = '); Zo=sqrt(ZL*ZI); disp('Zo');Zo d=1; er=4; uo=4*3.14*(10^(-7)); eo=8.854*(10^(-12)); y=sqrt(uo/(eo*er)); w=(d/Zo)*y; disp('w');w L=uo*d/w; c=eo*er*w/d; f=500*(10^6); A=(4*f*sqrt(L*c))^(-1); disp('A');A vp=A/sqrt(L*c); ko=(ZL-Zo)/(ZL+Zo);

for f=0;2.2; m=-(2*2*pi*f*(10^9)*d/vp); ex=exp(A*m); k=ko*ex; p=abs(A+k); q=abs(A-k); Zin=(Zo*p/q); disp('Zin');Zin end

OUTPUT:
Load impedance of quater wave line = 25 I/P impedance of the quater wave line = 50 Zo w A Zin Zo = 35.3553 w = 5.3265 A = 0.0750 Zin = 13.8537

RESULT: Thus impedance matching has been achieved through /4 transmission line between given transistor and micro strip line. EX.NO: 8 DATE: STUDY OF GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM AIM: To study about the global positioning system. THEORY: In the recent years for many applications like search and rescue, navigation, adventure sports, military applications were better reliable and constant ranging is required man made satellites are used. To satisfy these applications 21 satellites called GPS are orbiting around the earth in inclined orbital planes at a radius of about 26,578 Km with a period of 12 hours. GPS satellite transmits two signals at different frequencies known as L1 and L2. The L2 signal is modulated with a 10.23 Mbps pseudorandom noise bit sequence called P code. The code is transmitted in an encrypted from known as Y code. A 10.23mbps PN sequence called C/A code that is available for public use and also carries P code as a quadrature modulation modulates the L1 frequency carrier. P code provides better measurement accuracy. C/A stands for coarse acquisition and P stands for precise. Though these satellites are supported by US defense department, they can be used for latitude, longitude, and altitude and time determination of any object at any place on the earth. NAVSTAR and GIPS are radio navigation systems which use triangularisation to determine the position of the user. It uses one way transmission for satellite to user. The user requires only a GPS receiver. Each INMARSAT satellite broadcast a predetermined sequence of timing pulses. When a receiver picks up a timing pulse it multiplies the measured signal travel time by the speed of light (3* 108 m/s) to obtain the range.

By knowing the range of each of the three satellites and their positions, it is possible to compute the location of the user.

The modulation used in direct sequence spread spectrum modulation. This makes the GPS system as jam resistant secure and addressable. The in phase component being C/A (Coarse Acquisition). Code while quadrature component is P code (Precision Code). The equation governing the modulated output is M (t) = D {(C/A) cos (2ft)} +DPW sin (2ft) GPS systems have applications which have no bounds. Never applications are coming up. GPS system is being used for track routing, load machine, monitoring cargo systems and state of its contents. GPS SYSTEM BLOCK: The GPS systems consist of a control segment and user segment. The control segment is the back bone of the entire system which consists of a master control station and 5 monitor stations. Their functions are 1. Collections of tracking data available in 5 monitor stations 2. Calculation of satellite orbits 3. Calculation of clock parameters 4. Control of satellite housekeeping of the satellite system. The monitor stations are spread all around the world within 30 north to 30 south. THE MONITOR STATIONS CARRY OUT THE FOLLOWING TASKS: 1. Measures pseudo ranges to all satellite in view. 2. Computes and generates data for satellite in view. 3. Receives orbit and clock parameters from the master control station.

4. Uploads the data received from the master control station to the satellites: 5. For this system the monitoring stations are at Hawaii, Colorado, Scension Island, Deigocargio and Kwajalein. Since the GPS satellites are inclined orbit obviously they cannot be tracked and controlled on earth station. Hence there are 107 stations spread all over the globe to achieve this task

GPS RECEIVER: As in any satellite receiver the input power is of the order of Pico watts. The C/N ratio above threshold, fixed for error free processing, the following configuration is necessary To recover the base band, COSTAS loop is used with phase synchronization of local oscillator or else the signal; cannot be detected. The required PN code is locally generated to chip of the spread spectrum received signal. Most of the receivers have 12 correlators. The diversity reception is used and the strongest signals are process. The CPU uses software to calculate X,Y,Z. Co-ordinates and to find latitude, longitude, altitude. As mention above, if the positions of three points relative to the co-ordinate system are known and the distance from an observer to each of the points can be measured, the position of the observer relative to the co-ordinate system can be calculated. In the GPS system, the three points are provided by the three satellites. Time enter into the position determination in two ways. First, the ephemerides must be associated with a particular time or epoch: The standard time keeper is an atomic standard maintained at the U.S. Naval observatory and the resulting time is known as GPS time.

RESULT: Thus the global positioning system was studied.