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Thermodynamics+ Fluid flow

Chapter one

1)Definition in thermodynamics

Thermodynamics, working substance, pure substance, macroscopic and microscopic
analysis, properties and state, phase, process, cycle, system, control volume ,Energy,
specific quantities, temperature and its measurements and scales, pressure and its
measurements, volume, internal energy, enthalpy, work heat and their relationship,
specific heat capacity.

2) Standard atmospheric pressure and measurement of
pressure
a)barometer
b)manometer
c)bourdan gauge

gauge atm abs
p p p =

Ex. If gauge pressure reading is 2 bar what s the absolute pressure assume the atomspherc
pressure s 100000 N/m2.Determne the absolute pressure in N/m2,Bar, mm Hg.
Ans.
gauge atm abs
p p p + =
=100000+2*100000=300000 N/m2=3 bar
In mmHg
p
atm

Absolute zero pressure
p
gauge
(-)
p
gauge
(-)

P
abs

300000*760/101325=2250 mm Hg.





3)Law of conservation of energy
In the absence of nuclear reaction and black holes in space , energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but can only be changed in form
4) The first law of thermodynamics
Many experiments were run accompanied by measurement of work and heat .it found the
net heat for the system was equal to network, so
out out in in
w Q W Q + = +
in out out in
W W Q Q =

= W Q
The first law state that when a system undergoes a cyclic change , the net heat to or from
the system is equal to the net work from or to the system(i.e)

}
= dQ Q &

}
= dW W
Then
} }
= dW dQ (1)
- one important consequence of the first law is that the energy of a system is a
property
- Expression 1 applies to the system undergoing cycle and the algebraic summation
of all energy transfer across the system boundaries is zero.
- But if the system undergoes change of state during which both heat transfer and
work are involved , the net energy transfer will be stored within the system, or the
net energy Q-W will be stored in the system named as internal energy(i.e)
U W Q A =
Where U A is the increase on the energy of the system
Also a derivation of same increase in the energy of the system for different paths
shows that the change in energy between two state of the system is the same . so the
energy has definite value for every state of the system , hence it is a point function
and a property of the system.
5) Application of 1
st
law of thermodynamics
5.1) closed system
5.1.1 Constant pressure process(isobaric)
W=pdV
W=pdv
But
q-w=du
q-pdv=du
q=du+pdv
q=d(u+pv)
q=dh=h2-h1
where V-volume, v-spesific volume,u spesific internal energy,h- enthalpy
But Work=
}
b
a
pdV = ) (
a b
V V p see fig below

Figure shows P-V relation in constant pressure process .
5.1.2 Constant volume process(isochoric)

Since differnce in volume is zero then there is no work done

W=0 then applyiong 1
st
law yield
q=du
a b
V
P

a
b
p
V

5.2.3 polytropic process
this process obey
const pv
n
= where n is index of compression or expansdion depending on the type
of process



n
m m
n n n
v p v p v p pv = = =
2 2 1 1
where m is any point on the curve 1-2
Then
n
n
v
v p
p
1 1
=
But
(

=
(

= = = =

} } }
n
v v
v p
n
v
v p dv v v p dv
v
v p
pdv w
n n
n
n
n n n
n
n
1 1
1
1
1
2
1 1
2
1
1
1 1 1 1
1 1

Then
n
v p v p
w

=
1
1 1 2 2

But 1
st
law state that
q-w=du then
du
n
v p v p
q =

1
) (
1 1 2 2

This equation is applicable to all values of n except where n=1 where a constant
temperature process may happen and this is called isothermal process or hyperbolic
process where the work done can be derived as

1
2
ln
v
v
pv
v
dv
c pdv w = = =
} }

5.2.4 adiabatic process

1
2
p
V
q or Q=0
q-w=du
then
w=-du
pdv+du=0
dh=0
then h1=h2
5.2.5 Isothermal process
It is a process where dT=0 then du=0
q-w=du
then
q=w
5.3 open system
for any system
Energy in=Energy out [in steady state system]

out out
in in
Energy ernal kinetic potential flowwork w
Energy ernal kinetic potential flowwork q
) int (
) int (
+ + + +
= + + + +


Then for steady state the flow energy equation is

2 2
2
2 2 1
1
1 1 1 1
2 2
u gz
c
v p w u
c
gz v p q + + + + = + + + + ****
But pv u h + = then

2 2
2
2 2
1
1 1 1
c
gz h w
c
gz h q + + + = + + + *****
The two equations above are usually referred to as S.F.E.E (i.e steady flow energy
equation where
w
q
1
2
Z1
Z2
w
q-heat(J/kg)
p-pressure(N/m2)
v-spesific volume(m3/kg)
g-gravity accel(m/s2)
z- elevation from reference(m)
u-internal energy(J/kg)
w-work done(J/kg)
h=enthalpy(J/kg)
and subscripts 1 and 2 referred to inlet and outlet respectively
note that for heat entering the system , its sign is positive in the equations above and
negative as the heat lost to the surrounding. For work the positive sign is used as the work
done by the system while a negative sign is used as the work is done on the system.
Ex1
In a steady flow system a substance flows at a rate of 4 kg/s.

6.The principle of thermodynamics engine



The thermodynamics engine is a device in which energy is supplied in form of heat and
some of this energy is transformed into work. It would be ideal , if all energy supplied
was transformed into work and no such transformation process exists then the percentage
of heat received which can be transformed to useful work is defined the thermal
efficiency of the system
received Heat
done work
= q m

Usually in practice it no exceeds 40% in best situation.

7.The heat engine

It is an engine in which heat transfer occurs . If heat is introduced into the system and as a
result of cyclic process, some work appears from that system, together with some heat
rejection from the system, and then this is heat engine
All thermodynamics engine are mostly referred to as heat engine









Chapter 2

Gases and single phase system
2.1 characteristic equation of a perfect gas
a. Boyls law : During a change of state if mass and temperature of a gas remains constant
then
p
V
1
where V is volume, P is pressure
Then
p
c
V = c PV = where c is constant
b. charles law :during a change of state , If mass and pressure of a gas remains constant
then T V where V is volume , T is temperature in K
V=CT const
T
V
= (2)

c. characterstic equation of a perfect gas
from 1-x Boyls law
from x-2
then

X X
V P V P =
1 1
(3)
And CONST
T
V
T
V
X
X
= =
2
2
(4)
From (3)

x
1
p
V
2

X
X
P
V P
V
1 1
= Into (4) then
2
2 1 1
T
V
T P
V P
X X
=
But
2
P P
X
= ,
1
T T
X
= then

= = CONST
T
T V
P
V P
2
1 2
2
1 1
T
PV
CONST
T
V P
T
V P
= = =
2
2 2
1
1 1

R const
T
Pv
= = , which is referred to characteristic gas constant, then for m kg of gas
mR
T
pV
mR
T
pmv
= =
mRT PV = this is the characteristic equation of a perfect gas
mass molcular relative
R
R
m
=
Where
m
R is referred to as Universal gas constant=8314.3
K kgmol
J
.


As an example for air R=287
K kg
J
.

Ex.
For different type of gases what is the volume of 3 kg of Co2, H2, Air, assume the atom
standard atom. T=15

C, pressure =101325N/m2.
Sol,
mRT PV =
Then
3
2
6 . 1
101325
) 15 273 ( *
44
3 . 8314
* 3
m
P
MRT
V
CO
=
+
= =
3
2
54 . 3
101325
) 15 273 ( *
2
3 . 8314
* 3
m
P
MRT
V
H
=
+
= =
3
448 . 2
101325
) 15 273 ( *
96 . 28
3 . 8314
* 3
m
P
MRT
V
AIR
=
+
= =
2.2 SPESIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
2.2.1 Specific heat capacity at constant volume Cv; for unit mass
V1=V2 Then w=0
q-w=du
q=du=Cv dt~ its units is J/kg
Q=mCv dt~ its units is J
2.2.2 spesific heat at constant pressure Cp
For unit mass
Q=Cp dT
q-w=du
q=w+du
Cp dT=w+Cv dt
But w=pdv then
CpdT=Cv dT+pdv dividing by dT then
Cp=Cv +p dv/dt (a)
But pv=RT then since v=specific volume
Pdv=RdT into equation a then
Cp=Cv+R
R=Cp-Cv
this equation verify that the characterstic gas constant is equal to the difference in
specific heats.
Assuming that
V
P
C
C
= then
R
C
C
p
p
+ =


R C C
P P
+ =

R C
P
= ) 1 (
THEN
1
=

R C
P
************
AND
1
=

R
C
V
************
2.3 Change of state at constant volume process
V1=V2
PV1=MRT1
PV2=MRT2
Qadd=m Cv (T2-T1) & W=0 then Q=du from 1
st
law of thermodynamics



Ex.
2 kg of gas occupying 0.7 m3 had an original temperature of 15 C . it was then heated at
constant volume process until its temperature becomes 135C ,How much heat was
transferred to the gas an what was its final pressure and change in specific internal energy
Take Cv =0.72 KJ/Kg.K, R=0.29 KJ/kg.K
Sol.
Q=mCv(T2-T1)
Q=2*0.72*1000{(135+273)-(15+273)}=172800J



1 1 1
mRT V P =
7 . 0
) 15 273 ( * 1000 * 29 . 0 * 2
1
1
+
= =
V
mRT
P =238628
2
m
N



2
1
2
1
T
T
P
P
=
) 273 15 (
) 273 135 (
* 238628
1
2
1 2
+
+
= =
T
T
P P =338057
2
m
N

U W Q A = but W=0 then

U Q A = =172800J

2
1
p
v

1
2
p
v
Au=Q/m=86400 J/kg

2.4 change of state at constant pressure process




(1)

2 2 2
mRT V P = (2)
Since
2 1
P P = then divide eq1 by eq2 yield
2
1
2
1
T
T
V
V
=
And H T T mC Q
P
A = = ) (
1 2

) (
1 2
V V P W = but
1
1
P
mRT
V = and
2
2
p
mRT
V =
Then ) ( ) (
1 2
2 1
2
1
T T mR
p
mRT
p
mRT
p W = = its units is in J
1 2
V
P
1 1 1
mRT V P =

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