Introduction

Week 1

This week Learning Outlines

Definition of fluid mechanics Concept of shear stress Properties of fluid Density and specific gravity Specific weight Viscosity Surface tension Pressure Units and conversion Types of fluid

Learning Outcome
At the end of the chapter, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Define the term fluid Differentiate between gas and liquid. Determine various types of fluid Determine properties of fluid Solve fluid related problems using different unit conversions

FLUID MECHANICS FLUID

substance that lack the ability to resist deformation forces

MECHANICS
A study of forces and motions

FLUID MECHANICS
A study of fluid either at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics) and the subsequent effects of the fluid on the boundaries

Fluid Mechanics in our life

Fluid Mechanics in our life

Significance?
Chemical Engineering Environmental Engineering Aerodynamics Medical Liquid and gas flow in pipeline Design of vessel g Design of water filter Design of metering equipment

Significance?
Chemical Engineering Environmental Engineering Aerodynamics Medical Formation of tornado, hurricane f Temperature profile of continent Flow of plume (smoke) at different time River hydraulic

Significance?
Chemical Engineering Environmental Engineering Aerodynamics Medical Design of vehicle Design of smoke stack Design of buildings g g

Significance?
Chemical Engineering Environmental Engineering Aerodynamics Medical Blood flow system Design of medical equipment Digestion of food in intestine Respiration system

What is stress?

The concept of stress and shear stress

Stress =

Force Area

Types of stress
10 kg 10 kg

10 kg

Rope holding up a weight

A column holding up a weight

Glue (at the wall) holding up a weight

Shear stress
Stress that tends to make one surface being sliced or slide parallel to another surface

Tensile stress
Stress that tends to pull things apart

Compressive stress
Stress that tends to crush the column

p/s: If you have water flowing in a channel, shear stress describes the force of water that is trying to drag the channel surface downstream with it.

Shear force Shear stress, = Area

Shear force
Shear force is a force which acts tangentially to a surface and causes the surface to deform
A x A B B

Shear strain
Deformation is measured by the angle = shear strain (or angular displacement) Fluid stress is proportional to strain rate. increases in proportion to the applied force, F.
A x A B B

Newtons law of viscosity

A x A B B

x y

= x/y Rate of = x/yt = (x/t)y = V/y Assume rate of , so V/y = V/y

V = x/t = velocity of particle at E

= dV/dy

= dynamic viscosity

Differences between solids and fluids

3 types of matter

Solid S lid Permanently resist deformation

Liquid Li id

Gas G

Lack the ability to resist a deformation force

 Solid permanently resist large shear force (provided the elastic limit not exceeded) ) When subjected to shear force move short distance Set up internal shear force, then stop moving

Initial
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Force applied

Force removed

Liquid and gas Lack the ability to resist deformation Deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces, no matter how small. Keep on moving for as long as the force is applied If force is removed, fluid wont be the same as initial state

Initial

Force applied

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 Shear stress

develops when fluid in motion i.e. particles move relative to each other that they have different velocities
ua ub uc

If velocity of fluid is the same at every point, condition of no shear stress

(fluid at rest relative to each other)
ua ua ua

Fluid at rest no shear stress

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Viscous vs inviscid flow

Internal vs external flow

Compressible vs incompressible flow

Classification of fluid flows

Laminar vs turbulent flow Steady vs unsteady flow

Natural vs forced flow

Viscosity
Property that determines the amount of resistance to shear force. Due primarily to interaction between fluid molecules
U F V y Fluid

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Fluid is filled between plate To keep plate moving at constant velocity, U a constant force, F must be applied

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Viscosity

AU y

F dV A dy dV dy

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Viscosity
dV dy

Coefficient of viscosity
(dynamic viscosity)

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Viscosity
=
dV dy

Newtons law of viscosity

Shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient

dV dy

= f (types of fluid, time and T)

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Types of fluids
Newtonian fluids
Fluids that obey Newtons law of viscosity

Non-Newtonian fluids
Fluids that do not obey Newtons law of viscosity

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 varies with types of fluid

Newtonian fluids
is proportional to dV/dy All gases All liquids having simple chemical formula E.g: H2O, CH3OH, C6H6 Most dilute solution of simple molecules in water or organic solvents Metal ion solution, sugar in water

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Newtonian fluids Straight line through origin

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 varies with types of fluid

Non-Newtonian fluids

Shear stress is a function of the velocity gradient. (viscosity is not a constant)

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varies with types of fluid

Bingham fluids
Resist small shear stress. Flow easily under larger y g shear stress
(Force must be given in order to move the fluid)

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 varies with types of fluid

Pseudoplastic fluids
Shear thinning fluids
viscosity decreases with increasing rate of shear stress

o as dV/dy m

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A shear thinning fluid decreases in viscosity with increasing shear rate

varies with types of fluid

Dilatant fluids
Shear thickening fluids m as dV/dy m E.g. Starch suspension, printing ink

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 varies with time

Viscosity is time independent

All Newtonian fluids are time independent Most of non-Newtonian fluids are time dependent
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varies with time

Rheopectic
Viscosity increases with time

A rheopectic fluid increases in viscosity over time at a constant shear rate.

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 varies with time

Thixotropic
Viscosity decreases with time

A thixotropic fluid decreases in viscosity over time at a constant shear rate.

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NonNon-newtonian fluid classification

Rheopectic Rh ti Time-dependent viscosity Thixotropic Viscosity increases with duration of stress Viscosity decreases with duration of stress Viscosity increases with increased stress Lubricants L bi t

Clays, honey

Dilatant (Shear thickening) Shear-stress-dependent viscosity Pseudoplastic (Shear thinning) Does not exhibit any shear rate (no flow) until Bingham a certain stress is achieved

Corn starch, printing inks

Viscosity decreases with increased (stress

Blood, ketchup

Viscosity constant

Toothpaste, jellies

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Unit of
Unit Pas / N/m2s / kg/m-s(SI) Ibm/ft-s (BG) Poise centipoise (cP) For water, = 1 cP (at 20oC)

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varies with T

= Ae

b T

(Andrade

equation)

b ln = ln A + T

T = o To

(power law)
3

T 2 To + S = (Sutherland' s equation) o To T + S
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Viscosity of gases and vapor

Gas Air CO2 H2 Coordinate X Y 11.0 20.0 9.5 18.7 11.2 12.4

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 Viscosity of liquid
Liquid Coordinate X Y Water 10.2 10.4 Benzene 12.5 10.9 Ethanol (100%) 10.5 13.8 Ethanol (40%) 6.5 16.6

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Kinematic Viscosity
=
Unit m2/s (SI) ft2/s (BG) C Common unit: centistoke ( St) it ti t k (cSt)
1 cSt = m2 ft 2 1 cP = 10 - 6 = 1.08 10 5 g s s 1 3 cm

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Density
= mass m = volume V

Units : kg/m3 (SI) or Ibm/ft3 (BG) Density of liquids are slightly affected by pressure and temperature Density of gases are strongly influenced by pressure and temperature

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Density
Density of water at different temperatures:

Temperature (oC) 0 4 10 20 30

(kg/m3) 999.0 1000.0 999.7 998.2 998 2 995.7

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Density
Density of gases can be calculated through ideal gas equation: PV = nRT RT PV = (m/M)RT m/V = PM/RT

= PM/RT
where R = gas constant = 8.314 m3 Pa/mol K
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Specific volume
Specific volume,

1 V = m

Unit: m3/kg ( ) or ft3/Ibm (BG) g (SI) ( )

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Specific weight
Specific weight,

weight W = volume V

Unit: N/m3 (SI) or Ibf/ft3 (BG) Related to density through:

=g
where g = local gravitational acceleration

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Specific gravity
Specific gravity, SG of liquid and solid

SG =

substance water at specified T and P

Throughout the course, specific gravity referred to water at 4oC is used Unit: Dimensionless
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Specific gravity
Specific gravity, SG of gas

gas SGgas = air

For ideal gas;

at same T and P

Mgas SGgas ideal = gas, M air Where: M = molar mass of the gas

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Class Example 1
A reservoir of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) has a mass of 500 kg and a volume of 0.315 m3. Determine th CCl4: D t i the a) Weight b) Density c) Specific weight d) Specific volume e) S ) Specific gravity ifi it Take gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s2
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Solution
a) Weight, W= mg = (500)(9.81) = 4905 N = 4.905 kN

b) Density, = m

500 kg = 1587 3 0.315 m

= 4905 kN = 15.57 3 0.315 m

c) Specific weight, = W

V
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3 1 1 -4 m d) Specific volume, = = = 6.301 10 kg 1587

e) Specific gravity, SG CCl4 = 1587 = 1.59 = H2O 1000

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Class Example 2
The volume of a rock is found to be 0.00015 m3. If the specific gravity of the rock is 2.60, determine its mass and weight. d i ht

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Solution
S.G =

rock rock = = 2.60 H2O 1000

rock = 2600 kg/m3 Mass, m = V = (2600)(0.00015) = 0.39 kg Weight, W = mg = (0.39)(9.81) = 3.826 N

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Class Example 3
Nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 100 L at 120 kPa and 100oC. Determine its specific volume and specific weight. i ht

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Solution
V = 100 L = 100 10-3 m3

P = RT = kg P 120 kPa = 1.08 3 = m RT kPa m3 8.314 kmol K (100 + 273 K ) 28 kg kmol

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1 1 m3 Specific volume, = = = 0.923 kg 1.08

Specific weight, = g = (1.08)(9.81) = 10.6 N/m3

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=
=

Unit m2/s (SI), ft2/s (BG) Common unit: centistoke (cSt)

dV dy

3 3 mass m = Units : kg/m (SI) or Ibm/ft (BG) volume V = PM/RT

=
Unit:

1 V = m
(SI) or

Unit: m3/kg (SI) or ft3/Ibm (BG) (BG)

N/m3

Ibf/ft3

weight W = volume V
gas SGgas = air

=g

SG =

substance water at specified T and P

at same T and P

Mgas SGgas,ideal = M air

Surface tension
What is surface tension?
An effect within the surface layer of a liquid that causes that layer to behave as elastic sheet.

What causes surface tension?

The intermolecular forces between the liquid molecules

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Surface Tension
B

liquid

In the bulk of liquid, A is pulled equally in all directions by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero At the surface of the liquid, B is pulled inwards by other molecules deeper inside the liquid which can be balanced y y only by the resistance of the liquid to compression. This inward pull tends to diminish the surface area, and in this respect a liquid surface resembles a stretched elastic membrane.

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Effects in everyday life

Water beading on flowers

Insects walking on water

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Capillarity
The ability of a substance to draw another substance into it Depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel
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Application: Capillarity
Liquids rise in tubes if they wet (adhesion > cohesion)

Liquids fall in tubes if they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion).

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Capillarity
is zero Perfect wetting
(liquid spreads as a thin film over the surface of the solid)

E.g.:water on clean metal = 180o Case of no wetting E.g.: Mercury on clean glass

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Capillarity
Capillary rise, h can be calculated using the equation: ti
h= cos Wetted perimeter Cross sectional area
h = h i ht of capillary rise height f ill i = surface tension = contact angle = specific weight
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Capillarity
For circular tube: cos d h= 2 d
cos d 2 cos = r =
d = diameter of the tube r = radius of the tube

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Capillarity
Capillarity is important when using t b i tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (10 mm) in diameter. For tube diameters larger than 1 in (12 mm), capillary effects are negligible.
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Outline
Pressure and Temperature Units and Conversion

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Terminology
Gauge pressure, Pg
P of a system is measured by a gauge, which excludes Patm Its measured relative to Patm

Absolute pressure, Pabs

Total P exerted on a system Pabs = Patm + Pg Its measured relative to high vacuum (0 psia)
1 atmosphere 0 psig 0 psia
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100 psig 114.7 psia

vacuum range

14.7 psia

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Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure, Patm P exerted on th surface of a body by a column of air in an atmosphere t d the f f b d b l f i i t h Standard Patm (at sea level) = 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 760 mmHg

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Relationships
Pabs = Patm + Pgage g g Pabs = Patm Pvac 1 atm = 0 gage 101.3 kPa = 0 gage

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Temperature
Temperature scales: Celcius (C) Kelvin (K) Fahrenheit (F) Rankine (R)

T(K) = T(C) + 273.15 T(R) = T(F) + 460

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Units
SI unit (International unit) English system (foot-pound-second, BG)

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Conversion
Length: 1m 1 ft = 3.281 ft = 0.3048 m

Mass:

1 kg = 2.2046 Ibm 1 Ibm = 0.45359 kg

Pressure 1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 14.696 psi

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Class Example 4
A steel cylinder has a diameter of 5 cm and a length of 20 cm. It moves at a velocity of 0.5 m/s inside a tube f li htl l t b of slightly larger diameter. Determine th di t D t i the clearance between the cylinder and the tube, if castor oil film of constant thickness is filled between the cylinder and the tube. Data: at room temperature p SGsteel = 7.85 castor oil = 0.287 kg/ms

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Solution
dy

F dV = A dy

F = W = mg = (V )g F = (7.85 1000 ) (0.05 )2 (0.2 )(9.81) = 30 N 4

Clearance, dy

dy =

(0.05 )(0.2 )(0.5 ) A dV = (0.287 ) = 0.15 mm F 30

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Class Example 5
Determine the capillary rise of water at 10oC in a tube if the tube diameter is 1 mm. What will happen if the tube diameter increases by 50%? Data: water @ 10oC = 0.00742 N/m

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Solution
h= 2( 0.00742 ) cos 0 = 3.03 10 -3 mm ( 1000 )( 9 81) ( 0 0005 ) 9.81 0.0005

if tube diameter increases by 50% h= 2( 0.00742 ) cos 0 = 2.02 10 -3 mm ( 1000 )( 9.81) ( 0.0005 1.5 )

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