Performing practices in late-nineteenth-century piano playing: implications of the relationship between written texts and early recordings

Neal Peres Da Costa

Submitted in accordancewith the requirements for the degreeof Ph.D.; The University of Leeds,Schoolof Music; December2001.

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that has been given where reference has been made to the appropriate credit work of others.

THESIS CONTAINS CD

Acknowledgements

My sincerestthanks to ProfessorClive Brown, without whose constantinspiration, friendship and supervision,this work would not have been guidance,encouragement, possible. Many thanks also to my co-supervisorProfessorJulian Rushton, for very beneficial guidance and support in the final stages. Sincere thanks to Nina Platts who has generouslyobliged with researchassistance and have been indispensable.Thanks whose painstaking proofreading, comments and advice and also to Dr Bryan White and to Dr. StevenMuir for their constantencouragement friendship and their guidancewith music editing skills. Thanks to my dear friend Deborah Fox, who has provided vital researchassistancein the United States,as well as offering boundlesssupport, and advice. My thanks to all those who have helped with translation including Pierre Sciama, Katherine Hume, Dorothea Vogel and Anja Blkow.

for I would like to thankmy parents their constant supportand love. havebeen Most of all, thanksto my partnerDaniel Yeadon,whoselove andpatience His testedbut haveremained everpresent. proofreading severely skills andhis the enclosed compactdiscshasbeenpainstaking. productionof

Abstract
Performing practices in late-nineteenth-centurypiano playing: implications of the relationship betweenwritten texts and early recordings.

Neal Peres Costa Da Ph. TheUniversityof Leeds,Schoolof Music; December 2001. D.;
Early piano recordings provide audible evidence of the style of late- nineteenth and earlytwentieth century pianists. These clearly exhibit an approachto piano playing which differs radically from the present.The relationship between the practices preservedin the their description in contemporaneous recordings and written texts is the focus of attention here. The investigation showsthat the important features of recordings are not faithfully conveyedby the written texts. Therefore, the recordings reveal a manner of execution and interpretation that could seldom have been envisagedfrom the written texts alone. The recordings examined here include those of a generationof pianists who were trained, in some cases,150 years ago. These include Carl Reinecke, Theodor Leschetizky, Camille Saint-Satins,and JohannesBrahms, and those of a later generationhave also been considered.Their recordings preservevital information about general performing practices of the secondhalf of the nineteenth century, as well as the idiosyncrasiesof their playing.

following chaptersinvestigate practices that are prevalent in the recordings. These include dislocation (asynchronyof the hands), unnotated chordal arpeggiation, metrical rubato and various types of rhythmic alteration, and tempo modification. Each chapter comparescontemporaneousand historical written referenceswith numerous recorded examples provided on the accompanying compact discs. This processreveals, in many cases,striking inconsistencies,and highlights the gulf between theory and practice. It also suggeststhat descriptive languageand musical notation have hidden meaningsfor which the recordings provide an indispensablekey. Early piano recordings capture an expressivestyle alien to modern taste. The implications of this study are that any attempt at historically informed performancesmust the gulf between current aestheticsof performance and those of the lateacknowledge nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries.

lost The significance earlyrecordings their importance a means appreciating of and of as traditionsis outlinedin the Introduction.Chapter1 explores earlyrecordingprocesses the The anddrawsconclusions aboutthe value of the recordings preserved as evidence.

Contents

Introduction
Chapter 1 Early recordings: their value as evidence Chapter 2 Dislocation Chapter 3 Unnotated arpeggiation Chapter 4 Metrical rubato and other forms of rhythmic alteration Chapter 5 Tempo modification Conclusion Bibliography Discography Track references CD 1 Chapter 2 CD 2 Chapter 3 CD 3 Chapter 4

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461 463 477 486 496 498 502

CD 4 Chapter 5 Appendices
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Introduction

Musicians have frequently expressedconcern about the adequacyof written texts to of a composer's intentions. For example, Carl Czerny (1791convey all essentialaspects 1857), writing in 1846, about the preservation of a style of performing Beethoven'spiano sonatasthat would have been recognizableto Viennese musicians of the first half of the nineteenth century, stated: Here closesthe seriesof the grand Solo-Sonatasby Beethoven,which alone would sufficiently render his name immortal. We have endeavouredby as exact an indication as possible of the right time, as well as by the accompanyingremarks, to facilitate the study and performance of the sameto every considerably advancedpianist. Beethoven wrote all his works at Vienna, where he resided.It is therefore natural that here, the mind for comprehendingand duly performing them would be preserved, as by tradition; and experiencehas proved that such is actually the case.For in other places, how frequently may not both the time and the characterof thesecompositions have been mistaken! And this was still more to be feared for the future. '

And otherreveredmusicians fearedthat neithermusicalnotationnor verbaldescription century, would preserve subtledetailsof paststyles.Towardsthe endof the nineteenth Carl Reinecke(1824.1910) the famouspianist,teacher composer the following and gave Beethoven's PianoSonata I 11: Op. adviceto a youngstudent, concerning
The indication of the nuances,which Beethoven has bestowedon it, is exceedingly careful, and whoever follows it conscientiously will at all events miss nothing essential;but truly, there still remains much to be read between the lines which no ' by signs, no editor by explanations. composer can convey

' C. Czemy, TheArt of Playing theAncient and Modern Piano Forte Works...Being a Supplementto the Royal Pianoforte School Op. 500 (London, 1846), 68. 2 C. Reinecke,Die Beethovenschen Clavier-Sonaten: Briefe an eine Freundin (Leipzig, 1895); trans. E.M. TrevenenDawson as The BeethovenPianoforte Sonatas: Letters to a Lady (London, 1898), 139.

2
The examination, collation and practical application of evidenceabout historical

on performingpractices centuryhaveinevitablyfocused earlierthanthe mid-nineteenth

the study of data preservedin pedagogicaltexts, ear-witnessaccountsof performers and performances,and analysesof composers' notational practices.This approachhas invaluable information about evolving tastesand musical vocabulary. In his provided

Positionof Authenticity' (1989),RobertDoningtonvehemently `ThePresent article in favourof the useof historicaltexts,extolling their virtues,but he is alsomore argued learnfrom themthanmayperhaps warranted: be sanguine aboutwhat onecan
For the composer's intentions, however intuitive and however elusive, at one time must certainly have existed; and something correspondingto them at least in some measurecan hopefully be recovered provided that we have sufficient degreeof information as to what his notational symbols and his unnotated conventionswere. And this within reasonwe may claim to do. The contemporarytreatisesare not all confusing. It is perfectly possible to piece together a reasonablyreliable and consistent view of large and important areasof factual information which we could never have guessedfrom musical intuition alone, provided that we are sufficiently alert to the many unavoidable divergencesof taste and temperament,of time and place, of style and context, for all of which due and adequateallowance has to be made; and provided also that in our interpretations we bring to bear the samekind of musicianly flexibility, which is and always has been the mark of any genuine responsiveness and spontaneity in the performing arts. A kind of educatedflexibility is how I have always been inclined to define our proper attitude.3

Is it really possible`to piecetogethera reasonably view' of reliableandconsistent informationabouthistoricalperformingpractices? Howevermuchit maybe possible to the glean,within certainboundaries, meaningof particularnotationalsymbols someof or the manyunnotated that conventions existedfor a specifictime andplace,the precise auraleffect of suchpractices remainslargelyunclear.Despitethe abundance of informationpresented written sources, is obviousthat this canonly convey,in the in it
3 R. Donington, `The PresentPosition Authenticity', Performance Practice Review (1989), of vol. 2 no. 2,119-20.

3 to actual practice. Without audible evidence,it is majority of cases,an approximation impossible to appreciatemany of the featuresof past performing stylesthat were transmitted aurally and taken for granted.

The development of recording in the late-nineteenthcentury is of great significance, for the first time direct evidence, which would otherwise have been providing irretrievably lost, of the featuresof individual musicians' performance styles.Early acoustic recordings, and of pianists, player-piano recordings (rolls), shedlight on the performance traditions of approximately the last hundred and fifty years.From these,it has become clear that late-twentieth-century traditions and styles are quite different from those of even sixty or seventyyears ago. Robert Philip's analysis and comparison of recordings from 1900 to 1950,4clearly illustrates that the following aspectsof performance style have changedsignificantly: accentuation,articulation, ideals of tone colour and timbre, tempo fluctuation, tempo rubato; and in the caseof vocalists, string and wind players, portamento and the variation and shading of tone production through the use of vibrato and non-vibrato. Indeed, referenceto a significant change in playing style in the secondhalf of the twentieth century was made by Edward Sackville-West. Comparing the recordings of the pianist Moriz Rosenthal (1862-1946) with those of a later generation, he remarked in 1962 that: Such recordings as we possess[of Rosenthal] were most of them made thirty-five years ago or more when Rosenthal was, technically speaking, past his prime, but there is scarcely one of them that is not stampedwith a musical personality strikingly different from any presentedby the foremost pianists of to-day: If one listens for instance to any of the Chopin mazurkas which Rosenthal recorded...the poetry and
4 R. Philip, Early Recordings and Musical Style: Changing Tastesin Instrumental Performance, 1900-1950, (Cambridge, 1992).

4 distinction seemto belong to another age. The pianist seemsunconcerned- as if he 5 for his own pleasure,and did not care whether we listened or not. were playing Furthermore, Sackville-West describesRosenthal's practice of non-synchronyof the hands,as well as an apparently `cavalier' attitude to wrong notes,saying that such things longer be acceptableand that `nothing but a cast-iron technique...makes would no impression to keep a performer before the public. '6 sufficient

in Without doubt,suchchanges attitudeandplayingstylewenthand-in-hand with duringthe second half of the twentieth developments soundrecordingtechniques in distractions by caused poor soundquality in manyof the century.But, disregarding further andcloserlisteningreveals the ad hoc or that features suchas earliestrecordings, to the literal notatedrhythm,tuning,andbasicpulse(which seemingly approach careless to are seemprimitive, old-fashioned curious-sounding `modern'sensibilities) and intrinsic performingpracticeelements.

Audible evidence, particularlyfrom an erawhenfew or no artificial editingtechniques as wereavailable,hasto be regarded the mostimportantprimarysourcefor appreciating commercial performingtraditionsof that period.In starkcontrast,muchin present-day doesnot necessarily a true impression actualperformance style.A recordings give of can, producer'spowerof interventionthroughthe useof modernediting techniques and in significantelements the initial performance, somecases often does,alter several of devaluingtheir worth aspreserved This, coupledwith the recordingindustry's evidence.
s E. Sackville-West, `Rosenthal', Recorded Sound:theJournal of theBritish Instituteof Recorded Sound(1962),vol. 1 no. 7,214.
6 Ibid., 214.

5 drive towards artificial perfection and the resulting consumerexpectation,has shaped late-twentieth-century taste. In this context, and as Robert Philip has shown, perfection has come to mean stricter rhythmic precision of ensemble,absoluterespectfor notation, and an eradication of the various types of tempo rubato that were integral aspectsof expressionand phrasing around the turn of the twentieth century.

Scholarshave only recently begun to engagesignificantly in the academic study of recordings from the late nineteenthcentury and the first half of the twentieth century. The transfers and reissuesof many of the earliest acoustic recordings (in the caseof Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) as early as 1889) and piano rolls to long-playing records and compact discs provide the most important primary evidence for late nineteenth-century, and in some casesearlier traditions. Severalof thesetransfers provide examplesof the most famous and revered artists of the secondhalf of the nineteenth century such as the

AdelinaPatti (1843-1919), violinist Joseph Joachim(1831-1907), pianists the the soprano Carl Reinecke, TheodorLeschetizky (1830-1915), Camille Saint-Saans (1838-1921), EdvardGrieg (1843-1907), Vlademir de Pachmann (1848-1933), well asa and as (1860-1941), FannyDavies(1861youngergeneration pianistssuchasJanPaderewski of 1934),Moriz Rosenthal (1862-1946), Carl Friedberg (1872-1955), Adelina de Lara (1872-1961), Ilona Eibenschtitz (1873-1967), EtelkaFreund(1879-1977), many and others.The survivingaudibleevidence preserves vital informationaboutgeneral performingpractices the mid- to late nineteenth earlytwentiethcenturies well of as and asthe idiosyncrasies their music-making. of

6
A significant factor for consideration is the extent to which early recordingsrepresentan tradition. The nineteenth-centurymusicians noted above may well have ongoing modified elementsof their style to some extent, but any changewas probably much more than the rate of changein the late-twentieth century. Communication systemsand gradual have hastenedboth the transfer and absorption of information, increasingthe multimedia possibility of rapid change.A fascinating example illustrating a fairly slow rate of change can be seenin the evolution of expressivedevices used in string playing from the latter part of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century. The earliest recordings show that, around the turn of the century, many string players of the German school still played without continuous vibrato and employed varied portamento as the main expressivedevice. Vibrato is treated as an ornament, reservedfor certain musical effects like accent or emphasis.During the first decadesof the twentieth century,

however, be heardmorecontinuously It is not until the vibrato can alongside portamento. falls almostcompletelyout of use,leaving mid-twentiethcenturyor later that portamento vibrato predominant a means colouringtone.Yet eventhis type of vibrato is as of narrower,lesscontinuous lessintrusivethanthe vibrato generallyemployed and at 7Therefore transitionfrom thejudicious frequent the present. useof vibrato with to portamento oneemployinga wide, continuous largelyunvaryingvibrato,with and little or no portamento, takenalmostonehundredyears. has

An analogousdevelopment in keyboard playing may be seenin the employment of techniques such as the dislocation between melody and accompanimentcausedby
This is not true of the period instrument movement that, in general, seemsto have rejected portamento as a general expressivedevice and usesvarying speedsof vibrato ornamentally, combined with vibratoless tone.

7
between the hands.This expressivedevice was usedparticularly in slow asynchrony be heard in the playing of the earliest generationof pianists to record, movementsand can to varying degreesby those of later generations.Remnantsof this technique can be and heard on recordings made as late as the 1940sand 1950s.It is noticeable however, that late-nineteenth-centurypianists and the majority of pianists trained during the some twentieth century employ these devicesto a much lesserextent or, in some cases,not at Changing tastesand perhapstechnical developmentsmust account for the move away all. from performing practices once consideredindispensable.

One must always be aware that musical traditions are constantly evolving and that it is dangerousto assumethat one musician's playing style, no matter how venerated,has been adopted and transmitted by following generations.In this respect Will Crutchfield has concluded that: if everyone played as he was taught, musical style would never changeat all. Pupils play not as their teachersdid, but as their reactions to their teachers(imitative, rebellious, progressive,myriad), and to their musical environments,dictate. And they do not play in the style that was current when they were trained, but rather in the style being developedamong the twenty-year-olds when they were trained.' that was

itself mayalsobe largelyresponsible changes for It is evidentthat the recordingprocess in tasteandperformance Beforerecordingbecame style. employed musicians possible, from a beingableto appreciate techniques considered expressive without purely certain listener'spoint of view, the auraleffect.The accompanist GeraldMooreremarksthat with the adventof the microphone: It is still beyondour capacityto seeourselves othersseeus - perhaps is just as this as in to well for our peaceof mind - but now it waspossible hearourselves very truth. A
a W. Crutchfield, `Brahms, by those who knew him', Opus (1986), 2 no. 5,14. vol.

8
newcomer to recording, hearing his voice for the first time, would ask with dismay, `Is this really what I sound like?'9 Once it becamepossible to hear one's own performance,however, critical listening intermingled with anxiety about the fact that the recorded result would survive for posterity must surely have influenced certain aspectsof performing style. Moore, whose experienceof recording was wide-ranging, noted the effect it had on his own playing: The microphone exposed- and continues to expose- so many shortcomingsin my playing that I sometimeswonder why I am ever re-engaged.I can only assumeit is becauseI have never been found out. It is a humiliation to record a piece of music one has performed in public for years and then to discover how poorly one has played it. But at least the mike has taught me to listen to myself mighty critically. I owe much to it though still hating and fearing it. 10

The majority of the earliest extant recordings consideredhere were made in the first decadeof the twentieth century, and some later electrical recordings have also been considered.These capture the styles of musicians at the end of their careers,in some casestrained one hundred and sixty years ago. The researchto date has largely

overlooked someof the earliestrecordings madeby pianistssuchasReinecke, Leschetizky Saint-Saans. dissertation This in investigates and what is happening these in musical`snapshots' orderto distinguishwhat is old-fashioned `modern', or
idiosyncratic or a general trend. Given the limitations of the recording processdiscussed in the following section, the investigation deals only with such practices as rhythmic dislocation between the right and left hands, arpeggiation, rhythmic alteration (metrical rubato and inequality) and tempo modification, excluding those practices specifically basedon dynamic nuance or pedalling. These important practices are compared with
9G. Moore, Am I Too Loud? (1962); this edn. (Middlesex, 1966; repr. 1968), 56. 10 Ibid., 58.

9 contemporaneous written texts on performance (some highly detailed, others more

in between the general) orderto evaluate correspondence actualpracticeandits written description. The studyof recordings the oldestgeneration pianists,aswell asof of of far thosewho followed,in specificconjunctionwith written textsreveals morethanis
possible from a study of recordings or written texts alone.

10

Chapter 1
Early recordings: their value as evidence

For pianists,two methods recordingwerepossiblearoundthe turn of the twentieth of (pre-electrical (roll) recordings. recordings) player-piano century:acoustic recordings and Acousticrecordings relied on the transmission soundvibrationsvia a conicallyshaped of funnelcalleda horn or trumpetto a sensitive to membrane attached a needle. into Sympathetic to the needle makean impression a of movements the membrane caused many suitablemedium.PeterFord's `Historyof SoundRecording'(1962)provides detailsaboutthe development earlyacoustic technology, enlightening recording of
including the following description of Thomas Edison's phonographdevised in 1877: It was quite a simple machine. It consistedof a cylinder, 4in. in length and 4in. in diameter, which had a helical groove of 0.1in. pitch inscribed on its surface. The cylinder was mounted on a threaded shaft of the samepitch as the groove on the cylinder. A handle rotated the cylinder and shaft. On each side of the cylinder there was a framed diaphragm and in the center of eachdiaphragm there was a steel point. A sheetof soft tinfoil was wrapped around the cylinder. The point of the recording stylus was brought to bear on the tinfoil and the cylinder was then rotated asthe operator spoke. The resulting vibrations of the diaphragm were indented into the foil and the foil was indented into the groove on the cylinder. For replay, the more sensitive diaphragm at the other side of the cylinder was employed.'

By 1885, however, wax was used instead of tinfoil in order to reduce the insupportable distortion factor, though this remained a problem for many decades.According to Ford, instead of using foil, the basic phonographwas adapted `by filling the groove of the beeswax'.2 Even after shellac discs were invented, the initial recording was cylinder with
' P. Ford, `History of Sound Recording', Recorded Sound (1962), vol. 1, no. 7,222. 2 Ibid., 223.

11
made on to wax and subsequentlytransferred.Acoustic recordings continued until the invention of the microphone in the mid-1920s when it becamepossibleto convert sound waves into an electrical impulse and amplify this impulse to 'almost,any required strength'.3

Another early-twentieth-century pre-electrical recording processusing a reproducing piano was popular and consideredvery sophisticated.A remarkable systememploying electrical currents enabled pitch, rhythm, and tempo, as well as dynamic nuanceand pedalling to be recorded by making perforations on to a paper roll. The roll could be played back on a specially adaptedpiano that usedair pressurecreatedby pneumatic pumps to depressthe keys. The `effect of the recreatedpiano performancewas quite overwhelming.'4 One such system,the Welte-Mignon createdby Edwin Welte in Freiburg in 1904, was purported to be able to replay `with great accuracythe most rapid '5 notes, the most complex rhythms and the most subtle tempo changes. In 1948,Richard C. Simonton provided the following detailed description of the mechanismand technique involved in the Welte system: There was a standardSteinway grand piano, equipped with a trough running the length of the keyboard and immediately under it. In this trough there was a pool of mercury, and when the key was depressed, carbon rod attachedto the bottom of the key a engagedthis mercury and causedan electrical contact to be made. The resistanceof this contact varied with the pressureexerted on the carbon rod so that actually, depending upon the blow with which the key was struck, there was a corresponding change in the electrical resistanceof the contact made. All of the keys were connected by wires to the recording machine, which was usually some feet away from the controlling piano. This machine had within it the conventional rolls of paper which
3 J. Borwick, `Sound Recording, Transmission and Reproduction', The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie, 1st edn. (London, 1980), vol. 17,575. 4 A. Leikin, `The Performance Scriabin's Piano Music; Evidence from of the Piano Rolls', Performance Practice Review (1996), vol. 9 no. 1,101-3.

5Ibid., 101-3.

12
blank and without perforation, but were ruled their entire length with were entirely hundred fine lines, each correspondingto the center line of its control over one Above the point at which the impression actually took place on the paper mechanism. to the type usedin a was a seriesof small rubber rollers of a composition similar theserollers were linked with an ink similar to that usedby the printing press,and these industry. The result was that as the keys of the piano were depressed, printing [the piano] and transferredtheir inking to the paper in such a way that, rollers engaged dependingupon the blow or touch exerted upon the keys of the piano, there was a difference of the inking of the paper on the masterroll. Other functions corresponding also transferred, such as pedaling. After the recording was completed, of playing were it was sent to the laboratory and very carefully preparedfor being used in the in reversein order to give a performanceand re-create reproducing machine, or used the actual playing of the artist as the roll had recorded it. For this purpose, once again the Weites had constructeda machine which was the exact opposite of the recording This device had felt covered levers - one for every key. It was a cumbersome piano. thing that was placed in front of the keyboard of a piano and when a roll masterwas inside, it actuatedthe mechanism within this monster in such a way that these put levers came down and depressed keys with the samedynamics in the sameorder as the in the original performance.Every precaution was taken to get conditions as nearly equal as possible to the original performance so these wooden levers were made the length as a man's fingers from the pivot of his wrist to the tips, so that the same same power of touch would produce the samedynamic strength on the piano as the artist keys during the making of the recording.6 when he struck the

Duo-Art,Aeolian During the first half of the twentiethcenturymanycompanies suchas

Company, and Ampico, produced piano rolls and most of the famous pianists were

in recorded this manner.

Thoughacousticandpianoroll recordingprocesses of wereseenasan importantmeans the preserving art of virtuosopianistsof the day,it is evidentthat both hadparticular limitations.Accountsaboutearly acousticrecordingsessions a clearpictureof some give that plaguedrecordingengineers well asthe conditionsin which artists of the problems as hadto work. For instance, AdelinaPatti Company first recorded whenthe Gramophone

6 R. Simonton, `Notes', Great Masters of the Keyboard, Columbia Masterworks MIA291-5 (1950), unpaginated.

13 in 1906 it is clear from a description by the producer,Fred Gaisberg,that the experience

difficult: wassomewhat
It was an ordeal for her [Patti] to sing into this small funnel, while standing in one With her natural Italian temperamentshe was given to flashing movements position. her parts. It was my job to pull her back when shemade those beautiful and to acting the high notes. At first she did not like this and was most indignant, but attacks on heard the lovely records she showed her joy. 7 later when she

Her Despitethe difficulties, thereis little doubtthat Patti wascharmed the results. with
is recorded in a letter of the 8th of December 1905,to one of her accompanists pleasure

Alfredo Barili:
You will be pleasedto hear that I have been singing in a Gramophone& that it all has turned out satisfactorily - my voice & phrasing come easy& simply perfect out of the instrument &I think the company will make a fortune.8

in It is clearhoweverthat the methodof recordingat this time resulted certainnuances, beinglesswell preserved thanothers.Patti's niece, suchasdynamics accentuation, and LouiseBarili, described what shewitnessed oneof the sessions: at The facilities for makingthe recordswerecrude. Aunt Adelinastoodon a small .. for shading, towardor awayfrom the recording movableplatformwhich, wasmoved As this wasdonewhile my auntwassinging,it madeher very nervous. machine. high up, on because hadto play with the pianoelevated, Father, he too, wasagitated, boxes.Papawastold not to do any shading, it would not record,but he could never as 9 play mechanically. difficulties with which to contend. Indeedfor pianiststherewereevenmoreserious Recallinghis earliestexperience makingrecordsin 1921,GeraldMoore described of how, in additionto the sterilesurroundings the over-resonant and acousticof the

7J.F. Cone, Adelina Patti: Queenof Hearts(Oregon,I993), 243. 8Ibid., 244. 9 Ibid., 246,

14
for maximum impact on the vibrating diaphragm, recording studio which were necessary

the pianoitself hadto be modified:

I ran my fingers over the keys of the pianoforte and was appalled at the metallic harshness the tone; it had the brazen splendor [sic] of a brassspittoon. This brittle of be attributed entirely to the acousticsof the chamber,for I found on sound was not to that the piano, by the tuner's art, had been renderedas percussiveas examination by the filing down of the felts on the hammers.The anti-upholstery campaign possible 10 had extendedeven to my piano.

Moore, like Barili, wasinstructed play with unvarying But asif this wasnot enough, to dynamics especially to play softly. He recounts that: not and
In any recording session,the first record gives the most trouble becauseit is here that quality of sound and balancebetween the two instruments [the violin and the piano] have to be settled... They had great trouble with me becauseI tried to play softly. Mme Chemet and I were dealing with a Berceusebut Arthur Clark, opening his kennel insisted on my playing forte all the time. I protestedthat it was impossible to window, bang out all the notes of a lullaby; I should wake the baby. The result, in the test back to us, was that I was unheard. I did not relish this. The piano could not be played than it was; already the violinist had hardly enough room for her placed any nearer bowing arm between the trumpet [the recording horn] and the piano. In the last I obeyed official recommendation and clattered my part of the lullaby like a reckoning " charge of cavalry, to the approval of all.

The difficulty of recordingdynamicshading thereforepresumably othernuances and many suchasaccentuation articulationwasa serious and matterthat naturallyconcerned and on pianists.Havingwitnessed marvelledat Paderewski's performances many Op. Moore commented his acousticrecordings Chopin'sMazurkas 7 on occasions, of No. 2, Op. 17No. 4 andOp. 33 No. 4, saying:
Listening now to Paderewski's recording of these frail pieces it comes as something of a shock to hear him inject so much passionatefervour into them. (A Mozart string quartet transcribed for brassband.) One cannot question the taste of this noble artist, and since he never hurt my sensibilities when I was present at a public performance, I conclude that he felt impelled to maintain a consistently penetratingforte to register on
'o Moore, Am I Too Loud?, 52. " Ibid., 53.

15 the soft wax of the old recording process.This was my own practice in the early twenties when to make a diminuendo or attempt to play softly reducedthe recording despair.12 engineer to

Moore also makes it quite clear that, having learned how to adapt one's playing to the

had requirements the acoustic of entirelytheir recordingprocess, musicians to reassess

recording philosophy once microphone recording becamepossible: To think in terms of accuracyand vigour which had sufficed in the past was not enough, we had to sing and play as musicians, with refinement, with light and shade, The making of with delicacy of nuance.I even had to play very softly when necessary. a good record, it was quickly realized, demandedinfinitely more concentration and from the artists. The microphone picked up everything.13 care The matter of tempo was another factor that causedgreat concern in some early acoustic recording sessions,particularly when the repertoire exceededa certain length. The wax cylinders and discs in use up to the 1920scould only preserve,at most,just over four minutes of music. The repertoire would either have to be modified by making cuts or by playing it faster than was comfortable or indeed musical. Here again, Moore's reminiscencesprove very enlightening. He explains that: Only two sizesof records were issued under the wax process;the twelve inch running normally for four and a quarter minutes and the ten inch lasting three minutes and ten An extra half-minute could be squeezedon to the disc in extreme casesby seconds. narrowing the playing grooves. This was avoided as much as possible since the quality of tone deteriorated when the needle approachedtoo near to the centre. A symphony or sonatamovement would take up much more spacethan could be contained in one record side and the movement would perforce be halted midway - sometimeson an unresolved discord. This hiatus was altogether unbearableeven to us primitives. Often, therefore, in the caseof a shorter piece the pace would be quickened to a preposteroustempo in our efforts to complete it in record time. When the red light gleamed, not a secondwas lost, we were away. Runners in a hundred yard sprint were not quicker off the mark than we. This, in fact, is how Selma Kurz - that wonderful soprano from the Vienna State Opera - and I endeavouredto record Beethoven's 12 Moore,Furthermoore Interludesin Accompanist's (1983); G. Life an repr.in Collected Memoires(Middlesex,1986),396.
13Moore, Am I Too Loud?, 56-7.

16
Adelaide, a lengthy song with an extremely slow first section. Long before we had finished this larghetto we were `buzzed' by the engineerwho put his headthrough the inform us that he had come to the end of the wax. We tried again and now I window to introduction at a speedthat would have shockedBeethovenbut Mme Kurz played my far from the piano, with her head in the trumpet, that not hearing me, was standing so blame to her, she becameslower and slower. I am afraid we had to abandon and no 14 poor Adelaide. A similar problem besetthe pianist Ferruccio Busoni. Writing to his wife in 1919about his recording experiences,he related that: YesterdayI suffered the gramophonedrudge through to the end... they wanted the Gounod-Liszt Faust-waltz (which lasts a good 10 minutes) - but only four minutes' I quickly had to make cuts, patch and improvise, so that it still retained its worth! - so sense;give due regard to the pedal (becauseit soundsbad), had to rememberthat be struck louder or softer - to pleasethe infernal machine; not let particular notes must myself go - for the sake of accuracy - and remain consciousthroughout that every note being preservedfor eternity.15 was

But these problems did not necessarilyaffect all recordings and certainly not those of shorter works. For example, Busoni's 1919 acoustic recording of Chopin's Prelude Op. 28 No. 7 takes approximately 59 secondscomparedwith his 1923 piano roll takes 1.05 minutes. Edvard Grieg's 1903 acoustic recording of his recording which Bridal Procession Op. 19 No. 2 takes approximately 2.54 minutes, while his 1906 piano the work takes 2.40 minutes on the 1934 transfer. A similar pattern is observable roll of in comparing Saint-Saans's1919 acoustic recording of his Valsemignonne with his 1905 piano roll recording of the samework. The variation is negligible at 2.15 minutes and 2.16 minutes respectively. In all the casesabove and many others, the wax cylinder recording speedsare comparable with piano roll recording speeds.It is evident, therefore,

is `Busopi to his wife (November, 1919), cited in A. Beaumont, `SleeveNotes', Ferruccio Busoni: Complete Recordings, GEMM CD 9347 (1989), unpaginated[3].

14 ]bid., 54-5.

17
that in the caseof shorter works, acoustic recordings probably preserve,in most cases,

the normaltempointentionsof the artist.

in Pedallingis yet anotherfactorthat maynot havebeenwell preserved the earliest

In this respect,Ford has pointed out that: acoustic recordings. Piano solo records and piano accompanimentswere usually made using an upright instrument with its back to the recording horn. In the very early days it was deemed be used.16 to necessary wedge the piano pedals so that they could not

little doubtthat Giventhe needto play constantly a high dynamiclevel, thereseems at the useof the una-corda soft pedalwould in any casehavebeenprohibited.The or to certainlyhavecontributed a blurring of the already sostenuto pedalwould disadvantaged pianosoundin the over-resonant acousticof the recordingstudio.

duringthe earlytwentieth Contemporaneous that accounts suggest pianoroll recordings

by many to preservethe playing of reveredpianists more century were considered

by For example,Grieg,impressed the resultsof the rolls he heard, successfully. in commented his diary on April 11,1906: Played6 of my pianopiecesat Hupfelds' on his `Phonotist'electricpiano.What this is instrumentdoesis unbelievable. pianola,which impressed yesterday, The me No by comparison. `metrostyle',nothingthat is dependent someone to nothing on because thereis no suchthing. I hearda Liszt Rhapsody the performance, guide by Reisenauer, it wasindisputablyReisenauer's and played style.I am very personal 17 by to hearmy thingsreplayed this instrument. anxious

17P. Dahl, `SleeveNotes', Edvard Grieg's Piano Music in Historic Recordings, trans. W. H. Halverson, S1MAX PSC 1809 (1992), 62.

16 Ford, `Historyof SoundRecording',228.

18 And a reaction to Busoni's Duo-Art piano rolls in 1924by one of his studentsshows

clearlyhow well the artist's playinghadbeenpreserved:

It was with great interest, not I confess,unmingled with apprehension,that I prepared to hear the rolls which Busoni had made for the Duo-Art reproducing pianoforte. I may say quite frankly that I was amazedbeyond measure.Theserolls are not merely Busoni himself. 18 reproductions - they are

It is evidentthat somepeopleconsidered to pianoroll recordingto be superior acoustic In the following extractfrom TheMusical Times, anonymous the recording. reviewer remarks:
How much more successfula Pachmannroll is than a Pachmanngramophonerecord! In the records the tone is usually bad, whereas,presuming the player piano to be a good instrument, it is impossible to get a bad tone from a roll. Moreover, Pachmann has been known to chip in with audible commentswhen recording, and such comments have been duly promulgated per gramophone.When making player-piano rolls he may talk to his heart's content, and it gets no farther. His rubato in Chopin's D flat Nocturne is on the lavish side, but the performance is exquisite in all other 19 respects.

And anotherreference extolling the virtuesof the pianoroll recordingabovethe acoustic from TheMusical Times. The writer gives recordingis found in the following reference the strongimpression evenfeatures that suchasdynamicnuance pedallingare and faithfully andsuccessfully preserved, sayingthat:
For the first time I have had the pleasureof hearing some Ampico recordings. These, like the Animatic and Duo-Art, can be heard to advantageonly on their own instruments. Ampico rolls seemto be able to reproduce every possible degreeof tonecolour, phrasing, &c., and in so fluent a manner that the reproduction of the artist's playing is almost uncannily faithful. I found the best example of this in Robert Schmitz's excellent playing of Debussy's `Jardins sousla pluie'... wherein the pedalling is specially good. The varied tones and details are beautifully reproduced. Such a roll as this leaves even the best gramophonerecords of piano-playing [sic] far
18Anon., `Busoni: by one of his pupils', The Pianola Journal: the Journal of the Pianola Institute (1998), no. 10,61-2. 19 Anon., `Player-PianoNotes', TheMusical Times (1929), vol. 70,135.

19 behind,if only on the scoreof tonequality - the weakpoint of the gramophone where 20 the pianoforteis concerned.
However, more recent researchinto the Welte-Mignon systemrevealssome Apparently, `dynamic range was considerablylower than that of the live shortcomings. `the player piano covered only the middle range of the potential dynamic performer' and '21Dynamics were only reproducedin a generalsense,`missing span of a concert grand. for expressivedelivery. 22The the minute, barely perceptible nuancesthat are crucial pedal mechanismwas also apparently problematic; it could not specify the exact position

of the pedal(half, quarter,andso on).

Thus, there is reasonabledoubt concerning the faithful preservationof dynamics, In addition, the playback of the final accentuationand pedalling on some piano rolls. by the referenceabove,best suited to the instrument on which product was, as suggested it was recorded,but this was not always possible; these rolls were replayed on all types of instruments. In this respect,Robert Philip has noted that the performance of the sameroll on different instruments might possibly produce varying results:

is Onequestion... whetherit canbe wholly satisfactory recordthe behaviour the to of hammers onepiano,andthentransferthis informationto a differentpianowith on different acoustical in properties with hammers a different condition.Delicate and is to of adjustment the playbackmechanism needed achievea plausibleresult,andit is on canneverbe known how closethe reproduction to the original performance the 23 original instrument.

20Anon., `Player-PianoNotes', TheMusical Times (1929), vol. 70,905. 21Leiken, `The Performanceof Scriabin's Piano Music', 101. 23R. Philip, `Pianistson Record in the Early Twentieth Century', The Cambridge Companion to the Piano, ed. D. Rowland (Cambridge, 1998), 78.

22 Ibid., 101.

20
This factor was acknowledgedby pianists of the era. Harold Bauer statedin 1948that: The final result was always somewhatdiscouragingin spite of all this trouble, for the reasonthat the dynamics set to produce certain effects on the piano which was being used for such editorial purposes,varied when the record was played on anotherpiano. This was due to minute differences in quality of tone, and in resistancewithin the difficulty. 24 action, and there was no way of overcoming the

DenisHall, who hasdevoted muchtime andeffort to the restoration the and and understanding player-pianos rolls, referredto this particularproblem,sayingthat: of The pianosfor which reproducing rolls wereproduced werevery differentanimals from their modemcounterparts. Fashions pianotone alter overthe yearsasmuchas in fashions pianoplaying.What wasadmired70 or 80 yearsagomaybe barelyworthy in of mentiontoday.As to pianotone,the pianosof the first 30 or soyearsof this century [the twentiethcentury]in general lighter andsofterhammers had thanarefitted to new fitted whenold instruments pianos;this alsousuallyappliesto the hammers are 25 rebuilt.
In this light, it is evident that unless piano rolls are replayed under strictly controlled conditions, certain features may be distorted. These factors aside, however, piano rolls do preservewith precision many features of the original performance such as the position of notes, and particularly the rhythmic relationship between notes in one hand and the other, as well as tempo modifications. Once the perforations were made, it was difficult to make changes.Thus it may be assumedthat, in the majority of cases,the pianists' placement of notes and the note duration are exactly reproduced.A photographic example from a DuoArt piano roll, showing the roll perforations juxtaposed with the musical notation of a section from Chopin's Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2 recorded by Vlademir de Pachmann(18481943), was provided by John McEwen in TempoRubato or Time-Variation in Musical Performance (London, 1928). The length of each perforation (the horizontal lines)
24D. Hall, `Duo-Art Rolls; a Description their Production of and an Assessment their of Performance', The Pianola Journal (1998), no. 10,40. 25 Hall, `A Window in Time D. Response',The Pianola Journal (1999), no. 12,10. -a

21
the length of the respectivenote. The photographgives a visual correspondswith

that importantfeatures the non-synchrony the hands moments at suchas of portrayalof

in the music to be synchronous(Fig. 1.1). are notated

Fig. 1.1

Chopin, Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 50 to 52 of Pachmann'sDuo-Art 26 roll, annotatedMcEwen.

ihr

il

rr " "

w.

is A criticism levelledat pianoroll recordings that in `modern'playback, using different in someway from the original, the temponuances instruments areperhaps that Comparison between maynot be reproduced exactlyasrecorded. acoustic several a recordings pianorolls of the samework by the samepianistreveal,however, close and features. The tempovariationsin Saint"Sadns's relationshipin theseperformance of performance his Valsemignonne recognizably are similar in both typesof recording.
For example, the tempo remains steady from bar 1 to bar 48 in both recordings, after which there is a recognizably similar accelerando.The same is true for other tempo
26Cited in Philip, Early Recordings, 48.

22 his changes it is evidentthat Saint-Saans's and pianoroll doescloselyresemble acoustic Op. recording.Grieg'stwo pianorolls of his Bridal Procession 19No. 2 both preserve the recordingof it. For example, characteristic rhythm very similar traits to his acoustic
that appearsas a phrase ending throughout the work is often distorted in quaver-crotchet both types of recording, so that the crotchet is noticeably delayed.Many other tempo modifications are mirrored, such as the suddenhasteningat bar 25 and the broadeningin bars 31 and 32. Hall has presentedother comparative information regardingBusoni's acoustic and piano roll recordings of Chopin's Prelude Op. 28 No. 7: The one Prelude which appearson disc as well as roll (no. 7 in A) is remarkably similar in both versions.Busoni plays it twice, bringing out different featuresin the The emphasisof the melody at the beginning of the repeat is music on each occasion. clearly there, as is the accenting of the first chord in bar 12. The treatment of the alto line from bars 4 to 10 is not so obvious on the roll although the dynamic coding shows that Reynolds [the editor] was aware of what Busoni had played even if he did not translate the effect successfullyto the roll. Nonetheless,the similarities are very the two performancesare quite clearly by the samepianist.27 marked; Hall is also convinced that when piano rolls are played under the right conditions many aspectsof the original performance are reproduced.Comparing the Duo-Art rolls of certain pianists with their acoustic recordings, he concludes in the caseof Paderewskifor example, that `one may single out The Maiden's Wish (Chopin/Liszt), the Nocturne Ragusa (Schelling) and Reflets dans I'eau (Debussy) as instantly being recognisably the samepianist as on disc. The phrasing, dynamic effects and pedalling are identical. Only the subtlest of his tone colouring is missing.i28And concerning Harold Bauer, Hall says that `his general style is unmistakable in the many titles he recorded for the Duo-Art which did not appearon disc. His singing treatment of melody-lines, with the left hand
27D. Hall, `Duo-Art Rolls', The Pianola Journal (1999), no. 10,4. 28Ibid., 49-50.

23
not quite together with the right, and his forthright playing of rhythmic passages come

throughvery distinctly.'29

Without doubt,thereis muchimportantevidence in piano preserved earlyacoustic

recordings and piano rolls. The above referencesshow, however, that although they

providea very importantwindow into the past,the informationthat maysafelybe from themat this stageis limited to practices arenot directly influenced that extrapolated by dynamics, in tone,touchandpedalling.These practices investigated the chapters are that follow.

29Ibid., 49-50.

24

Chapter 2
Dislocation

One of the most significant differences between the style of piano playing preservedon recordings from around the turn of the twentieth century and the characteristicstyle of in the late twentieth century is heard in the employment of such expressive piano playing dislocation of melody from accompaniment,l and unnotatedchordal devices as unnotated 2 Some recordings reveal frequent use of both techniqueswhile more arpeggiation. and live performancesemploy them far less or not at all. In general, recently recordings during the past forty or fifty years has become characterizedby an piano playing increasingly neat and synchronizedstyle of playing that is faithful to the musical This significant changein attitude and practice is one of the many reasonswhy notation. often sound curiously disjointed and `limping'3 by present early piano recordings standards.The synonymy of synchrony in piano playing and stylistic and tasteful playing has been generally regardedas axiomatic in recent times. This is clearly exemplified in the horrified reaction of a trained musician to the introduction of an unnotatedarpeggioto a celebratedpiece of nineteenth-centurymusic by the pianist Melvyn Tan and the Australian Chamber Orchestra.In a criticism published in the SydneyMorning Herald

1Referred to as `rhythmic dislocation of melody from accompaniment' in Philip, Early Recordings, 47. In Stolen Time: the History of TempoRubato (Oxford, 1994), 334, R. Hudson refers to this as the `breaking of hands'. 2 Here, chords are composedof two or more notes and are aligned vertically in the notation. 3A term used to criticize asynchronous piano playing in J. Hofmann, Piano QuestionsAnswered (New York, 1909); this edn. (1920; renewed 1947 by J. Hofmann; repub. New York, 1976), 25-6.

25 (November, 1998), the reviewer takes obvious exception to Tan's interpretation of the opening chord of Beethoven'sPiano Concerto No. 4 Op. 58, sayingthat: Then there was the vexatious question of the first chord. For those unacquaintedwith the frailties of modem pianism, the first chord of Beethoven'sFourth Piano Concerto is generally held to be the most difficult chord in the repertoire. Playing it is like performing brain surgeryon StephenHawkings [sic]: if you don't get the exact balance,the exact pressure,the exact weight, you risk killing one of the most sublime the human spirit. Tan rolled it! He arpeggiatedit (ie, he played the notes creations of one after the other, rather than together). Many would regardthis as the greatest dereliction of civic duty since Pontius Pilate. For Tan and Tognetti, however, it to be an attempt to introduce some of the freedomsof 18th-century seemed to this early 19th-centurywork.4 performance practice

In spiteof suchstrongpresent-day it fully accepted objections, is evidentthat Beethoven In andutilized suchpractices. this regard,Carl Czerny'sadviceis of greatsignificance. he RecallingBeethoven's to the first chordof own practices, placedan arpeggio signnext (Fig. 2.1). Confirmationthat, in manycircles,suchtechniques this concerto were indispensable devices is found throughout nineteenth considered the expressive century in several documents cited in Chapter3. The auraleffect of the applicationof an written to Lubin's 1988recording arpeggio the first chordof this work is heardon Steven with the Academyof AncientMusic (CD 1/1).

4 P. McCallum, `When Seeking Good Tan, Turn Before a you Burn', SydneyMorning Herald (November 21,1998), 15.

26
Fig. 2.1 Concerto Op. 58, first movement, annotatedby Czerny.5 BeethovenPiano
'! . 5. 1:. S. puhli. hM1 iN IAOF ohs In4wlrl' " modernfo . uR. )

ro,? er*ro

C01Npt mew line tingfr.

411 egn

ztt
Movemost

demonstrate negativitywith which localizeddislocationin piano Several the references morerecently.Recallinghis dismayin 1975on hearing live a playinghasbeenregarded Frauenliebe -leben recordingfrom the 1949EdinburghFestivalof Schumann's und Op. 42 by the singerKathleenFerrierandthe pianistBruno Walter,6the pianistGerald
Thompson (b. 1933) recountsthat: it was re-recordedon to 33s sometime, I think in 1975, and it just so transpired that in that year I'd given two performancesof this samework with two local sopranos...and so when I saw this record I was very excited becauseI knew that Bruno Walter was very highly esteemedas a conductor, and I knew that Kathleen Ferrier had profound admiration for him as a pianist you see,so I couldn't wait to get back home and play this record. But as soon as I heard the very first bar, I realized there was something wrong, that Bruno Walter was putting down his left hand before his right hand, and this continued to the extent that I don't think that I could listen to it to the end, I felt 7 distressed,almost ill, and I haven't replayed it for twenty-six years. really so

In Speaking Pianists(1957),AbrahamChasins denounced of of certainaspects the piano (1860-194 sayingthat: 1), playingof JanPaderewski

6 K. Ferrier and B. Walter, Schubert, Schumann and Brahms, BBC live recording from the 1949 Edinburgh Festival (Decca - Mono 6BB 197-8). 7 Transcript of part of an interview with G. Thompson, conductedby N. PeresDa Costa on September15 (2001). Thompson conducteda semi-professionalcareeras a piano accompanistin Wakefield, West Yorkshire.

s C. Czerny,Supplement, 109.

27 Schumann's"Warum?" disclosesPaderewski's beautiful tone and poetic feeling. It also disclosesthe unhappytraits of melodramatic expressivity - the agonized 8 the torn-to-tatters meter, the handsplayed one before the other. cantilena, In his 1962 article about the pianist Moriz Rosenthal(1862-1946), Edward SackvilleWest opines that `it is difficult to say how he compared...with pianists like Busoni, Paderewskiand d'Albert. It is obvious that he sharedwith Paderewskian indifference to the hands- indeed he probably thought it more expressivenot to do so.'9 synchronizing Sackville-West's commentsgive the impression that Rosenthaland Paderewski employed manual non-synchronysomewhatcarelessly,though he acknowledgesthat they

it device. may haveconsidered an indispensable

And in Furthermoore (1983), the accompanist Gerald Moore succinctly summarizesthe late-twentieth-century attitude to localized dislocation in piano playing. Speakingof

Paderewski, Moore says that:

When Neville Cardus describedPaderewski as a visitant from a receding epoch, it was literally true, for his habit of bringing the bass[in] earlier than the treble when the hands should synchronizewas a relic of bygone days and our earshad, perforce, to become accustomedto it. It is a practice regardedtoday as the hallmark of the amateur, evidence of inattentive self-listening, the first weaknessthat a reputable teacher seeksto eradicate.However, it may possibly have been regardedas the apogee ' of expressiveness century or more ago. a

Localizeddislocationof melodyfrom accompaniment dislocation) (henceforth called

describesa momentary separationbetween the left and right hands achievedby various means.This expressivetechnique is not exclusive to, but is particularly noticeable on,

8 A. Chasins,Speaking of Pianists (New York, 1957); 3rd edn. with a new prefaceby the author (New York, 1981), 90. 9 E. Sackville-West, `Rosenthal', RecordedSound (1962), vol. 1, no. 7,214. 10 Moore, Furthermoore, 396-7. G.

28
11 The most popular method is to delay a note of the melody in recordings of solo pianists. hand so that it is placed directly after the correspondingaccompanimentnote in the right the left hand. In fewer cases,the right hand precedesthe left. In this sense,dislocation resemblesthe technique of metrical rubato, that is, the rhythmic alteration of melody that preservesthe pulse. However, as will be seen,there notes over an accompaniment fundamental differences betweenthesepractices and therefore metrical rubato is are

4. in Chapter Althoughdislocationandunnotated chordal considered separately by the similar principleof separation notesthat shouldapparently, of arpeggiation share their vertical alignmentin the musicaltext, be synchronized, havesignificantly they differing characteristics functions.Therefore, practiceof unnotated the and arpeggiation 3. is dealtwith on its own in Chapter

In piano playing, dislocation occurred much more often in slow expressivemusic than in fast music. Often in compositions of varying characters,it was reservedfor the most expressivepart. Some pianists, however, applied it universally. Typically, dislocation

b) the beginnings phrases; beginnings bars;andc) moments of which occurredat: a) of In it areharmonicallystrongor dissonant. somecases, canbe heardon everybeatin a bar.Dislocationoccurredin a varietyof combinations below (Fig. 2.2),the main shown underlyingcriterion beingthe separation the hands. of

T'hereare examples found in recordings of singers,string players and chamberensembles, some of which are cited below.

29 Fig. 2.2 Types of dislocation preservedin early recordings.

RIGHT HAND Single melody note Single melody note Single melody note Chord (notes struck together) Chord (notes arpeggiated) Chord (notes struck together) Chord (notes arpeggiated) Chord (notes struck together)

LEFT HAND Single accompanimentnote Chord (notes struck together) Chord (notes arpeggiated) Single accompanimentnote Single accompanimentnote Chord (notes struck together) Chord (notes struck together) Chord (notesarpeggiated)

At times, the aural effect of such dislocations is that the accompanimentseemsaligned

At the notionalbeator pulseandthe melodyis displaced. others,it is the melody with

12It is not that seemsaligned with the pulse, the accompanimentsounding anticipated.

haveto a notional the to be surewhat relationship right andleft hands alwayspossible pulse,especially whendislocationoccursin conjunctionwith a modificationof tempo. into the Dislocationis preserved recordings earlyas 1889andcontinues as well on half of the twentiethcentury,thoughwith significantlydecliningincidence after second 13 1930s. Still, it canbe heardclearly in somerecordings to the 1950s is the and up
employed occasionally in recordings from more recent times. Figure 2.3 charts some significant exampleswhere dislocation is prominent, and some in which it is almost completely absent.The pianists listed include those who used dislocation in a significant

12 This has led to the coining of the term 'bass-noteanticipation' mentioned below. 13ScePhilip, Early Recordings, for a fuller discussion.

30
number of recordings, as well as those in whose playing it might reasonablyhave been

because their age.Otherpianistswhoserecordings expected of revealthatthey used

dislocation occasionally or infrequently and who are not listed include Emil Sauer(18621942), Maurice Ravel (1875-1937), SergeiRachmaninov (1873-1943),Ern Dohnanyi (1877-1960), Wilhelm Backhaus(1884-1969),Alfred Cortot (1870-1962),Harold Bauer

(1873-1951), Ney (1882-1968), IgnazFriedman Elly (1882-1948), BennoMoiseiwitsch

(1890-1963), Ethel Leginska (b. 1890), Severin Eisenberger(1879-1945),Myra Hess (1890-1965), Olga Samaroff (1880-1948), Ossip Gabrilowitsch (1878-1936),Edwin

Fischer(1886-1960), AlexanderBrailowski (1896-1976), (1870LeopoldGodowsky

1938) and Alexander Goldenweiser(1875-1961).

Fig. 2.3

Dislocation preservedin early recordings.14

PIANISTS

Johannes Brahms (1833-1897)

COMPOSITIONS WITH FREQUENT DISLOCATIONS Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1,1889

COMPOSITIONS WITH INFREQUENT OR NO DISLOCATIONS

CamilleSaint-Saans
(1838-1921)

Carl Reinecke (1824-1910)

1905, piano roll SchumannWarum? Op. 12 No. 3 and Mozart Larghetto Reinecke, 1905 piano roll

.2 1919, and BeethovenSonataNo. 16 and Valsemignonne, Op. 31 No. 1(2nd movement), 1905,pianoroll

ChopinNocturneOp. 15No

Saint-Satins Valse mignonne,

from PianoConcerto 537 arr. K

TheodorLeschetizky
(1830-1915)

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2,
Mozart FantasiaK 537, Leschetizky Les deux alouettes
and Barcarole, 1906, piano roll

Edvard Grieg (1843-1907)

Grieg Butterfly Op. 43 No. 1, To Spring Op. 43 No. 6, Remembrances Op. 71 No. 7,

14 Unless otherwise stated,recordings made before 1924 are acoustic; recordings from 1924 onwards are electrical. All piano roll recordings are indicated.

31
Alla Menuetto and Finale from Piano SonataOp. 7, Gangar Op. 54 No. 2, WeddingDay at Troldhaugen Op. 65 No. 6,

Op. Humoresque 6 No. 2, and

WagnerDie Meistersinger Overture, Grieg Dance Caprice Op. 28 No. 3, Chopin Polonaise Op. 40 No. 1,1900; various to accompaniments vocal works with Adelina Patti including Mozart `Voi the sapete'(Le Nozzedi Figaro), 1905 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, Impromptu Op. 29, Marche funebre from Sonata Op. 35, Valse in A flat Op. 34 No. 1, and BerceuseOp. 57, Bridal ProcessionOp. 19 No. 2,1903 Grieg Bridal ProcessionOp. 19 No. 2,1900

Landon Ronald (1873-1938)

Raoul Pugno (1852-1914)

Scarlatti Sonatain A Major; Handel Gavotte and Variations from Suite No. 14; MendelssohnScherzoOp. 16 No. 2, Spinning Song Op. 67 No. 3; Weber Rondo brilliance in E flat Op. 62; Massenet (olle; Chabrier Pieces Valse pittoresques; Pugno Valse lente, Serenadea la lune, Impromptu, 1903 J.S. Bach Gavotte from English Suite No. 6,1908; Grieg

1903

No. 4 andHuntingSongOp. 19

Alfred Grnfeld (1852-1924)

Chopin Nocturne Op. 32 No. 2, 1911; SchumannTrumerei

Op. 15No. 7,1913; WagnerLiszt Isolde'sLiebestod,1909

Op. Schmetterling 43, No. 1, 1899,VgleinOp. 43 No. 4,

1907, Sie Tanzt Op. 57 No. 5, 1907; DebussyGolliwog's Cakewalk, 1914

Francis Plante

Chopin Etude Op. 25 No. 1,

(1839-1934)

EtudeOp. 25 No. 2; Gluck arr. by BrahmsGavotte;Schumann Op. Romance 32 No. 3,1928 L. ScarlattiSonata 461; Gluck Debussy an. BrahmsGavotte;

RicardoVines (1875-1943)
Vlademir de Pachmann (1848-1933) Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2 and Mazurka Op. 64 No. 4, 1915, and Nocturne Op. 27

Soiree daps Grenade, 1930 Liszt PolonaiseNo. 2,1915; Chopin Etude Op. 25 No. 3, 1915; SchumannGrillen

No. 2,1916; Liszt Liebestraum No. 3 S. 541,1916 IgnacyJanPaderewski HaydnAndante& Variationsin F, 1937;MozartRondoKV (1860-1941) 511,1937; Beethoven Sonata

Op. 12,1915 All fasterworksof Chopin EtudeOp. 10No. 12, suchas 1928,EtudeOp. 10No. 5,

32
Op. 27 No. 2,1937; Schubert Impromptu D. 935 No. 2,1926 Impromptu D. 935 No. 3, and 1924; Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 Op. 9 No. 2,1930, Etude Op. 10 No. 3,1928, Waltz Op. 18, 1928, Mazurka Op. 17 No. 4, Prelude Op. 28 No. 15,1928, electrical; PaderewskiMenuet celebre Op. 14 No. 1,1937 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, 1929, iano roll
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2,

de Nocturne Etudes Concert, La No. 2,1917, acoustic, and

1928, PolonaiseOp. 26 No. 2, 1930, Waltz Op. 34 No. 1, 1912; and fasterworks of Liszt La leggierezzafrom 3 suchas Campanella from 6 Etudes d'execution transcendent d'aprPs Paganini, recording datesunknown Chopin ScherzoOp. 20 No. 1, 1921, piano roll

John Powell (1882-1963)

Frank la Forge

1879) Moriz Rosenthal (1862-1946)

1912 Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, 1935 and 1936, Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, Valse Op. 64 No. 2, Mazurka Op. 50 No. 2,1936; SchubertMoments musicals No. 3 D. 780,1937; generally

in the slowersections works of

Fanny Davies (1861-1934) in fast tempo SchumannKinderszenen Op. 15 No. 1,1929, Concerto Op. 54,1928, acoustic

Ilona Eibenschtz (1873-1967)

Brahms Waltzes Op. 39 No. 2 and No. 15,1903; Ballade Op. 118 No. 3, middle section only,

Scarlatti Sonatasin E and G, 1903; BeethovenSonataOp. 109 secondmovement, c. 1950

Op. 1903;Intermezzo 119No.

2,1952, Waltz Op. 39 No. 15, 1962 Brahms Rhapsody Op. 79 No. 2, Intermezzo Op. 117 No. 1,1951; Schumann FantasiestckeOp. 12 Nos. 1 and 2; KinderszenenOp. 15

Adelina de Lara (1872-1961)

Mark Hambourg
(1879-1960)

Op. 18, No. 1,1951;Arabeske 1951 ChopinNocturneOp. 55 No. 1, Bach-D'AlbertOrganPrelude

1921, Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, 1927; BeethovenConcerto Op. 37 secondmovement, 1929; Mendelssohn-LisztOn 1927 Wings oSon , Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2; in D major BWV 532,1921

JosephIlofman

Not in works of Schubert,

(1876-1957)

Op. 12 Warum? Schumann No. 3,1912; ChopinValseOp. 64 No. 2 1916

Liszt, Mendelssohn arefast that Moonlight or in Beethoven SonataOp. 27 No. 2,1912

33
Walter Gieseking (1895-1956) BeethovenAndante from SonataOp. 109; Brahms IntermezzoOp. 117 No. 2, 1939-40;MendelssohnAndante and Rondo Capriccioso, 1956 Chopin PreludeOp. 28 No. 7, 1922 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, 1949; SchumannEludes SymphoniquesOp. 13, RomanceOp. 28 No. 2; BeethovenSonataOp. 14 No. 2,1953 Brahms, SonataOp. 5, IntermezzoOp. 116 No. 2 and IntermezzoOp. 117 No. 2, 1953; Capriccio Op. 76 No. 1, 1950; opening of J.S. Bach Prelude in E flat minor, 1957 Not in works of J.S. Bach, or other works of Beethovenor Brahmsthat are fast, or in of Debussy,Poulenc, works Faureand Scriabin Not in works of Chopin that are fast or in works of Bach Fastermusic of Beethoven, Brahms Chopin, and Mendelssohn

Feruccio Busoni 1866-1924 Carl Friedberg (1872-1955)

Etelka Freund (1879-1977)

in Figure2.3 showthat between late-nineteenth The recordings the centuryand presented

least the 1950s,many pianists made dislocations. It seemsto have been considered at

in mostappropriate slowerexpressive compositions Classical Romanticrepertoire, and of lessso in later nineteenth-century morecontemporary and or repertoire, in musicthat was fast or requireda moreincisiveandsharprhythm.In addition,asnotedabove,several their playingsounds pianistsseemto avoid its usealtogether; muchmoresynchronized. The possiblereasons this will be investigated for further.During the pastforty or fifty years,pianistshaveusedit extremelyrarely if at all.

dislocationin pianoplayingdoesnot appear havetakeninto Recentresearch to about

account significant evidence preservedin the earliest piano recordings. And certain important written texts have also been overlooked. Richard Hudson statesthat dislocation

34

`became specialcharacteristic the period[the early-twentieth '15but that `in of a century]

spite of the widespreaduse...by most of the acclaimed pianists over a rather considerable period of time... the theorists and other writers never mention it as a valid meansof ' 16Written referencescited below show, however, that there was certainly expression. for the use of dislocation in certain circles. And even when somewriters positive support it, their recordings reveal, in some cases,a prolific use of it. In addition, verbally opposed there is strong basis for believing that dislocation was commonly employed throughout the nineteenth century and that early-twentieth-century recordings capturethe end of a long tradition, not the beginning of a new one. In any case,Hudson makesno referenceto

Saint-Sams the pianorolls of the oldestgeneration pianistsincludingReinecke, and of Leschetizky.

Sandra Rosemblum that dislocation(which shedescribes "splitting the hands") says as `mayrepresent degeneration the true contrametric a of separation melodyand of
Chopin. '? She doesnot, however, give accompaniment' associatedwith pianists such as

for that `until the 1920s anyevidence this theory.RobertPhilip states manypianists, (Paderewski, Pachmann, Rosenthal al.), made particularlythoseof the older generation et 18Hementionsin habit of this non-synchronisation'. a that `twentieth-century passing dislocationmight be really old fashioned, represent endof a nineteenth-century the and 19, he doesnot present sufficient depththe in tradition' but for evidence this. Elsewhere,
15Hudson, Stolen Time, 334. 16 Ibid., 336 17S.P. Rosenblum, `The Uses Rubato in Music, Eighteenth Twentieth Centuries', of to Performance Practice Review (1994), vol. 7 no. 1,52. 8 Philip, Early Recordings, 47 19Ibid., 239.

35
`it is impossible to judge what Leschetizky's playing soundedlike from Philip opines that his piano rolls, but that it is clear that `he usedas much dislocation of bassand treble as Paderewskiat his most extreme.'20However, the featuresand frequency of their dislocations are not described.Philip makes no referenceto perhapsthe oldest pianist to have made piano rolls, Carl Reinecke, nor doeshe mention the piano rolls of Saint-Saens. These and other recordings warrant further examination becausethey capture intrinsic the style of late-nineteenth-centurypianism such as dislocation. elementsof

The practice of dislocation is discussedin some late-nineteenth-centurywritten documents.However, considering its widespreadutilization, it is surprising that many highly detailed performing practice codifications by pedagogues such as Adolphe Christiani (1836-1885), Mathis Lussy (1828-1910), and Hugo Riemann (1849-1919) fail it at all. 21Nevertheless,its importance was noted by one of Theodor to mention Malwine Bree (b. 1861), in 1902. Leschetizky's former studentsand teaching assistants,

is apparent importance a nineteenth-century Leschetizky's as performerandpedagogue 75 by the vastnumberof pianistswho soughthis guidance. a careerthat spanned In `in excess 1200pianistsareknownto havestudiedwith him.'22After lessons of years, He Czerny,Leschetizky toursandtaughtextensively. washead embarked concert on with Conservatory (foundedby Anton the pianodepartment the St.Petersburg of of
20Philip, `Pianistson Record', The Cambridge Companion to the Piano, 87. 21A. Christiani, The Principles of Expression in Pianoforte Playing (New York, 1885); M. Lussy, dans la musique vocale et Trade de /'expression musicale, accents, nuanceset mouvements instrumentale (Paris, 1874); H. Riemann, Der Ausdruck in der Musik (Leipzig, 1878) and Katechismusdes Klavierspiels (Leipzig, 1888). 22 Methuen-Campbell, `Theodor Leschetizky', The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and J. Musicians, ed. S. Sadie,2nd edn. (London, 2001), vol. 14,584.

36
Rubinstein) from 1862 to 1878after which he returned to Vienna. His home there

`rapidlybecame focusboth for aspiringpianistsandfor variousvisiting musicians of a '23 the day,manyof whomwould be persuaded play at the famedfortnightlyclasses. to He soonbecame mostsought-after teacher the day.Amongstthoseof his students the of
conducted active concert careerswere Paderewski,Schnabel,Gabrilovich, Ney, who

Hambourg, Brailowsky.Leschetizky Moiseiwitsch,Friedman, and claimedto have Czerny'sprecepts is alsoknownto haveenjoyedandadopted styleof and a upheld Julius that he heardin the performances the saloncomposer playingmelodies of Schulhoff(1825-1898).

The following letter from Leschetizky Breeendorses full acceptance all that is his to of
propoundedin Die Grundlage Der Methode Leschetizky(1902), translatedin the same year as The Groundwork of the LeschetizkyMethod: "Vienna, Feb. 24,1902 Mme. MAL WINE BREE.

Madame: bestthanksfor the dedication your book,which I of Honoured My of courseacceptmostgladly.As you know, I am from principle no friend of theoretical Piano-Methods; your excellentwork, which I havecarefullyexamined, sucha but is brilliant expositionof my personal views,that I subscribe, word for word,to Method" leads therein.Your "Groundworkof the Leschetizky everything advance you handalongthe samepathon which, for manyyears, havewon with a practised you by suchstriking success my assistant teachingin accordwith my intention. as Moreover,the toneof your work is not monotonously didactic,but enlivened clever by conceitsandhumour. Approvingthe illustrationsof my handasgenuine lifelike, I declareyour and book to be the soleauthorized publicationexplanatory my method,andwish it all of success popularity. and
THEODOR LESCHETIZKY. 24 With sincerestregard, (Signed)

23Ibid., 584.585. 24M. Bree, Die Grundlage der Methode Leschetizky(Mainz, 1902), trans. Dr. T.H. Baker as The Groundwork of the LeschetizkyMethod (New York, 1902), iv.

37
Bree elucidates several that will be Leschetizky's thoughts on arpeggio playing of

to is however, the following reference Includedin these, in Chapter3. examined 25 dislocation: but be takenprecisely together, the always Neithershouldbasstoneandmelody-note it morerelief anda instantafterthe bass, which gives maybe struckan melody-note and of However,this canbe doneonly at thebeginning a phrase, usually softereffect. to beats.(It is betterfor the hands coincide importantnotesandstrong only on follow so swiftly asto makethe ) beats. Themelody-note must preciselyon weak for hardlynoticeable the uninitiated;e.g., in Chopin'sNocturne: pause
Nocturne Chopin's

The significance Bree'sdescription annotated be discussed of and musicalexample will below. Verification that Leschetizky dislocationindispensable foundin the is considered FrankMerrick (b. 1886).In an article reminiscences anotherof his students, of the commemorating onehundredandfiftieth anniversary Leschetizky's birth, Merrick of relatessomeof the insightsgainedduringhis lessons with Leschetizky the turn of the at twentiethcentury:
There are some habits which Leschetizky used to advocatewhich have now fallen out of fashion. One was the way in which chords would be spreadout in one hand, or the handsnot played together. In some places he said that the right hand should be played

25Ibid., 72-3.

A8V811 AllSd3AINn

38

In slightly beforethe left, or that a 7th shouldbe brokenbecause the dissonance. of but thosedayspeopleregarded thesethingsasintensifyingexpression, now think [ofJ 26 themasover-sentimental.
With little doubt, the practice of dislocation clearly describedby Bree and mentioned by Merrick was not peculiar to the late-nineteenthand early-twentieth centuries.Dislocation must have been quite common, and perhapseven employed in a more exaggerated fashion, earlier in the nineteenthcentury. This notion is supportedin an enlightening by Sigismund Thalberg (1812-1871) in his L'Art du chant applique au piano, reference Op. 70 (c. 1853), in which arrangementsof opera arias were usedas instructive piecesfor

the the piano.Thalbergrecommends useof dislocationin a similar way to Bree,but its overuse. his fifth rule he states In that: criticizes
It will be indispensableto avoid, in playing, the habit at once ridiculous and in bad taste, of withholding too long the production of the notes of the melody a long time those of the basshave been sounded;thus producing from the beginning to the after end of a composition, the effect of repeatedsyncopations.In a slow melody, written in notes of long duration, it producesa good effect, especially on the first delivery of each measure,or at the commencementof each phrase,to sound the melody after the bass,but only with an interval so brief as to be almost imperceptible.27

In termsof the present discussion, rule is certainlyan importantone.Apart from this documenting existence the practiceof dislocation,it illustratesthat it was the of to widespread the and,according Thalberg'ssensibilities, usedbeyond limits of good

26F. Merrick, `Memories Leschetizky', Piano Journal (London, 1980), 1, no. 2,13. of vol. 27S. Thalberg, L'Art du chant applique au piano, Op. 70,1st series(Paris, 1853), unpaginated2; trans. in Thalberg's and Vieutemps'Grand Concert Book, containing Thalberg and Vieuxtemps' Authentic Biographies and Sketchof the Rulesfor Piano Forte Playing etc (New York, 1857), 5; `I1 seraindispensabled'eviter, dans 1'exdcution,cette maniere ridicule et de mauvais gout de retarder avec exagerationlefrappement des notes de chant longtemps aprescelles de la basso,et de produire ainsi, d'un bout l'autre dun morceau, des effets de syncopescontinues.Dans une melodie lente crite en notes de longues duree,il est d'un bon effet, surtout au premier temps de chaquemesureou en commencantchaqueperiode de phrase,d'attaquer le chant apresla basse, mais seulementavec un retard presqueimperceptible.'

39

taste.It is obviousthat the frequency with which the devicewasintroduced, the and the time note apparently exaggerated lapsebetween melodynoteandthe corresponding in the playingof somepianistsvery noticeable the accompaniment, and of created
How thesepractices actually sounded,however, cannot be monotonous syncopations. determined with certainty.

in A correlationbetween andpractices singingis evidentin the rulesof the this

teacherManuel Garcia (1805-1906).In his New Treatise on nineteenth-centurysinging

that theArt of Singing(London,1857),Garciaadvised the insertionof a rest,resultingin in dynamicchanges the dislocationof the melodyfrom the accompaniment, enhances figures: certaintypesof repeated

in Theforte should answerto theforte in energetic passages; graceful ones, on the the piano should follow theforte. Every transition from one degreeof contrary, to another, producesa marked effect; only when apianissimo follows, it strength be separatedfrom theforte by a slight rest, striking the note an instant after the should bass. This rest affords relief after loud notes, and preparesus for seizing all effects, .. however delicate, that follow, - especially if the first consonantthat ensuesafter the is produced with vigour. 28 rest

(Fig. 2.4) from Rossini'sOtello. His adviceto Garciaalsoprovidedan annotated example `strikethe C after the bass'mustrefer to the beginningof the word `consolar'.The technique dislocationin pianoplayingis this and similarity between expressive vocal to clear.It is evidentthat Garciaconsidered suchpractices be differentto thoseof he them in separate metricalrubatobecause discusses sections.

28M. Garcia, Garcfa's New Treatise the Art on of Singing -a CompendiousMethod of Instruction (London, Beale & Chappell, 1857), 55.

40
Fig. 2.4 Rossini Otello, with Garcia's annotation.29

Largptto. R. Ok?lo.

crm

f.

Iiiiiia 3 ven " ga a con - $0 - tar.

lar. con so Sbrikeas c via the bau.

In Germany during the mid-nineteenth century, the use of dislocation was certainly being positively advocatedin some circles. Discussing ways of emphasizingmelody notes, Sigmund Lebert and Ludwig Stark mention dislocation in their influential Grosse theoretischepraktische Klavierschule (1858), explaining that: one is allowed, and even should in most cases,play the melody notes imperceptibly later than the accompaniment,which leadsto a kind of "arpeggio". 30

This reference `a kind of arpeggio'suggests LebertandStarkrecognized that to a distinctionbetween dislocationandarpeggiation. Dislocationproduced effect of the but however,it is difficult to arpeggio, wasstrictly speaking different technique; a how suchapparently imperceptible delayswould havebeenperceived in appreciate reality.

Furthermore, practiceof dislocationcanbe tracedbackto a muchearlierera. the Documentary lutenists evidence showsthat by at leastthe endof the seventeenth century,
29Ibid., 55. 30S. Lebert and L. Stark, Grosse theoretische praktische Klavierschule fr systematischen Unterricht nach allen Richtungen desKlavierspiels vom erstenAnfang bis zur hchsten Ausbilding, 3 parts (Stuttgart, 1858), 3; `man darf also und soll sogarin den meisten Fllen 1) die Melodie unmerklich spteranschlagen,als die Begleitung, was eine Art Harpeggio bewirkt... '

41
bassnote for special expressiveeffect. The French theorbist often separateda melody and lute teacherPerrine (b. 17th century) notated this effect, calling it harpegementor and in his Pieces de luth en musique(Paris, 1680) cited in Figures 2.5 a and separation, 2.5 b.3' Perrine statesthat `the oblique line drawn betweentwo notes [Fig. 2.5 a] signifies to that it is necessary play one after the other.'32

Fig. 2.5 a

in lute playing. 33 Perrine, Harpegement or separation G

-r

'.
,
._

,; ,

.. r,. S.. t
v' -

11

di

`- >.
' (//J _ 1y

A 1 .

"' t'. iud

recire n: i

,fin, c'rylte.

rhrmt

31Perrine,Pisces de luth en musique (Paris, 1680); facs. repr. (Genlive, Minkoff, 1982). 32Ibid., Introduction, 6; `La ligne obliquement tire entre les notes comme [see above example] signifie qu'il les faut toucher 1'uneapr&sI'autre.

33 Ibid., 6.

42 Fig. 2.5 b 34 interpreted by Hudson. Bars 3 and 4 of Perrine's example,

Performed

And during the late-seventeenthand eighteenth centuries, harpsichordistsalso made this type of dislocation apparently sparingly, considering it an invaluable expressivedevice. In his Pieces de clavecin (1713), Francois Couperin gave a pictorial explanation for an the suspension(Fig. 2.6). Later, in his L'Art de toucher le clavecin ornament called (1717), Couperin advised:

The it As to the suspension, mustonly be usedin slow piecesof tendercharacter. durationof the silencepreceding notewhich is thusmarkedmustbe left to the the 35 goodtasteof the performer. he Furthermore, explainsthat: the of swell their sound, suspension those at the timeswhenthe stringedinstruments 36 [sounds]of the harpsichord result. relateto the ear(by a contraryeffect) the desired

34Hudson, Stolen Time, 24. 35F. Couperin, LArt de toucher le clavecin (Paris, 1717); repr. (Geneve, 1986), 18; `A 1'egardde la suspension!eile n'est gueresusitee que dans les morceaux tendres,et lents. Le silence qui precede [sic] la note sur laquelle eile est marqueedoit titre regl6 par le gout de la personnequi ' execute.

36Ibid., 16; `... dansles occasions [sic] les instrumens archetenflentleurssons, suspension la ou de ceuxdu clavecinsemble (parun Effetcontraire) ' retracer l'oreille la chosesouhaitee.

43
It is apparentthat, at this time, dislocation in harpsichord playing was intended to create an impression of dynamic nuancethat was, strictly speaking,impossible to achieveby

anyothermeans.

Fig. 2.6

37 Couperin, pictorial explanation of the suspension.

Jt 7n4

In the 1724and 1731editionsof his Piecesde clavecin,Jean-Philippe (1683Rameau for 1764)gavea similar pictorial representation the suspension. the middle of the By
eighteenth century, particularly in France, dislocation seemsto have become a

in in Pierre-Claude Foucquet 1694-1772) (c. mannerism keyboard playing.The composer his Second livre depiecesde clavecin(Paris,1750-5 states 1) that `in all piecesof a gracious tenderexecution, shouldplay the noteof the bass,beforethat of the or one

37Facs. repr. from F. Couperin, Premier livre de pieces de clavecin (Paris, 1713), 15, cited in F. Couperin, L'Art de toucher le clavecin, trans. and ed. M. Hal ford (Van Nuys CA, 1974), 13.

44

melody,without alteringthe beat,which produces suspension eachnoteof the a on 938 melody.

Dislocation was also prescribed for use in oration. In A Course of Lectures on Elocution (London, 1762) Thomas Sheridan(b. 18th century) advisesthat: in all speeches and haranguesthat are more loose, and free from fetters of measure, this circumstancehas given the speakersuch power over the pauses,as,judiciously used, may contribute much to the main point of view, that of strongly inculcating his meaning. For by this means,he may always proportion his pausesto the importance of the sense,and not merely to the grammatical structure of the words in sentences, making like pausesto all of like structure, without distinction. For instance,if there be he would enforce more strongly than the rest, he any proposition or sentiment which may either precedeit by a longer pausethan usual, which will rouze attention, and give it the more weight when it is delivered; or he may make a longer pauseafter it is closed, which will give time for the mind to ruminate upon it, and let it sink deeper into it by such reflection; or according to the importance of the point, he may do both. He may go still farther, and make a pausebefore some very emphatical word, where neither the sensenor common usagewould admit of any; but this liberty is to be used with great caution. For as such pausesexcite uncommon attention, and of course raise expectation, if the importance of the matter be not fully answerableto such expectation, it will occasion disappointment and disgust. This liberty therefore is to be seldom taken, and never but where something extraordinary is offered to the mind, which is likely to be attendedwith an agreeablesurprise.For pausesof this sort put the mind into a state of suspense, which is ever attendedwith an uneasysensation,and for which it will always expect to have compensationmade, by a greater degreeof it otherwise could have had.39 pleasure,than

The similaritiesbetween Baroquestylesof dislocationoutlinedin this andthe the however,manylate-eighteenth references aboveareclear.Surprisingly, centurywriters

38P.C. Foucquet, `Preface' to Secondlivre de pieces de clavecin (Paris, 1750-51), cited in Hudson, Stolen Time, 25; `bans toutes les pieces d'exdcution gracieuseou tendre, on doit toucher la note de basse,avant celle de dessus,sansalterer la mesure,ce qui opere une suspensionsur ' chaquenote du dessus. 39T. Sheridan,A Course ofLectures on Elocution (London, 1762), 77-78.

45 the subject. In their influential pedagogicalworks, both C.P.E. Bach4and were silent on discussmetrical rubato but neither mentions the suspension,or instances Daniel TOrk41 dislocation would be appropriate.The sameis true of many early-nineteenthwhere Perhapsthe practice had become so much the `norm' that it neededno century writers. discourse.

to On the otherhand,someearly-nineteenth-century references articulationsignssuchas that the portatoor slurredstaccato, strongevidence the delayingof melodynotes provide for desirable expressive by dislocationbetween left andright hands the was achieved (c. in For example, his Methodedupiano du conservatoire 1804)Louis Adam purposes. the the examplein Figure2.7 andgivesthe following adviceconcerning portato: provides
One must not jab at the key, but only lift the finger; this manner of detaching adds to the expressionof the melody and is sometimesmade with a little retard on the much 42 note which one wishes to expressthus.

40C.P.E., Versuch ber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen, vol. i (Berlin, 1753, rev. 2nd edn. 1787), vol. ii (Berlin, 1762, rev. 2nd edn. 1797); facs. repr. of Ist edns.,incl. revs. of 1787 as a section (Leipzig, 1787); trans. and ed. W. J. Mitchell as Essay on the True Art of Playing separate Keyboard Instruments (New York, 1949). 41D. G. Turk, Klavierschule oder Anweisung zum Klavierspielen fr Lehrer und Lernende mit kritischen Anmerkungen (Leipzig and Halle, 1789); 2nd enlarged edn. (Leipzig and Halle, 1802), trans. R.H. Haggh as School of Clavier Playing (Lincoln-Nebraska, 1982). 42L. Adam, Methode du piano du conservatoire (Paris, 1804), 156; `On ne doit nullementpiquer la touche, mais seulementlever le doigt; cette maniere de d6tacherajoute beacoup 1'expression du chant, et se fait quelquefois avec un petit retard de la note qu'on veut exprimer ainsi.'

46 Fig. 2.7 Adam, pictorial explanation of the portato.43

Exemple.

(1811),Francesco And in his Metodoper clavicembalo Pollini providedthe illustrationin in Figure2.8 notingthat at the appearance portatopassages musicof a cantabile of `contributes a little to the expression44 ', not character, little delayof the melodynote a

asF. Pollini, Metodo per clavicembalo (Milano, 1811), 59; `Un piccolo ritardo della Note segnate in quest' ultima maniera contribuir non poco all'espressionedi una ase cantabile, como per esempio.'

43 Ibid., 156.

47 Fig. 2.8 Pollini, pictorial explanation of the portato.45

02

It is, however, possible that Pollini consideredthis style of playing only suitable where the portato sign was marked. Elsewhere, he warns:

Takeparticularcareto seethat the two handsmovewell togetherandthat the notesto be playedwith the right handareasa rule alwaysstruckpreciselyoverthoseof the Suchcarewill resultin a continuallyequaltempo, left handto which they correspond. 46 anda strong,masterfulperformance. From the evidence Brie's description dislocation cited abovethe correlationbetween of is that andmuchearlierreferences clear.Shesuggests dislocationis to be madein order to achievesomeparticularheightened effect by playinga melodynote expressive later than the corresponding of the accompaniment. Notably,shedoesnot somewhat note

asIbid., 59.

46Ibid., 100;`Mettaparticolare beneunite,e le Note da acci3le duemanivadano attenzione, battutesopraquelledella eseguirsi collamanodritta sianoper massima sempre precisamente di Una sinistracui appartengono. continuaeguaglianza tempo,unarobusta maestrevole e il ' esecuzione saranno risultatodi tale avvertimento.

48 mention caseswhere the melody note precedesthe accompaniment,even though, according to Merrick, Leschetizky recommendedthe practice. That aside,her reference is of unquestionablesignificance, providing solid contemporarywritten evidenceof some of the types of dislocation that can be heard on early recordings, and certainly those of Leschetizky. The recordings therefore validate the practice as generalrather than idiosyncratic. But in spite of the detail provided, severalmatters lack clarity. For example, Bree doesnot and probably could not describe the myriad possible circumstanceswhere dislocation was applicable, nor could she indicate what extremesof delay between the handswould still be consideredin good taste. She used general expressions,leaving their interpretation to the reader who would acquire taste and experienceof such matters by listening to the best artists of the day. Here, it is clear that the written text could convey only a basic impression of the practice. In a similar way, Thalberg's rule cited above, which relies on verbal descriptions such as `almost imperceptible' to quantify the amount of delay, leaves in doubt what was intended.

Furthermore, inconsistencies Bree'sdescriptionandher annotated arisebetween For that example. instance, states dislocationbetween she melodyandbassnotesmay only occurat the beginningof a phrase usually(but not always)on importantnotes and andstrongbeats.However,her illustrationshowsdislocations the beginningof every at bar without exception. addition,althoughthe downbeats eachbar might be In of to considered strongbut with varyingintensityaccording position in the phrase or harmonicimportance, Breemakesno distinctionbetween them. Shecould, for example,

49

havenotated multiple or darkerdottedlines to differentiatethe degrees delay.On the of to otherhand,too exactan indicationmight havebeenconsidered hindrance individual a inspiration.Significantly,shealsoomitsto describe detail the othernotesthat might be in importantandthusworthy of dislocation. Nor doesshemakeanyindication considered
of these in her illustration. With little doubt, Leschetizky consideredmatters such as

harmonichierarchyvery important,asnotedby Merrick above.

Recorded evidence

Brie omits somevital information. Thusit maybe seenthat,despiteherbestintentions, Fortunately, Leschetizky's by to the ChopinNocturneannotated Brie is approach both preserved a pianoroll madein 1906.Here,he clearlyusesdislocationto create on the corroborates with Brie's emphasis relief. In this respect, auralevidence and well written text. But the recordingalsoshowsthat Leschetizky madedislocations muchmore frequentlythan is advocated Bree.An annotated by illustrationof theseis cited in Figure 47 2.9 below. It showsthat in additionto mostdownbeats, Leschetizky employed in dislocationat severalothermoments the bar. Often this seems enhance to the expression poignantsequential melodicfigures.Suchfiguresmay havebeenthe type of her doesnot makeit clear. of importantnotesto which Brie alludes;however, description This type of larger-scale displacement corresponds descriptions metricalrubato with of

47N.B. the annotatedexamplesprovided throughout this dissertation are intended as an approximate indication of what can be heard on the recordings. In this chapter,the use of multiple dotted lines indicates a noticeably larger delay betweenmelody and accompaniment.

50 presentedin Chapter 4. They are mentioned here becauseof the difficulty of separating

in themfrom dislocation.In addition,on oneoccasion bar 7, playingthe melodynote by beforethe bass, technique mentioned Bree,effectsdislocation. not a

Another apparentdiscrepancyarisesin Bree's advice that dislocations ought to be

imperceptible, that the impression they werehardlyto be heardor noticed.By giving however, dislocations manyof Leschetizky's early-twenty-first-century standards, suchasat bars2 and4, thesearewider than produce markedgaps.On certaindownbeats between Here,it is obviousthat varyingtime lapses notesof the melodyand elsewhere. help of accompaniment createvaryingshades intensity.Noneof thesefactorsaremade in Bree'stexts.Sceptics that the lengthof delaycould in someway be might argue clear
to the speedof the roll reproduction. But similar time lapsesbetween the left attributed

Such right handscanalsobe heardin manyacousticandelectricalrecordings. and

dislocations were simply part of the current style. Taking into account, for instance,the for synchronizedplaying, it is quite possible that what soundsglaring presentpenchant

imperceptible to auditorsnow, might havebeenconsidered or anduncomfortably obvious hardlynoticeable late-nineteenth-century Whatever conclusions, is clear it the to ears. but that Bree's written text corresponds approximately with Leschetizky's practices own fails to conveymuchof what his recordingreveals. reality Leschetizky In significantly in to madedislocations manysubtledifferent ways.Without auralevidence qualify such a description, manyimportantaspects the features frequency dislocation of so and of could not havebeenappreciated.

51 Fig. 2.9 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Leschetizky, piano roll, 1906 (CD 1/2).

Ai.

-I-

iF
-I __________

1_1

__________

OIL,
11 1 1 1 t ! I 1 1 it

t
i

F-

The style and frequency of dislocation shown in Figure 2.9 was not exclusive to

from the same Leschetizky, is illustratedin the annotated Nocturne, examples as below,by pianistsfrom within andoutsidehis circle. For ease comparison, presented of listed refer in the dislocations eachpianistaresummarized Figure2.10.The numbers of beatsin eachbar, on which dislocationcanbe heard. to the semiquaver

52 Fig. 2.10 Comparative table showing dislocation in Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 2 to 9.

bar 2 Leschetizky La Forge Powell Rosenthal 1 1,9 1 1,9

bar 3 9 11 1 1 9

bar 4 1,11,12 12 1,9,12 1

bar 5 1 1 1 1

bar 6 1 9,10,11,12 12 9,11,12 1,12

bar 7 1,7 1 1 1,7

bar 8 1,11,12 1,7,9,10,11, 12 1,8,9,10,11, 12 1

bar 9 1 1,7 1 1

Two of Leschetizky's students,Frank La Forge and John Powell, recorded the work in 1912 and 1921 respectively. Figures 2.11 and 2.12 show the position of their dislocations

between bars 1 and9. made

53 Fig. 2.11 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, La Forge, acoustic recording, 1912 (CD 1/3).

Ai.

e*

eim

-1
1 I1

t- -m - . -,

IVTII

ll

54 Fig. 2.12 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Powell, piano roll recording, 1921 (CD 1/4).

4
________

11 11 11 11

LI'
i ________

It 1 It 11

t LT
II

________

AI-

1 1, 1 1j 11

1. 11 11 1

x1-,

v.

'''' ,-iiid'

cm, LLL-Li

I,

-9iiQ --

-'

Viademir de Pachmann Otherpianistsnot directly associated and with Leschetizky, Moriz Rosenthal Pachmann the received recorded work in 1915and 1936respectively. in the gold medalfrom the ViennaConservatory 1869,and `established careerasa a Chopinplayerandbecame celebritythroughout EuropeandAmerica. 48 supreme a Rosenthal, washighly regarded. `became pupil of Karol Mikuli, Chopin's He too, a

48N. Nettheim, `Vlademir de Pachmann',New Grove, 2nd edn., vol. 18,857.

55 A9 in 1872 and in 1875, `he moved to Vienna to study assistant with Rafael Jossefy,a Liszt pupil. '50Figures 2.13 and 2.14 show the placement of their dislocations. The similarities between these and those of the Leschetizky School are clear. Pachmann's recording commencesat bar 26 of the work, where the opening material is repeated.For this reasonhis dislocations have not been included in the comparative table in Figure 2.10 above.

Fig. 2.13

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 26 to 31, Pachmann,acoustic recording, 1915 (CD 1/5).
}t' f rr
f

LVIP,

Fn11 11 11 11 11

to

op

op

xl-

, qp

..

1,

1!

1!

d , eic 111:

49A. Evans, `Moriz Rosenthal', New Grove, 2nd edn., vol. 21,703. 50Ibid., 703.

56 Fig. 2.14 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Rosenthal,electrical recording, 1936(CD 1/6).

Fii
11 11

11 11 II

LF

40-*

4L 0,

A.

i
r, !,

rJ

________

t-tl a -

op

f-n
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OR

in Thoughthe abovepianistsmadedislocations subtlydifferent ways,particularlyin bassandmelodynotes,the underlyingprinciple of the degree delaybetween respect of Fromthis it is clearthat the practiceof dislocationwasnot an idiosyncrasy wasthe same. of a few players,but a general performingpracticethat hadhistoricalprecedents and continuedfor a significantperiodin the twentiethcentury.

57 Bree's description of dislocation is one of few that are affirmative in nature. Others the practice, but give the impression that it was to be avoided altogether or, at mention judiciously. Often their advice appearsto contradict the evidence in most, applied very be taken to mean something significantly different. A good example of recordings or may this may be witnessed in the interpretation of a particular referenceto JohannesBrahms. The pianist Florence May (1845-1923) reports from her meeting with Brahms in 1871 's' that `he particularly disliked chords to be spreadunlessmarked so by the composer. May's words give the strong impression that Brahms did not tolerate any separation between notes unless specifically notated. By extension this might include those caused by dislocation of the hands.But Brahms's 1889recording of a fragment of his Hungarian Dance No. 1 paints quite a different picture. Very careful listening revealsthat he made bars (CD 1/7,8,9,10,11). 52Will Crutchfield has dislocations at the beginning of several noted that: Some other facets of Brahms's performance are not indicated in the score. One is the left hand slightly before the right (you can't always tell, but where you playing he doesthis on just about all the accentedfirst beatswhere the texture is can, never on big accentedchords). This he has in common with melody/accompaniment53 almost all of his contemporaries.

First, the recordingshowsthat, like so This informationis significantfor two reasons. dislocationasa particular pianists,Brahmsemployed manyotherlate-nineteenth-century device.Secondly moresignificantly,May's description doesnot convey expressive and aspects suchasdislocationthat arevitally importantfor an understanding Brahms's of
51F. May, The Life ofJohannes Brahms (London, 1905), 18. 52Theserecordings include a pre-existing transfer from the original wax cylinder and various denoised versions. SeeJ. Berger and C. Nicols, `Brahms at the piano; an Analysis of Data from the Brahms Cylinder', Leonardo Music Journal (1994), vol. 4,23-30. 53Crutchfield, `Brahms', 14.

58 performance style. The picture is therefore incomplete; shemight only have mentioned the arpeggiation of chords becausethat was a particular point in one of her lessons. Indeed, she may not have used dislocation, or if she did, Brahms may have made no issue of it. This might also support the notion that dislocation and arpeggiationwere considered two separatepractices linked only by a superficial resemblance.

The knowledge that Brahmsuseddislocationis very significantfrom another point of on view. His practicemayhaveimpacted a later generation pianistswho heardhim of Their playing play or whom he taughtandnurtured,andwho left a legacyof recordings. tradition.These of are could therefore, preserve leastremnants a Brahmsian at recordings below. examined

differs from Othercases provideperplexingexamples where,apparently, verbaladvice the to actualpractice.This is particularlyevidentin comparing references dislocationby both Camille Saint-Satins RaoulPugnowith their own recordings. Saint-Satins and `developed oneof the mostprodigiousmusicians all time'.54 excelledin both into He of to composition performance in his youth wascompared Mozart and and and Mendelssohn. Hansvon Balow ratedhim `asa scorereaderandall-roundmusician Liszt'.55Saint-Saans than to greater seems havetakenparticularinterestin Chopin'sstyle by of rubato.A descriptionof Chopin'splaying,recounted the famoussingerPauline Viardot-Garcia (1821-1910) Saint-Sams publishedin Le Courier musicalin 1910, to and

saH. C. Schonberg,The Great Pianists, (London, 1964), 264. 55Ibid., 265.

59 gives the impression that a particular practice which sharedthe characteristicsof

for dislocationhadbecome substitute true metricalrubato: a

In the true [metrical rubato], the accompanimentremains undisturbedwhile the melody floats capriciously, rushesor retards, sooner or later to find again the support of the accompaniment.This manner of playing is very difficult, requiring a complete independenceof the two hands; and when some cannot achieve this, they give the illusion to themselvesand to others by playing the melody in time and dislocating the in order to make it fall at the wrong time; or else - and this is the accompaniment worst of all - they are content to play the two handsone after the other. It would be a hundred times better to play everything evenly in time and the two handstogether, but then they would not have the `artistic air. '56

Saint-Saans Elsewhere, to appears conveythe samemessage:

She [Pauline Viardot] was a great friend of Chopin and she rememberedhis playing almost exactly and could give the most valuable directions about the way he interpreted his works. I learned from her that the great pianist's (great musician's, than has been generally supposed.It was as far rather) execution was much simpler from any manifestation of bad taste as it was from cold correctness.She told removed me the secretof the true tempo rubato without which Chopin's music is disfigured. It in no way resemblesthe dislocations by which it is so often caricatured.57

description doesseemto correspond Saint-Saans's the typesof dislocationheardon with

Furthermore, in his lecture on Early Music given in SanFrancisco in early recordings.

1915,he seems to havecriticizedthe useof dislocation.Implying that the baroque again earlierwasusedonly whereindicatedby a specificsign,Saintsuspension mentioned

56C. Saint-Saans,`Quelquesmots sur 1'exdcutiondes oeuvresde Chopin', Le Courier musical 1910), vol. 13, no. 10,386-7; trans. Hudson, Stolen Time, 195. 7 C. Saint-Saens, `Pauline Viardot', Ecole Buissonniere:notes et souvenirs, (1909); this edn. (Paris, 1913), 222; trans. E.G. Rich in Musical Memories (Boston, 1919), 151-2; `Grand amie de Chopin, eile avait conservede sonjeu un souvenir tres precis et donnait les plus precieuses indications sur la maniere d'interpreter sesouvres. Par eile, j'ai su que 1'exdcutiondu grand pianistes (du grand musicien pltot) 6tait beaucoupplus simple qu'on ne se mani6risme de mauvais gout que d'une froide correction. Par eile, jai connu les secretsdu veritable Tempo rubato sanslequel la musique de Chopin est defiguree et qui ne ressembleen rien aux dislocations au moyen desquelleson en donne trop souventla caricature. '

60

Satins denounces apparently the emphatically over-frequent of dislocationin the use early-twentieth century:

With the clavecinistes,the multiplicity of grace notes is extreme. As a rule they give the explanation of theseat the head of their works, just as Rameaudid. I note a curious sign which indicates that the right hand should arrive upon the keys a little after the left. This shows that there was not then that frightful habit of playing one hand after

58 is often donenowdays. the otheras

Eigeldingerhasargued More recently,the ChopinscholarJean-Jacques that `this is in by Saint-Sa&ns, clearlyrecognizable the recordings of practice,criticized Pugno,Pachmann, `renowned'Chopinplayersof the time, notablyLeschetizky, '59 Friedman, to a lesserextent,Paderewski, Maurycy[Moriz] Rosenthal. But and and Eigeldingerhasfailed to noticeor mentionis that the practiceis alsoclearly what preserved Saint-Saans's on pianoroll of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 2 madein 1905 illustrationof a segment his (CD 1/12).Figure2.15presents annotated an of Here,it is clearthat Saint"Saans performance. on mademanydislocations, sometimes is the everyquaverbeatof the bar. In addition,sometimes auralimpression that he alignedthe melodynotewith the notionalpulse,anticipatingthe bassnote;at others,the bassseems the alignedwith the pulse.Thesetypesof dislocationcanbe heardthroughout first sectionandduringthe recapitulation the work. Similar dislocations by of made Eugene D'Albert are preserved his 1916recordingof the samework (CD 1/13). on

s$ Stevenson, R. 'Saint-Saens's Views on the Performance Early Music', Performance Practice of Review (1989), 130.
59J.J. Eigeldinger, Chopin vu parses elaves(Neuchatel, 1970); trans. N. Shohet,K. Osostowicz and R. Howat as Chopin: Pianist and Teacher - as seen by his Pupils, cd. Roy Howat, 3rd edn. (Cambridge, 1986), 94.

61 Fig. 2.15 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Saint-Saans, piano roll recording, 1905.
1L ammmm

5--,

O=

h'

10
1 `

40
11 11 1

1` 1; 1 1 1

"-

ar

Saint-Saans to practisepreciselywhat he forbids.How canthis glaring appears inconsistency explained? is possible be It that duringthe periodbetween makingthe in of pianoroll in 1905andthe appearance his Le Courier musicalreference 1910,he
changedhis mind about the use of dislocation. But this seemshighly unlikely.

he The answermustsurelylie elsewhere. Perhaps practices wasrailing against the were in Thesemight includeevenmorefrequent of a naturenot preserved recordings. dislocations between left andright hands. Anotherexplanation the with muchwider gaps he might be that whenhe askedfor the two handsto be playedtogether, meantalmost be that dislocation,which togetheror morecloselytogether.Yet anotherexplanation may hadexistedalongside rubato,hadcometo dominatepianoplaying.Thus, metrical inappropriate, althoughits usewasnot altogether somepianists'playingexhibitedan imbalance between andmetricalrubato.Whatever reason suchan anomaly,the it for the fact remainsthat in this case,written texts andaudibleevidence not accord. do

62

That Saint-Saans havebeendescribing that the practices shared characteristics may of dislocation, weremadein sucha way asto havea detrimental but by effect,is supported by the following reference JanKleczynskiin 1879.He opinesthat the separation the of handsamongotherthingssupposedly to effeminate led performances Chopin'smusic: of
His [Chopin's] poetry and sweet melancholy which touch our hearts, injure him in the estimation of foreigners. Thesehave styled him, as Field styled him, a man with the talent of the sick-chamber; they have exaggeratedthe weak side of his mind, and have instancedcertain compositions written under peculiar circumstances.Even amongst ourselvesthis opinion has its adherents;we cannot too strongly combat it, for it is the causeof a performance diametrically opposedto the senseand meaning of the music. Numbers of school-girls playing Chopin's music with that which is calledfeeling, are not aware that there is in it strong and noble matter which they debaseand degradead. lib. This misnamedfeeling has the following characteristics;(1) Exaggerationof the rubalo; (2) The turning of the thought upside down, if one may so describe it, by giving the accentsto the notes, which should be weak, and vice versa; (3) Striking the the left handjust before the correspondingnotes of the melody.60 chords with It cannot be absolutely certain, however, that Kleczynski was not simply criticizing the

Leschetizky others. will be discussed As type of dislocationmadeby Saint-Saans, and later,he may havebeenoneof manywho weretrying to eradicate dislocationpractices from late-nineteenth-century pianism.

The acoustic recordings made in 1903 of the French pianist, teacher and composerRaoul Pugno provide more fascinating evidence of dislocation used as an expressivedevice. Pugno had been a student at the Paris Conservatoire from 1866to 1869 `where he won a for the piano (1866)'. 61From 1896to 1901, he was a professor at the premier prix Conservatoire after which `he resumedhis concert career and was soon recognized as
60J. Kleczyriski, 0 wykonywaniu riziel Szopena(Warsaw, 1879); trans. A. Whittingham as How To Play Chopin: the Works of Frederic Chopin and their Proper Interpretation, 4th edn. London, 1882), 18-19. 10. Bourligueux, `Raoul Pugno', New Grove, 2nd edn., vol. 20,592.

63 perhapsthe leading French pianist of the time.., excelling in the music of Mozart, Chopin and Franck.'62A few years after his 1903recordings, Pugno published a pedagogical work entitled Les lecons ecrites de Raoul Pugno (1910) translatedthe following year as TheLessonsof Raoul Pugno. Pugno tackles many aspectsof performancewith particular reference to a few of Chopin's piano pieces including the Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2. Fortunately, this work is one that he recorded and thus there is an opportunity to make direct comparison between his verbal advice and his practice. Like Saint-Saens, Pugno gives the impression of being completely opposedto the use of dislocation, making it abundantly clear that in the opening bars of this Nocturne, it was not to be tolerated. Giving the example in Figure 2.16, he statesthat: All the first part is in a mood of peacefulnessand resignation. It should therefore be played with absolute tranquility. I repeat, and shall repeat again and again: Keep the two hands well together [sic]. To hear the C sharpsand F sharpsof eachbar in the left hand preceding the note in the right hand is a thing to make the hair stand on end, and it is wholly anti-musical.63

Fig. 2.16

ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 1 to 4.64

ChopinNocturne 15No.2, bars1-4 Op. Larghetto.

IT&

%0,

Ta

62Ibid., 592. 63R. Pugno, Les lecons ecriles de Raoul Pugno (Paris, 1910); trans. E. Colburn Mayne as The Lessonsof Raoul Pugno (London, 1911), 66.

64Ibid., 66

64 between right andleft hands Accordingto Pugnotherefore, the no absolutely separation downbeat eachbar in the illustrationabove.Curiously,however,in of shouldoccurat the he unabashedly dislocates downbeat well his recordingmadeseven as each yearsearlier, illustrationof theseis cited in beatsin the bars.An annotated asvariousother
Figure 2.17.

Fig. 2.17

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 1 to 8, Pugno, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 1/14).

d1rI

ESE = -

r-

F, II1

-. 1

FE,

1-

fIII
Qb-

for the F he Furthermore, addsthe instructionthat duringbar 6, `makeyour hearers wish You may evenisolateit a little by playing it (this is an exceptional thing) after the sharp. '65 in the left hand. Figure2.17aboveshowsthat first of all, this way of isolatinga chord notewasnot exceptional occursat manyotherpointsin Pugno'srendition.Secondly, and Pugnodoesdelaythe F sharpin the melody.Here,however, at the momentin question, the left-handchordis arpeggiated, importantaspect that he fails to mention. an
65Ibid., 67.

65

Pugno'suseof dislocations not confinedto this particularNocturne;he alsoemploys was Op. themvery frequentlyin Chopin'sBerceuse 57 andto mark sudden poignant soft in the codaof Chopin'sValseOp. 34 No. 1. Significantly,wherehe makes a moments
dislocation between the melody and bassnotes on the first beat of bar 274 (repeatedat bar 282 an octave lower) in the Valse (Fig. 2.18), his annotation instructs the player to '66Pugnoachievesthis effect very `Give to this note a sentiment of regret and remoteness. by making a suddendislocation, yet this obviously indispensabletechnique successfully have been envisagedfrom his verbal advice alone. could never

Fig. 2.18

ChopinValseOp. 34 No. 1,bars272 to 275,Pugno,acousticrecording, 1903(CD 1/15).

AlthoughPugno'sversionof the NocturneOp. 15No. 2 is muchslowerandmore

languid than that of Saint-Saens, their frequency of dislocation is unmistakably similar.

for Lessobvious,however,arethe explanations the glaringdiscrepancy between Pugno's

text and actual practice. Like Saint-Saans,it is possible (though unlikely) that written Pugno changedhis mind between the time of the recording and the time of writing his TheLessons.It is also possible that his advice was primarily for studentswho may not

66 Ibid., 16.

66 have developedthe taste required for the artistic use of such expressivedevices.In yet this case,he may have consideredit a lesserevil to hear the handsplayed absolutely together rather than with gaping and inartistically renderedsilences.Yet another be that, as with Saint-Saans, there is hidden meaning in Pugno's advice possibility might to `keep the handswell together'. At present,this expressionsignifies absolute synchrony between the hands; in truth, he may simply have meant that the hands should not be so apart as to causeridiculously wide gaps.Hence, the expression`well together' played `fairly closely', instead of `absolutely together'. This might explain why, in may mean their verbal advice, dislocation can be heard in both their performances. spite of

to Pugno'sand Saint-Saans's dislocations wereacceptable them,andwithout own hearingwhat it wasthey foundunacceptable, the thereis no way of appreciating the written textsin this matter.Their wordsgive the impression underlyingmeaningof that dislocationwasto be employed very sparingly,if at all. However,to modernears, highly exaggerated they seemto useit muchmorefrequentlyandin a way that sounds for the styleof today.Whatever reasons such with the synchronous compared fact interpretation their advice it discrepancies, is an undeniable that a face-value of divergentfrom that of their recordings. Here,the would producean effect completely in text significantlyfails to conveywhat happened reality. written

duringthe late-nineteenth early-twentieth Several written references and centuries document moveawayfrom the useof dislocationin certainmusicalcircles. a

67

Someclarity asto the reasons this maybe found,for example, the opinionof C.A. for in Ehrenfechter. importance Ehrenfechter's in The technicaladviceis discussed Reginald of
67 Gerig's Famous Pianists and Their Technique. It is clear that his method was

is witnessed the following importantin the late-nineteenth in considered centuryas very letter from c. 1895: To the Editor- Musical OpinionandMusic TradeReview SIR, - Havingseenwith interestthe letter respecting Herr Ehrenfechter's "Technical " Studyin the Art of Pianoforte Playing, in your issueof November, shouldlike to I in testimonyof the highly beneficialresultsof a courseof trainingon the saya word by Deppeprinciplesinculcated Herr Ehrenfechter, I myselfstudiedfor two with whom My years,after havinghadmy handsmaimedandstiffenedby utterly falseteaching. handsrapidly became looseandsuppleoncemore,andmy touchwasaltogether to method altered.I now alwaysbasemy lessons my pupils uponHerr Ehrenfechter's His the bestresults. methodis moreespecially andwith valuablefor teachers busy and professionals, it is foundeduponthe few broadrules,which thoseof ordinary as 68 intelligencecanwork out for themselves. In the chapterentitled`Melodyandits Accompaniment', Ehrenfecter to makesreference the 'arpeggiomanner'.As will be seensubsequently, terminologyseems have this to become increasingly the usedto describe separation the handsin dislocation,aswell as of the arpeggiation chords.Ehrenfechter that: states of Very often a melodyandits accompaniment playedby the samehand,asin the are following examplefrom Beethoven's in Sonata C sharpminor:-

haveto be playedwith stretched fingers,yet thereis no Herethe melody-notes out bad the consequent effect because melodywith its lower accompanying forms a note firm interval.Weretherea badeffect, i.e., insufficient singingquality, or hardness of tone,this could easilybe alteredby playingthe interval in the arpeggiomanner,
67R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique (Washington/NewYork, 1974). 68Cited in Musical Opinion and Musical Trade Review, c. 1895, unpaginated.

68 although arpeggiosmay not be indicated by the composer,in which caseits adoption For can hardly be defended... some players with small handsthe performanceof the interval of the ninth as at c may be a simple caseof non possumus;in that casethe 69 arpeggio manner must be employed.

AlthoughEhrenfechter's description refersonly to the problems playingtwo partsin of

hand, the principle of dislocation between accompanimentand melody is clear. one

Importantly,he givesa clue that suchseparations the couldbe usedto enhance expressive the melodyonly andspecificallyin cases of wherethe pianistwasincapable quality of had producinga roundedtoneor perhaps whena particularinstrument insufficienttone is indicatedby quality.But eventhen,Ehrenfechter reluctantto permit it unlessexpressly Ehrenfechter's the composer. advicewasnot necessarily new.Many othersignificant in banishingsuchpractices encouraging references and otherswill be presented
Chapter 3.

No nineteenth-century editionshavebeenfoundthat employnotationsuchasBree'sto indicatedislocation.IndeedLeschetizky's own edition of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 2 publishedin Leipzig in 188070, givesno indicationof dislocationeventhoughthe Leschetizky's publisher'sgeneralprefatoryremarksimply that the edition preserves and his wife's (AnnetteEssipoffs) style: The present T. repertoire- piecesof the esteemed artistic couple,Professor Leschetizky his wife MadameLeschetizky-Essipoff, givenhereinexactlyas and are " by them in their concerts the greatest played everywhere with effect.
69C.A. Ehrenfechter, Technical Study in the Art ofPianoforte-Playing (Deppe's Principles), 3rd edn. (London, 1891), 64-65. 70Chopin, `Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2', Repertoire Leschelizky 14 ausgewhlteStckefr Pianoforte, ed. T. Leschetizky (Leipzig, D. Rahter, 1880). " Theseprefatory remarks appearin J. Field, `Nocturne in B flat', Stckeaus densRepertoire Essipoff Leschetizky,ed. T. Leschetizky (Hamburg und Leipzig, D. Rahter; trans. London, Alfred Lengnick, 1883), 2.

69

In this casethe exactness the notationactuallyrefersto the variantsthat Leschetizky of did However,Leschetizky not addedto the work andwhich do accordwith his recording. No to makeany indicationof dislocation. doubtit wasconsidered be asnormalasvibrato
or portamento in string playing and singing, and left to individual taste. In any caseits use would probably changefrom performance to performanceaccording to such considerationsas the player's mood, the sonority of the piano and the acoustic of the

performance space.

The verbalannotations certainlate-nineteenth-century in the editionsdocument negative For towardsthe useof dislocation. example, Augener the of somemusicians attitude edition of Schumann's very enlightening pianoworkscontains various notesconcerning
performing practice issues.Regarding Schumann's Warum? Op. 12 No. 3, the editor

Moritz Moskowskistates that:

The difficulty of bringing out clearly with one hand two themes moving independently a fine feeling for musical phrasing, and a close study of every individual requires effect. To evadeor circumvent this difficulty by meansof continual Arpeggio playing has always been consideredas one of the most perfunctory styles of which a pianist can be guilty. Yet it would be pedantic to disallow absolutely the use of arpeggios in such cases;and the works of great masterscontain examples where the composerhas written two parts for one hand, but at such intervals that they cannot possibly be played simultaneously as written. Seefor example Schumann's Symphonic Studies No. 11. But in the work before us [Warum?] all is playable, even for small hands,and the exception of the Ninth (A flat to B) in the seventhbar, the simultaneous with intervals is required by good taste.72 striking of

HereMoskowskiis referringto compositions a polyphonicor canonicnaturesuchas of Warum?, whereat timestwo differentvoicesin onehandoverlapandthereforeneed
particular emphasisfor their delineation. He is completely opposedto the use of arpeggio 72 Moskowski,`Notes'to RobertSchumann, M. Warum? Op. 12 No. 3 (London,Augener Co., & 1882),10.

70 for achieving this, apart from when the intervals are too widely spacedto be played together. And he is certainly correct in saying that in Warum?all intervals apart from the ninth in bar sevenare manageable.It is therefore curious that he chosethis work to bring up the point about separation.The reasonfor this must lie in some manner of playing Warum?that was commonly to be heard. In the work, Schumannhimself occasionally

by helpsto delineate melodies decorating certainnoteswith ornaments, suchcompound thus emphasizing themin the texture,for exampleon the second crotchetbeatin the right
hand in bar 10 (Fig. 2.19), or by notating an acciaccaturaanticipation at the point where

for momentarilyfinishesandanothercommences, examplein the right hand onevoice between 8 andbar 9 (Fig. 2.19).Otherplacesarenaturallydelineated bar because one in the samehand,for examplein the right is written in syncopation voice with another
hand in bar 5 and bar 6 (Fig. 2.19). That leavesonly a few instanceswhere no delineation

for is apparent placescomposed two separate to be playedby onehand,for melodies of bars35,38 and39 (Fig. 2.20).Therefore, if certainpianistswereto have exampleat even these, they could not haveproduced to arpeggiated anythingamounting continualor It exaggerated arpeggiation. is difficult to appreciate exactlywhat the editor was complainingabout.

71
Fig. 2.19 Schumann Warum? Op. 12 No. 3, bars I to 16.73

MR
1,111NNU Ill 1111d Z: 1I'I .1 \( \I. i.

Wa
Ah:

rU111'1
1'I I ...: I I" I r e, Rna 1 " . -2y 1' !!

"

Lfe
1r} r 1 f; i rI rat ('" EI

lp rr,

I ! 4. ss _.

It

It

it

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Fig. 2.20

Schumann Warum? Op. 12 No. 3, bars 34 to 42.74

't'

i; t

-.c ...

`-ti

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cr

74Ibid., 86.

" R. Schumann, `Warum? Op. 12 No. 3', Klavierwerke. Erste mil Fingersalz und Vortragsbezeichnung versehene instructive Ausgabe nach den Handschriften u. Persnlicher berlieferung, rev. edn. ed. C. Schumann, Band 2 (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hrtet, 1879), 86.

72

hold the key to the explanation. Certainearlyrecordings Warum? Theseshowuse may of

of dislocation and arpeggiation in a mannerthat may have been the stimulus for such censure.Carl Reinecke's piano roll of the work made in 1905 is of particular significance. During the 1840s,Reinecke's skills as a pianist and composerwere highly in Leipzig, particularly by Mendelssohn,the Schumannsand Liszt. His link regarded

therewasfirmly established a around1860whenhe became Professor the at

Conservatoryand eventually its director in 1897.Many important musicians studied there during Reinecke's successfultenure including Edvard Grieg, Hugo Riemann and Felix Weingartner (1863-1942). Reinecke apparently regardedit as his role to `perpetuatethe

and of exampleof the Classicalcomposers' to be a `representative guardian and 75Indeedtributes,suchasthe following by Fritz von Bose,a Professor the tradition'. at in Leipzig Conservatory haddirect contactwith Reinecke, showthe esteem which who someheld him:
With the death at Leipzic [sic] on March 10 of Carl Reinecke, the last noteworthy period, a chapter of musical history has representativeof the Mendelssohn-Schumann been closed... The thought alone that he first saw the light of the world when Beethoven, Schubert and Goethe were still among the living, and that he was in personal contact with Mendelssohn,and Schumann,inspires a certain feeling of reverencefor him... He was an artist of truly aristocratic and fine feeling, one who as invariably made his own personality subordinateto the work he pianist and conductor was interpreting. All who have heard him in his best years play a Mozart concerto, or the C minor of Beethoven, or have seenhim conduct a classical symphony in the Gewandhaus,must have received an impression never to be forgotten.76

in And according the article on Reinecke Die Musik in Geschichte Gegenwart to und interestafter playingat the Gewandhaus (1963),Reineckeroused Mendelssohn's in

75 Sietz,`CarlReinecke', R. NewGrove,Ist edn.,vol. 15,718-9.

76F. von Bose, 'Carl Reinecke: Appreciation', TheMusical Times(1910), an vol. 51,302.

73

1843,wherehe remained threeyears.Schumann for bestowed esteem his uponReinecke saying`youunderstand like few others'(presumably me music). referringto Schumann's Liszt admiredReinecke's`beautiful,soft, legatoandsingingtouch', andemployed him 77 his daughter. to aspianoteacher

Reinecke, all players,wasmostlikely to haveknownthe styleappropriate to of Schumann's is works.The moststriking elementof his renditionof Warum? the very
frequent, almost continual separationbetween melody and accompanimentby dislocation

between right andleft hands. addition,he arpeggiates In the compound melodies written in onehandaswell as several in chordfiguresthat will be examined Chapter syncopated dislocations bars 1 and 12 areannotated 3. Reinecke's between below (Fig. 2.21).

77 Blume,(ed. `CarlReinecke', Musik in Geschichte Gegenwart Allgemeine F. ), Die und Enzyklopdie Musik (Kassell-Basel-London-New der York, 1963),Band 1,187-188.

74

Fig. 2.21
A.

Warum? 12No. 3, bars 1 to 12,Reinecke, Op. Schumann pianoroll 1905,(CD 1/16). recording,
J -------J -h Ii I)----. 11 J1

03 111, 6-x
iI 1i 11 " "1 1 1 1 11 11 11 11
1 1 1

"

1 1 1 b

' -M

Here, on almost every beat, Reinecke's hands are non-synchronized,giving the effect of continual arpeggiation. The effect is obvious when comparedwith the much less

frequentlydislocated the of who recorded work in performance OssipGabrilowitsch 1924(CD 1/17).In this way, it becomes that apparent Moskowskimay haveappliedthe in It term `arpeggiation' a mannerincorporating within it dislocationof the hands. must surelyhavebeenthis frequency separation noteswritten in strict vertical alignment of of Moskowskiwasrailing. Yet could the highly respected have Reinecke againstwhich beenconsidered of the main sinners? Giventhe frequency one with which Reinecke introduces dislocation,onemight expectsomementionof it in his collectedlettersto a
in student published in 1895,78 which he discussesmany other general performing

78Reinecke, The BeethovenPianoforte Sonatas.

75

Nor arethereanyverbaldescriptions notational but practiceissues, this is not the case. or 79 in his edition of Beethoven's pianosonatas. symbols

had from Mozart's pianoconcertos. It Reinecke a predilectionfor arranging movements

is indeed fortunate that his arrangementof the secondmovement, Larghetto, from Mozart's Piano Concerto K 537, is the samework on his only other currently extant

80 his pianoroll. Thusthereis an invaluableopportunityto compare musicalnotationwith

his practice. Considering the current obsessionwith faithfulness to musical texts such as `urtexts', it might be expectedthat Reinecke's arrangementpreservessome of his own

in He is quite specific,for example, his useof arpeggio signs,giving the practices. be impression arpeggios only to be usedat the indicatedmoments. These that are will in in examined Chapter3. Bars 1 to 4 andbars9 to 12,asthey appear Reinecke's to arrangement, cited below (Figs.2.22 and2.23).Here,the only apparent are separations be madearebetween bars9 and 12,in the form of arpeggiations widely spaced of and richly texturedchordsin both hands.

79 van Beethoven, L. Sonaten Pianoforte,2 vols. (Leipzig,Breitkopf & Hrtel, 1899). fr 80 AppendixA for a catalogue the other Sec of pianorolls of Reinecke.

76

Fig. 2.22

bars 1 to 4.81 MozartLarghettoarr. by Reinecke,

Fig. 2.23

bars9 to 12.82 MozartLarghettoarr. by Reinecke,

A .. rI

ISM
lp
fw e-Q No"

po

:4

F1 1

0i.

-..

-,
v.

0 iD.

9 * * e.

qa.

1-* e.

* e.

9.

However,Reinecke'srecordingof the Larghettoreveals that throughout thesebars,he freely aswell asintroducingan astonishing addedarpeggios numberof dislocations of 83 handsasannotated below (Figs.2.24 and2,25). the

8' W. A. Mozart, Larghetto aus dem KrOnungs Concerte (D dur No. 20) fair Pianoforte solo zum Concertvortrage, arr. Reinecke (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hrtel, 1874), 2. 82Ibid. 2.

93 fact, Reinecke In in certainsections his recordingof theLarghetto.Thusinstead reordered of in he bars 17-27after bars 1-8, playingbars9-16 wherethey appear his arrangement, inserts followedby bars9-16. For thepurpose this discussion however, bars9-12 refer to themusical of materialasit occursin Reinecke's arrangement.

77 Fig. 2.24 Mozart Larghetto arr. by Reinecke, bars 1 to 4, Reinecke, piano roll 1905, (CD 1/18). recording,

Fig. 2.25

Mozart Larghetto arr. by Reinecke, bars 9 to 12, Reinecke, piano roil recording, 1905, (CD 1/19).

uNIIIIfIIss

7-141.
TI-i

Basedon this evidence, Reinecke to towardsthe seems havehada very flexible approach dislocationof melodynotesandaccompaniment, well asthe additionof notesto, or as the subtraction notesfrom, the original notation(seebars 1,9 and 12).Sometimes, as of by in bars2,3 and4, dislocations produced delayingthe right-hand are exemplified is chord(playedunarpeggiated) melodynoteuntil after the left-handaccompanying At the sounded. othertimes,thereis a significantgapbetween right-handmelodynote left-handaccompaniment andthe final note of the arpeggiated chord,asexemplifiedin bar 1. And in a similar way,the sectionfrom bar 9 to bar 12preserves wherea examples the gapis madebetween unarpeggiated the right-handchord(embellishing melody)and left-handaccompanying the final noteof the arpeggiated chord.Therefore,in additionto

78

frequentarpeggiation, between Reinecke madearoundfifteen dislocations the hands of bars1 and4, anda furthernineteen between bars9 and 12.

doesnot seem haveregarded his The implicationsherearemanifold.Reinecke to

notation as binding and added much more than was indicated. The musical notation in this casedoes not appearto indicate dislocation. On the other hand, Reinecke's practice delaying melody notes, particularly when marked, as in this case,with portato of

is significant.He seems havehadthe sameregardasAdam andPollini to articulations,

(cited above) for such notational marks. In this respect,Reinecke's playing can be seento

Thus,a strict face-value to a adherence preserve stylethat hadhistoricalprecedents. hiddenmeanings, Reinecke's of would notationwithout knowledge the possible leadto a performance completelydifferent from his own. undoubtedly

it Returningto interpretations Warum?, is evidentthat Reinecke wasnot alonein of Leschetizky's famousstudent, purposes. employingdislocationin it for expressive IgnacyJanPaderewski, similar onesin his 1912recordingof the work (Fig. 2.26). made in After lessons Leschetizky, hadimmediatesuccess Paris,andconcerttours `he with
throughout Europe and America quickly followed... it is clear from the testimony of

imaginativeperformer. '84 musicians critics that he was an outstandingly and

84 Samson, J. `IgnacyJanPaderewski, NewGrove,2nd edn.,vol. 18,870-3.

79

Fig. 2.26

Op. Warum? 12No. 3, bars1 to 12,Paderewski, Schumann acoustic recording,1912,(CD 1/20).

In terms of frequency of dislocation, the similarities between Reinecke's and

Warum? clear.Theyboth seem haveuseddislocation Paderewski's to are recordings of to enhance expressive the melodynotes.This wasappliednot only to the most quality of but In poignantmoments to almostany part of the bar whereit waspossible. otherworks, like Paderewski, Reinecke, applieddislocationin a varietyof ways.The auraleffect of for suchdislocations listeners now is oneof continualsyncopation, over andabovewhat is alreadynotatedby Schumann, creatingcuriouslydisjointedandhesitanteffects.A in In significantinconsistency againappears the caseof Paderewski. `TheBestWay to
Study the Piano' (c. 1895), he remarks upon tempo modification, agogic nuancegs, and

rubato,statingthat:

85A term coined by Riemann in DerAusdruck in derMusik (Leipzig, 1883).

80 Only too many think that they display a vast deal of feeling if they make frequent ritardandi and long pauseson single notes. I would call this over-sentimentalism simply the abuseof rhythm. The only way to avoid this is to keep strictly as possible to the rhythm and the tempo.Nothing is to be gained by such affectation but distortion of the composer's ideas.Under the samehead comesthe exaggerationof the rubato, so deplorably frequent in the playing of Chopin. This springs from the samemistaken that it adds feeling and character.The only remedy of the fault is to stick notion both rhythm and tempo.86 closely to

Paderewski's that the advicegivesthe impression he deplored overuse certain of techniques of asalterations notevaluesor fluctuationof tempo,and such expressive himself.Like Kleczynskicited only sparsely would employthemcarefullyandperhaps that the emasculated music. earlier,Paderewski apparently considered suchalterations in in 'TempoRubato'published HenryT. Finck's Success Furthermore, an essay entitled in Music and how it is won (1909),Paderewski that concludes `realknowledge of different styles,a culturedmusicaltaste,anda well-balanced sense vivid rhythm of Excess freedomis often more shouldguardthe interpreteragainstanyabuse. of thanthe severityof the law.'87 pernicious

Thoughapparently this enlightening, advicegivesno tangibleindicationof the boundaries the governing excesses freedomaroundthe turn of the twentiethcentury of The andparticularlyfor Paderewski. fact that style andtasteareso radically different `a to now makesit difficult, almostimpossible, understand what constituted cultured musicaltaste' or `a well-balanced of sense vivid rhythm' onehundredyearsago. by Fortunately, wealthof recordings Paderewski his the preserves style.From theseit is
86I. J. Paderewski, `The Best Way to Study the Piano', The Strand Musical Magazine (c. 1895), repub. in TheMusical Educator (c. 1900), vol. 2, vii.

97 J. Paderewski, I. `TempoRubato',A Chapter Published H.T. Finck,Success in in

Music and How it is Won (New York, 1909); repub. in R. Stevenson,The Paderewski Paradox (Lincoln, 1992), 32.

81 clear that he employed devices such as dislocation to a degreewhich is obtrusive and

certainlyan `excess freedom'by modemstandards. of

Paderewski's use of dislocation is also particularly noticeable in his playing of Chopin's

works.An annotated example the first four barsfrom Chopin'sNocturneOp. 9 No. 2 of

is cited in Figure 2.27. Here, dislocations occur frequently throughout eachbar.

Fig. 2.27

Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bars 1 to 4, Paderewski,electrical recording, 1930 (CD 1/21).

A----

i , 1 , 1 1 , / (

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

, , ,

, , I

1
71 1-

1
[jj

b q

,b

tLL

1-4-W FI

[jj

Compared with the almost completely synchronousstyle of piano playing at present,the aural effect of such a manner of dislocation is a major distortion of the original rhythms. Paderewski certainly did not adhereexactly, or even closely, to Chopin's notation.

82 Perhapslike Saint-Saansand Pugno, the acceptableand normal boundariesof distortion

In thanthey areat present. this light andexaggeration weremuchwider for Paderewski

some of his conservative advice may be attributed to the desire to halt practices he consideredlacking in artistry and skill; practicesthat are not fully describedin written texts or preservedin aural evidence.Ultimately, however, it may be seenthat a literal interpretation of Paderewski's written advice, according to our current understandingof words such as `strict', `slight', `affectation', `distortion', and `exaggeration', gives a confused and significantly false impression of the way he actually played.

It is interesting to compare Paderewski's recording with Pachmann's 1915 recording of

Nocturne(Fig. 2.28,CD 1/22).And Olga Samaroffmadesimilar,though the same in significantlylessfrequentdislocations her 1923recordingof the same work (CD 1/23).

Fig. 2.28

Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bars 1 to 4, Pachmann,acoustic recording, 1915.

---a.
1 11 1 1 1 t 1 il Il 1 1 1 II ,I I I

.-

I, 11

1 11 1

1
I-rI!
4-4

q
[-]: l

t1i

Ll-j

83

Thoughtheir dislocations subtlydifferentin termsof time lapsebetween are melodyand Paderewski's Pachmann's to a lesser the accompaniment, similaritiesbetween and and,
extent, Samaroff's placement and frequency of dislocation are striking. Clearly such practices were a norm of the era.

Paderewskialso used dislocation prolifically in compositions of earlier composerssuch as Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.Indeed, during the first movement of Beethoven's

Moonlight SonataOp. 27 No. 2, he dislocates beginningof almosteverybar and the

every changeof harmony (Fig. 2.29).

84 Fig. 2.29 BeethovenMoonlight Sonata Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Paderewski, electrical recording, 1937, (CD 1/24).

A u4
i IF IF

1 11 11

Z>

UZ

A_u$

WP9

. 6

off -

-- --

In completecontrastto Paderewski, compatriotand fellow studentof Leschetizky, his IgnazFriedman in makesextremelyfew dislocations the samework. His playingsounds (CD 1/25). markedlysynchronized

85

Changing tastes

The move away from the practice of dislocation must surely have been acceleratedby the in other late-nineteenth-and early-twentieth-centurytexts. For strong advice given in his Klavierschule (1879), GustaveDamm makes it clear that the separation example, the handswas strictly to be avoided, describing this technique as incorrect and faulty. of Here, it is worthy of note that the anonymousEnglish translator further denigratedthe 88Damm says: describing it as one of the `vicious habits' in piano playing. practice, We once more recommendthe strictest observation of the rule we have given... it must be acknowledgedthat solid instructions in the beginning are of the highest importance for all the future, for it is very difficult, nay, sometimeseven impossible, to give up a bad practice that has been easily assumed.We count amongstsuch bad habits... the touching the keys, when playing with both handstogether, so as to absurdmanner of two successivemotions where there should be one united motion, which make

89 the impression if thereweresyncopes. as produces execution

In another publication, the Magazine of Music: Pictorial Pianoforte Tutor (1891), the that absolutely no dislocation must be annotations of an anonymouseditor advise tolerated. Appended to a work in the popular genre entitled Fairy Revels by Marian Saunders(Fig. 2.30) is the following notice:

in Herethe quavers sixthsareto be playedvery smoothly,with a full soft, singingtone fault of playing The commonandvery amateurish andvery exactlywith eachother. the first, andanyotheraccented of the bar, with the left handbeforethe right, notes 90 be avoided. must
gaN. B. This does not appearin the 1870 edition but is given in both German and English in the 1879 edition. 890. Damm, Klavierschule und Melodienschatzfr die Jugend Praktisch betrhrte Anleitung zur . grndlichen Erlernung des Klavierspiels mit mehr als 140 melodischenLust und Fleiss anregendenMusikstcken zu zwei und vier Hnden und vielen schnelordernden technischen Uebungen(Leipzig, 1870); 21st edn., rev. with English trans. (Leipzig, 1879), 73-74. 90M. Saunders,`Fairy Revels', Magazine ofMusic: Pictorial Pianoforte Tutor (1891), 213.

86 Fig. 2.30 Marian SaundersFairy Revels,bars 1 to 6.91

.r

Moderato., n i'sir'r

On 4 1 Leggiero.

New

Year's night

the

JT
"

777

A7=

But at the sametime many important and influential professionalswere practising this amateurish fault. It appearshowever that by 1900 some pianists were actively trying to eliminate dislocation and arpeggiation from their playing. Ronald Stevenson(b. 1928) has statedthat Ferruccio Busoni was one of the leadersof this trend. In his The Paderewski Paradox he writes: Improvisation was featured in recitals throughout the 19th century. One of its masters, Ferrucio Busoni (1866-1924), banishedit from his programmesbecauseit `smacked too much of the circus' for him. Busoni's pupil Egon Petri attestedthat Busoni was the only pianist in Berlin around 1900 who studiously expungedfrom his pianism the gratuitous arpeggio and bassanticipation of melody. Busoni rightly felt that his chordal playing, attacked from the scapula,was proper to his monumental conception of Bach and late Beethoven. This austerestyle had many epigones,even down to our own day. But its now widespreadapplication to Romantic piano literature is a Romantic style.92 misconception of the

Proof that Busonidid indeedtry to rid certainrepertoireof the useof dislocationand is arpeggiation found in noteson `Interpretation'in an accompanying volumeto his Klavier (c. 1894).Here,in relationto making edition of J.S. Bach'sDas wohltemperierte
91Ibid., 213.
92Stevenson,The PaderewskiParadox, 13.

87

pianotranscriptions Bach'sworksoriginally written for the organ,he advised the of

player to: Let the interpretation be on broad lines, full and firm, and rather hard than too tender...Be specially careful to strike all the tones of a (solid) chord together. Arpeggios, or the hasty anticipation of the bass,are of very doubtful taste; firstly, because[they are] contrary to the characterof the organ; secondly,becausethey produce the effect of over-exertion. Moreover, such basseslack the necessary weight. For these faults the transcriptions themselvesare usually answerable;it is the editor's businessto forestall such awkward difficulties. 93 Busoni's appendedexamples in Figure 2.31 below show how better to spacechords so

that practices that he suchas dislocationandarpeggiation maybe avoided.It is possible

only intended this advice to apply to the works of Bach. It appearsthat he did continue to

in thanhis contemporaries, the worksof usedislocation,albeit on far fewer occasions

other composers.For example, dislocation can be heard in his 1922 recording of Chopin's Prelude Op. 28 No. 7 (CD 1/26).

93F. Busoni, `Vortrag' to J.S. Bach, Das wohltemperierteKlavier, erster Teil, bearbeitet und erlutert, mit daran anknpfendenBeispielen und Anweisungenfr das Studium der modernen Klavierspieltechnik von Ferrucio Busoni (Leipzig und Berlin, c. 1894), Band 1,181; trans. as `Interpretation' to The Well TemperedClavichord Revised,Annotated, and Provided with Parallel Examples and Suggestions the Study ofModern Pianoforte-Technique by Ferruccio for B. Busoni (New York, 1898), 87; `Der Vortrag sei vor Allem grosszgig,breit und fest, eher hrter als zu weich... Ganz besondersachteman darauf, alle Tne einesAccordes streng Das Arpeggiren und das eilige Vorschlagen der Bsseist von sehr zusammenanzuschlagen. bedenklichem Geschmack;vorerst, weil es dem Charakterder Orgel zuwiderlufft, sodannweil es ein Eindruck der Anstrengunghervorbringt. berdies entbehrensolche Bssedes nthigen Gewichtes. Die Veranlassungliegt meist in der bertragung selbst; Der Bearbeiter fllt es zu, Unbeholfenheitendieser Art vorzubeugen. '

88 Fig. 2.31 by Busoni.94 J.S. Bach keyboard works, arr. and annotated
Beispiel 91.
Exampl, 91.

....

--

_N..

.1

--

..

a-

.... A-

1. i..

--

r-

While Busoniwassupposed be activelyavoidingthe useof dislocation,otherpianists to in Figure2.3, someamongthe oldestgeneration record,seemalreadyto have to noted beenusingit very infrequently.Onesuchpianistis EdvardGriegwhose1903recordings dislocationof the hands. his apparent bring to the fore manyquestions avoidance of about Grieg's playingsounds Compared starklysynchronous. with Reinecke Leschetizky, or Unfortunately, recorded he only his own works.It might havebeenilluminating to hear him play works of Chopin,Schumann others,to which dislocationseems have to and beenmostreadilyappliedby someotherplayers.It is possiblethat in his own musicas he well asthoseof morecontemporary composers, madedislocations only where
94Ibid., 87.

89

to specificallyindicated,leavingfreely applieddislocations specificClassical and Romanticrepertoire. between type of Many otherplayersseem havedifferentiated to the
repertoire for which dislocation was or was not appropriate, as can be seenin Figure 2.3 However, without audible evidencethis is impossible to determine. above.

Grieg very occasionally makes dislocations in his recordings. In Remembrances Op. 71 No. 7 there appearsto be a dislocation of the melody note F sharp from the the first beat of bar 25 (Fig. 2.32). This correspondswith the accompanyingchord on indicated `pp dolce' and the beginning of a new section. He also makes dislocations on the secondbeats in bars 30 and 38. In the Finale of his SonataOp. 7, the only dislocation

to that canbe clearlyheardis at the beginningof bar 76, apparently delineate change the also of textureandfiguration(Fig. 2.33).Thereseems to be a dislocationof the last Op. crotchetbeatin bar 49 of the Humoresque 6 No. 2 andanotherat the beginningof bar 72 in Bridal Procession Op. 19No. 2.

Fig. 2.32

Grieg Remembrances Op. 71 No. 7, bars 24 and 25, Grieg, acoustic recording, 1903, (CD 1/27).
3

90 Fig. 2.33 Grieg's SonataOp. 7, Finale, bars 75 and 76, Grieg, acoustic recording, 1903, (CD 1/28).

The evidence above shows clearly that Grieg made dislocations much less frequently than his contemporaries.Why he avoided it in some of the highly expressiveand many of lyrical piecesthat he recorded remains conjectural; however a clue may lie in his desire to safeguardagainst over-interpretation. According to Per Dahl: apparent He wanted pianists to play the music as it was written and not to over-interpret it. For that reasonhe absolutely fumed over what he called the "rubato influenza when one ...... hearsGrieg's own recordings of his music one understandsthis: they are by no means free of rubato, but everything is kept within a relatively strict framework with no

kind.95 exaggerations any of

In this light, it is probablethat Griegfoundthe currentprolific useof dislocation, for for amongst otherthings,undesirable his own music,perhaps all repertoires, and it altogether. the otherhand,his attitudeto others'useof suchdevicesmay On avoided havebeenentirelydifferent.In his 'Personal Recollections Grieg', PercyGrainger of that `no wordscould adequately tell remarked enough the extentof his broadmindedness
and generosity on artistic matters.'96And further to this, Grainger recalls that Grieg was

95P Dahl, `Contemporary Evaluations Grieg asa Pianist', `Sleeve Notes',EdvardGrieg, The of PianoMusic in Historic Interpretations, 61. 96P. Grainger, Recollections Grieg', TheMusical Times(1907),vol. 48,720. `Personal of

91 very flexible even with the performanceof his own works. In 1906, Grieg commentedto

Grainger, `Mind you! You don't play the folksongs to according my intentions!But don't
alter a thing. I love individuality. '97

In that case,perhaps Griegwould alsohaveapproved the playingof the pianistLandon of

Ronald who made the earliest recording of his Bridal Procession Op. 19 No. 2 in 1900. Ronald plays the first part in a synchronizedmanner.However in the very soft section

from bars40 to 48, he broadens tempoconsiderably dislocates left andright the the and hand.This givesa very heightened to expressiveness the melodynotesat the beginning of bars44 and45 (Fig. 2.34).Grieg,on the otherhand,makesno dislocations this point at in his recordingof the work, or in his two pianorolls of it madein 1906.

Fig. 2.34

Grieg Bridal Procession Op. 19 No. 2, bars 43 to 45, Ronald, acoustic recording, 1900, (CD 1/29).

97`Grainger's Anecdotes', cited in J. Bird, PercyGrainger(Oxford, 1999),134.

92 Ronald also makes dislocations in his recording of Grieg's Dance Caprice Op. 28 No. 3

in 1900(CD 1/30).Theseenhance characteristic dance the rhythmeffects.Dislocations

are also heard in his 1900 recording of a fragment of Chopin's PolonaiseOp. 40 No. 1.

for Ronald'suseof dislocationis not reserved soloworks;they canbe heardto very in expressive of effect in the pianoaccompaniments songs recordings madein 1905with
the sopranoAdelina Patti. His dislocations in the introduction to Mozart's `Voi the sapete' from Le nozzedi Figaro (CD 1/31) are a good casein point. Quite clearly,

dislocationwasso muchpart of Ronald'sstylethat he usedit wherever considered he

appropriate, regardlessof composeror repertoire.

Thereis little evidence suggest Griegwould havedisapproved suchpractices, to that of providingthey weresparinglyapplied.On the otherhand,what Griegthoughtof the dislocationpractices pianistssuchasReinecke, Leschetizky otherscited above, of and with whom he musthavehada certainamountof contact,remainsunknown.

In Grieg's case, recorded is the to enough reachfirm evidence not wide-ranging He conclusions. may,like otherpianistsnotedin Figure2.3, havebeenselectivein his This type of judicious useis employment dislocation,savingit for certainrepertoire. of the alsoexemplifiedin the playingof Alfred Grnfeldwho enhances beautyof Schumann's TrumereiOp. 15No. 7 with manydislocations his 1913recording in (CD 1/32).He alsomakesthemin the arrangement Wagner'sLiebestod. And in of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 32 No. 2 dislocationis madewith the frequency exhibitedin

93

Yet someof Paderewski's Pachmann's and recordings. in repertoire suchasBachandthe fastermovements othercomposers, makesno dislocations all. he of at

Francis Plante makes dislocations only at a few moments in his 1928 recordings. In

Chopin'sEtudeOp. 25 No. 1 dislocations markthe pointsof climax. In Chopin'sEtude

Op. 25 No. 2 he makes a dislocation on the first note of the piece, heightening its expressionand giving poise to the opening of the movement (CD 1/33). He also makes

But dislocations Brahms'sarrangement Gluck's Gavotte. in otherrepertoire, in of particularlyof a fasterandmorerhythmicallyactivenature,dislocationis noticeably absent.

The emerging patternis that aroundthe turn of the twentiethcentury,pianistsmade dislocations to expression, creatingaccents, wherethey felt it appropriate enhance of coloursandotherpoignanteffects.Oneis reminded Pugno'swordscited abovethat oneshouldmakethe hearerwish for the note.Currenttasteis so far removedfrom that of centuryagothat, to our ears,dislocations, particularlywhenmadevery frequentlyor a Saint-Saans, Reinecke, habitually,asin the playingof Leschetizky, Paderewski, However,it is obviousthat a centuryagomany Pachmann others,soundmanneristic. and it to and pianistsemployed in a similar way to dynamicshading accentuation, enhance the character specificrepertoire. of

94

In the earlyyearsof the twentiethcenturysomepianistsgavethe strongimpression of In to eradicate the practiceof dislocation. his Piano Questions wanting completely
Answered (1909), Josef Hofmann firmly advised against its use: My teachershave always scolded me for playing my left hand a little before my right. It is probably a very bad habit, but I do not hear it when I do it. How can I cure it? This "limping, " as it is called, is the worst habit you can have in piano playing, and fortunate in having a teacherwho persistsin his efforts to combat it. There is you are to rid yourself of this habit, namely, by constant attention and closest, only one way keenestlistening to your own playing. You are probably mistaking it when you say that you do not "hear" it when you "limp"; it seemsmore likely to me that you do not listen.98

In 1922,Mark Hambourg the useof dislocationin his How To stronglyagainst advised diagrams in Become Pianist. Discussing and a commonmistakes providingthe annotated dislocationas `AnotherBlunder', saying: Figures2.35 and2.36below, he describes burningwith ardourfor the beautyof Now comesalongthe temperamental student, the music,longingto makethe noblechordsof somefine melodyspeakits message! What specialpitfall lies readyto entraphis zealous Why, in his endeavours? that enthusiasm the melodyin both handsshouldbe properlybroughtout, he getsone handplayingafter the other! Only a fractionof a second afterthe left handdoesthe of right handstrike,but in that lossof simultaneousness soundthe whole grandeur the performeris striving will be dispelledin the irritating effect of onepart after which the harmonyalwaysreaching earat a slight interval after the other.This is the the of mostfrequentfailing amongst very musicalpeoplewho enjoytremendously what they areplaying;andespeciallydoesit occurwith themin slow movements, whenthey will to the the arpeggio chordsbetween two handsso muchthat it sounds me like drawling lose in speech, evenlike stuttering.Theseenthusiasts their sense symmetry the or of of soundin their intensepleasure parts,andit is hardthat the very overits component 99 that lies in their love of the musiccanthus leadthem into danger. virtue

98 Hofmann,Piano Questions Answered, 25-26.

99M. Hambourg, How To BecomeA Pianist (London, 1922), 57.

95 Fig. 2.35 Rachmaninoff, Prelude in C sharpminor Op. 3 No. 2, bars 1 to 3.100

--Y"

...

7"

C Opp

'

j'

-"

6tdd

1ret

Pei

Fig. 2.36

Rachmaninoff, Prelude in C sharpminor Op. 3 No. 2, bars 1 to 3, by Hambourg.101 annotated

6 "'f'

Qw

j'tSA" v"

i.

Significantly,thereis a direct correlationbetween dislocationof the handsfor the the dislocationof in bars 1 and2 in the exampleabove,andLeschetizky's unisonpassages K similar figuresin bars 1,3 and5 in Mozart's Fantasia 475 (Fig. 2.37).Hambourg to seems, leastin verbaladvice,to havebeendirectly opposed the stylein which his at Leschetizky teacher excelled.

10 Ibid., 57. "' Ibid., 57.

96 Fig. 2.37 Mozart FantasiaK 475, bar 1, Leschetizky piano roll recording, 1906,(CD 1/34).

Later, in 1930, the pianist Walter Gieseking confirms that dislocation was still being heard in the playing of many pianists; he called for its total abolition, saying:

is an errorvery oftencommitted,evenby A faulty anduneven rendering chords of halls we hearpianists known concertpianists.How often in our concerts well It that to soundtheir two hands exactlytogether. is remarkable even neglecting if on criticize an orchestra, chordsarenot playedpreciselytogether;whereas amateurs the concertplatformthis grievous all musicalfeeling is nearlyalways offenceagainst Both handsmuststrikethe keyspreciselyat the same moment.This may overlooked. importance expression; the concert to not be easy,but it is a means enormous and of do well to studyit clearly.102 playerwould because It maynot havebeeneasyfor somepianiststo strikethe keyssimultaneously this havegoneagainst their usualpractice,particularlyin highly expressive would music.The by difficulty maybe moreeasilyunderstood reversing situation.Pianiststodayfind it the because between hands they are accustomed an to makeseparations the to abnormal different expressive that hasasits basissynchrony the hands. entirely practice of It is clearfrom the abovereferences, dislocationof the handsin pianoplayingwas a that in performingpracticethat persisted a prolific mannerwell into the twentiethcentury.
102 Gieseking K. Leimer,Modernes W. KlavierspielnachLeimer-Gieseking (Mainz, 1930); and trans.asTheShortestWayto PianisticPerfection(Bryn Mayr, 1932);repr.in Piano Technique (NewYork, 1972),56.

97 Although its decline is signalled in late-nineteenth-centurywritten texts, its continued use was widespread.Eventually, influential pianists like Hofmann, Hambourg and Gieseking tried to eradicate it; their own playing can be seento match their verbal advice. It actively is apparenthowever that their influence was not widely felt until the secondhalf of the twentieth century, when the practice seemsto disappear.

Yet force of habit remained strong. Despite the strength of their warnings, recorded that Hofmann, Hambourg, and Gieseking still occasionally employ evidence shows dislocation. Hofmann makes a dislocation in bar 6 of Schumann's Warum?which the expressionof the interval between C flat and F (CD 1/35). Particularly enhances noticeable are his dislocations in bars 1 and 5 of Chopin's Valse Op. 64 No. 2 (CD 1/36).

in Hambourg makesprolific useof dislocationasis evidenced his recordings Chopin's of in NocturneOp. 55 No. 1 andNocturneOp. 9 No. 2 recorded 1921and 1927 Largo,from respectively, particularlyduringbars 1 to 12of the second and movement, by Beethoven's ConcertoOp. 37 conducted Malcolm Sargent, in recorded 1929(CD 1/37).Like othersnotedabove,it is impossible know why thereis sucha discrepancy to between verbaladviceandhis actualpractice.Gieseking his alsooccasionally uses dislocation,thoughnot in his 1939recordingof Beethoven's Andantefrom Sonata Op. 109,nor Brahms'sIntermezzo Op. 117No. 2, worksin which it might be expected. But he cannotresistit in the openingsectionof Mendelssohn's Andanteand Rondo Capricciosorecorded muchlater in 1956.Heredislocationenhances beautyand the to poignancy the music,giving an importance certainmelodynotes(CD 1/38). of

98

The moresparinguseof dislocationevidentin the playingof HofmannandGieseking cannotbe saidto be entirelyrepresentative early-twentieth-century of style;the legacyof
recordings of several other pianists shows clearly that it survived very healthily until the 1950s.The legendarypianist Alfred Cortot was still using dislocation in his 1934

Chopin'sPreludes Nos.7,13,15 and 17Op. 28 andhis 1949recordingof recordings of Chopin'sBerceuse 57. Otherrecordings of particularinterestsincethey canbe Op. are
closely linked with late-nineteenth-centurypianists, particularly Brahms and Clara

Schumann. example, recordings pianistssuchasIlona Eibenschtz, Adelinade For the of LaraandFannyDavies,all of whomstudiedwith ClaraSchumann Brahms,exhibit and the useof dislocationfor greatexpressive and effects.The sameis true of Carl Friedberg Freundparticularlyso. EtelkaFreund,both of whomwereadmiredby Brahms,

Ilona Eibenschtz, pianistentrusted the of with the premieres manyof Brahms'spiano in dislocations the middle sectionof his BalladeOp. 118No. 3 recorded in pieces, makes 1903,throughout Waltz Op. 39 No. 2 andat the beginningof the Intermezzo 119 his Op. in in No. 2 recorded a live broadcast 1952(CD 1/39).Thoughthe tastefor suchpractices hadalreadychanged her duringthe fifty-year lapsebetween recordings, does Eibenschtz her her to not appear havechanged ways.This is alsoevidentin comparing 1903 recordingof Brahms'sWaltz Op. 39 No. 15with her 1962recordingof the samework (CD 1/40and41).

99

Adelinade Lara employsdislocationat the beginning Brahms'sRhapsody 79 Op. of No, 2, andIntermezzo 117No. 1 both recorded 1951(CD 1/42and43) aswell as in Op.
Schumann'sFantasiestckeOp. 12 No. 1 and No. 2, KinderszenenOp. 15 No. 1 and Arabeske Op. 18 recorded in 1951.Although shewas very old when the recordings were

her madeandthereare no earlierexamples with which to compare playing,it mustbe that assumed shecontinued playingin muchthe samestyleasher youngerdays.Of
particular interest is her performance of Schumann's Warum?Op. 12 No. 3, which

exhibitssomesimilar traits of dislocationto the discredited styleof Reinecke and (CD 1/44). Paderewski

FannyDavies'suseof expressive dislocationis particularlyevidentin her 1929recording of the first movement `Von fremdenLndernundMenschen'- from Schumann's Kinderszenen 15(CD 1/45).Shecertainlyusedit to greateffect in the solo sections Op. between bars 12and 18,bars59 and66, andthe lyrical `Andante espressivo' section
commencing at bar 156, in the first movement of Schumann'sPiano Concerto Op. 54

by with the Royal PhilharmonicSocietyOrchestra conducted ErnestAnsermet, recorded in 1928(CD 1/46).

EtelkaFreund'srecordings providea plethoraof examples dislocation.Shemakes of her themthroughout 1951recordingof Brahms'sSonata 5. In the first movement Op. she to seems havemadecalculated choicesasto its application.For example,shedoesnot in bar makedislocations the crashing accented chordsbetween 1 andbar 6, but duringthe very lyrical sectionwhich follows, dislocations the greatlyenhance beautyandpoignancy

100 In the chords in the right hand at the beginning of bars 7,8 and 12 (CD 1147). another of Freund makesvery continuous dislocations in the opening of the extraordinary example, Andante espressivo,of the sameSonata,greatly enhancingthe feeling secondmovement, of espressivo(CD 1/48).

If Brahms had disliked dislocation, his approval of the playing of the above-mentioned Freund, is inexplicable. Interestingly, Freund also studied with pianists, particularly Busoni in 1900 (as attestedin letters from him to her brother, Robert Freund) when Busoni was actively expunging dislocation and arpeggiation from his own playing. It is therefore surprising that Freund's playing retains so much of this style. She must have the type of expressionpossible with the use of dislocation, despitethe practice preferred her. From 1910 to 1936, Freund stoppedgiving concerts in order to raise of others around family, but it appearsthat during the time lapse she did not changeher mind and adopt a the newer synchronizedstyle.

Dislocation can also be heard to very expressiveeffect in her playing of Brahms's Intermezzo Op. 117 No. 2, and Capriccio Op. 76 No. 1, both recorded in 1950; Intermezzo Op. 116 No. 2 recorded in 1950; and the opening of J.S. Bach's Prelude in E flat minor recorded in 1957. There are also many pieces where she does not make dislocation. These include movementswhich are fast or scrupulously require a more becauseof their character. synchronizedstyle

101 As late as 1961, another student of Leschetizky, Benno Moiseiwitsch, can be heard

frequentlyplayingthe left handslightly afterthe right in his recordingof the third

movement from Chopin's SonataOp. 58. He also occasionally makesdislocations in the reverseorder (CD 1/49).

The evidence this throughout chaptershowsclearlythat the practiceof presented

dislocation heard in late-nineteenth-and early-twentieth-centuryrecordings was not

but performingpractice simply an idiosyncrasy the habit of a few players, a general or for that canbe tracedback to an earlierera,andwhich continued a significanttime during RichardHudson'sclaim that `it wasthe breakingof the twentiethcentury.In this respect, hands... became specialcharacteristic the period', needs that of particular a '03As hasbeenshown,it is morelikely that dislocationhadalreadybeena qualification. for a long periodbeforethe recordingera.The characteristic, necessarily not special, Saint-Saens otherswho, because Brahms,Leschetizky, and recordings Reinecke, of of true representatives pianism their age,mustbe considered, all thosewho recorded, of of duringthe second half of the nineteenth centuryshowin conjunctionwith the playingof
a younger generation that dislocation was part of an ongoing nineteenth-centurytradition.

Hudsonalsoconcludes mosttheorists the that wereagainst practiceof dislocation. Howeverat leastonesignificantwriter who is positiveaboutits use,Malwine Bree, to seems havebeenoverlooked.

103 Hudson, Stolen Time, 334.

102 Other texts, such as Charles Rosen's The Romantic Generation (1995), give perhapsan

it synonymous metricalrubato. impression dislocation, oversimplified making of with

Rosenstatesthat: It is probable that Chopin usedthe older form of rubato so important to Mozart (as he in his letters) and classedas an ornamentby late eighteenth-centurywriters. In writes this form, the melody note in the right hand is delayed until after the note in the bass. Mozart occasionally wrote this out in slow movements...and it is certain that he he did not write it out. We associatethis this way in many passages played where rubato with the early twentieth century, when it was used lavishly by manner of Ignacy Paderewski and Harold Bauer, more sparingly by Josef Hofmann and Moriz Rosenthal, but it datesback at least to 1750 if not before, and was already called derobe.'4 rubato, or temps Despite the fact that dislocation and metrical rubato sharethe common feature of

it by expressiveness achieved the separation notesof the melodyandaccompaniment, of It that dislocationwasa morelocalizedoccurrence. seems it wasnot that appears intended to bendthe rhythmof the melody,but to give to particularnotesan necessarily 4, Metrical rubato,aswill be seenin Chapter often includedmore expressive emphasis.
continual displacementakin to the style written out by Mozart and others and seemsto have been intended to give greaterrhythmic freedom to the melody line. In any case, without recordings of pianists such as Mozart and Chopin, it is impossible and dangerous to assumetheir practices are indeed the sameas Paderewski's and Bauer's or as each other's.

While somewritten textsfrom aroundthe turn of the twentiethcenturyconfirm and affirm the useof dislocation,manyfail to mentionit at all. Othersaredisparaging and however,as earlyrecordings call for its studious avoidance; show,the effect of what is
104 Rosen, Romantic C. The Generation (Harvard,1995);this edn.(London,1996),413.

103 promoted in thesetexts was probably not fully felt until the secondhalf of the twentieth century. The information in such texts cannotbe said to be completely representativeof the truth. It is also evident that other texts fail to preservemany of the important characteristicsof dislocation and presentsignificant anomaliesespecially when compared with recorded evidence.This underminesthe value of thesetexts as a meansof fully appreciating the practice. With certainty, dislocation was an intrinsic performing practice in the late-nineteenth century that had historical precedentsand continued in an unbroken

tradition in the early-twentieth century.

104

Chapter 3 Unnotated arpeggiation

At the beginning of the twentieth century arpeggiationwas as intrinsic to piano playing as dislocation. Early recordings show that many pianists frequently made unnotated the notes of chords separately,where not specifically indicated in arpeggiationsor played the musical text. These arpeggiationscausedthe separationof vertically aligned material two or more notes,variously describedin historical texts as double notes, comprising octavesand chords. The speedof such arpeggiationsvaried apparently according to function, mood and context. Early recordings also show that certain pianists made far less frequently, or not at all. This more synchronizedstyle of unnotatedarpeggiations however, does not appearto have becomethe rule until the secondhalf of the playing, twentieth century.

The addition of unnotated arpeggiationsseemsto have been consideredmost appropriate in slower expressivemovementsof Classical and Romantic repertoire; less so in lateor in music requiring a clean attack and nineteenth-centuryand contemporary repertoire, rhythmic incisiveness.However, there are times when the addition of an arpeggio gives a renewed impetus to the music. Pianists arpeggiatedone or other hand, or both together, and most commonly, the notes were played from the lowest to the highest note. In some cases,both hands spreadthe notes simultaneously; in others, the spreadcommencedwith the lowest note in the left hand and proceededcontinuously to the highest note in the

105 right hand. The aural effect of such arpeggiationsis that sometimesthe highest note in the chord (often the melody note) is aligned with a notional pulse; the accompanyingnote or notestherefore anticipate it. At other times, the lowest note in the chord is aligned with the notional pulse, thus delaying the arrival of the highest note. Where arpeggiation occurs in conjunction with dislocation of the handsor tempo modification, it is not always easyto discern where any of the notes lie in relation to the pulse. In such cases, the practice contributes to a senseof ambiguity, softening the edgesof the rhythm and texture. The main difference between arpeggiationand dislocation is that separationof the handsor playing the handsone after the other is not the underlying principle. In addition, the historical documentationbelow revealsthat it almost certainly stemsfrom a different root.

Unnotated arpeggiation is preservedon recordings made between the late-nineteenth century and at least the 1950s.In general, those pianists who used dislocation also made use of unnotated arpeggiation. Thus, the table in Chapter 2 (Fig. 2.3) provides examples Reinecke, Leschetizky, Ronald, Pugno, of it in the recordings of Brahms, Saint-Saans, Pachmann,Paderewski,Powell, La Forge,Rosenthal, and others.' It seemsthat these pianists arpeggiatedvarious chords in order:

"

to emphasize melodynotesby delayingthemandsettingthemapartfrom the harmonicaccompaniment

" "

to providea gentlecushionof soundsupporting melodynote the to give poignantharmonies softened a strengthened a or effect

1SeeChapter pages 2, 30-33.

106 to enliven the momentum and propel the music forward

"

"
"

to enrichthe soundor textureof the musicalmaterial

to mark the limits of phrases

"

in to delineate melodiesplayedsimultaneously onehand compound

its Considering widespread thereis a curiouslack of detailedwritten employment, from the late-nineteenth early-twentieth documentation arpeggiation and aboutunnotated it Sometextsrefer to its use,but describe only in general terms;othersadvise centuries.
its extremely judicious employment or absoluteavoidance,branding it as a perfunctory practice resulting in oversentimentality.Nevertheless,such warnings do not seemto have preventedmany leading pianists from continuing to use the technique well into the

twentiethcentury.As in the caseof dislocation, significantgulf appears exist to a between written adviceandpractice.

is generallylimited to performances In our own times,the useof unnotated arpeggiation on pluckedkeyboardinstruments virginalsandspinetswhereit is asharpsichords, such historically justified practice.Players suchinstruments accepted an appropriate as of in the often arpeggiate chordsto fill out andenhance soundof the instrument solo
repertoire and in the realization of figured bassaccompaniments.This technique provides a variety of colours and textures which are seldom indicated by the composer,but may be implied in the character of the composition, or (where they exist) the words. These considerationsinfluence the speedof arpeggiations and their shapealong with such

107 factorsasthe resonance and quality of the instrument the acoustic sizeof the and
performing space.

hasbeenusedmuchlessfrequently,or not at all, in live and Unnotated arpeggiation havebecome duringthe pastforty or fifty years.Suchpractices recorded pianoplaying discredited the extentthat mostmodernpianistsareextremely hesitantabout, or to indicatedby the introducingarpeggios unless expressly would neverevenconsider, for synchronized This present-day chordplayingis the reason composer. penchant why chordspreading, soundforeignand someearlyrecordings, with their abundant perturbing.

Unnotated arpeggiation is simply not part of modem mainstreampianistic technique and on occasion, its use is met with fierce opposition, as exemplified in the criticism of Melvyn Tan's `rolling' of the first chord of Beethoven's Piano Concerto Op. 58, cited in Chapter 22 Even certain informed texts advise against such practices in spite of strong

historicalevidence. example, TheRomanticGeneration in (1995),Charles For supporting

Rosen writes: Brahms... arpeggiatedmost chords when he played, according to contemporary but I do not suggestthis as a guide for performing his works.3 witnesses,

Rosen's justification for advisingagainst is arpeggiation unclear.If Brahmsarpeggiated to this a highly legitimateBrahmsian mostchords,is it not reasonable consider performingpractice?
ZSeeChapter page25. 2,

Rosen, The Romantic Generation, 413.

108

Written texts

Some late-nineteenth-centurywritten texts advise that the addition of arpeggiation where

has the composer not notatedit is indispensable, outline its function.Others,suchas and the highly detailedpedagogical textsby Christiani,LussyandRiemannfail to mentionit. is Malwine Bree,whosedescriptions Amongthosewho discuss arpeggiation unnotated of 2. Leschetizky's dislocationpracticewerenotedin Chapter In 1902sheaffirms its
importance stating that:4 One must not always arpeggiateonly such chords as are too wide-spreadto play "flat". An arpeggio is also in order where a tender or delicate effect is desired.In such cases the right hand plays arpeggio, while the left strikes its chord flat; i. e.,
Paderewski,Legende.

Conversely, chordsounds the energetic, yet not hard,whenthe right handstrikes and its tonessimultaneously the left arpeggiates; this mustbe a very swift but and arpeggio; g., e.
Chopin, Scherzo.

4 Bree, The Groundwork, 72-3.

109 An arpeggio may also be employed where the polyphony is to be brought out more distinctly; but only at important points, for instancewhere one part endsand the other begins at the sametime; as in Schumann'sRomanze:
Schumann's Romanze.

Similarly in a canon:
Padarewski, Theme vane.

ElsewhereBree notes that:5

The octavemarked* is arpeggio'd,andsoplayedthat the lower basstoneexactly coincides with the first beat,while the upperbasstone is strucktogether with the righthandchord,producingan extremelyslight retardation.
Schumann, Grillen

V
II

' Ibid., 70-1.

110
Here, in a concise manner,Bree describescertain types of unnotatedarpeggiationthat

by, These havebeenfamiliar to, andapproved Leschetizky. are would undoubtedly

summarizedas follows: " Arpeggiations can be made in placesother than where the spacingof a chord is

too wide for the notesto be playedsimultaneously. " The arpeggiation a chordin the right handplayedagainst unarpeggiated an of in the left handcreates tenderor delicateeffect. a chord " The arpeggiation a chordin the left handplayedagainst unarpeggiated an of
in the right hand createsan energetic effect without harshness. chord " Arpeggiation can be used to delineate certain important moments in polyphonic or finishes and another simultaneously canonic music, showing where one part

commences. " Arpeggiationcanbe usedto createa slight retardation the uppervoice or chord, of by aligningthe lowestnotewith the notionalpulse,andplayingthe remaining slightly later. notes

factorsunclarified.For example, in Thoughinformative,Brie's text leavesseveral in onehandagainst unarpeggiated chordin the other,or an playingan arpeggiated chord in makingarpeggiations general, positioningof the chordscompared in the with the Here,it is possible align oneor otherhandwith the beat, to notionalbeatis unspecified.
to make arpeggiationsacrossthe beat, yet Bree fails to distinguish between them. She or is more explicit, as in the caseof the final example, where she clearly statesthat the

lowestbassnoteis alignedwith the beat.In this particularcase,arpeggiation occurs

111 betweenthe lowest note in the left hand and the remaining note played simultaneously the unarpeggiatedchord in the right hand. The example may provide a clue about with how to play other passages that combine arpeggiatedand unarpeggiatedchords, but this be verified. Apart from one instance,Bree also fails to comment on the speedof cannot arpeggiationsor the pattern of distribution of notes,that is, lowest to highest or some alternative shape.

Despitethesedeficiencies, Bree'stext confirmsthatLeschetizky considered unnotated

important. This fact is further supportedin Frank Merrick's reminiscences arpeggiation cited in Chapter 2. Merrick recalls Leschetizky's advice that chords should be spreadout in one hand, or that the interval of the seventhshould be broken becauseof the poignant dissonance,explaining that `in those days people regardedthesethings as intensifying '6 expression,but now think them over-sentimental.

in BreeandMerrick providewritten confirmationof the positiveacceptance somecircles in It the practiceof unnotated preserved manyearlyrecordings. is evident of arpeggiation disparaging, that written texts,thoughsometimes provideconfirmationthat unnotated half of the nineteenth in arpeggiation widely employed the second was century.In The Art of PianofortePlaying (1877),ErnstPauerdiscusses what he calls the `modern' arpeggio style in Englandopiningthat: The chief requisitefor playingchordseffectivelyis the possession sufficient and of equalstrengthin all the fingers.Whetherthe chordis formedof three,four or five notes,the distinctness the middle note or noteswill be alwaysthe essential of and mostimportantpoint. It is but rarelythat teachers gratifiedby hearingtheir pupils are play good,firm, anddistinct chords.The moderntendency play in the brokenor to
6Merrick, `Memories Leschetizky',13. of

112 arpeggio manner has become so generally diffused, that some performers seemto consider firm chords altogether obsolete.The chord, when firmly played, is the the expressionof determination, strength,and earnestness; broken chord, or the arpeggiando, on the other hand, is the expressionof softness,langour, despondency, and irresolution. The one may be likened to the man, the other to the women, in Milton's great epic:-

"For contemplation andvalour formed; he, "' For softness andsweetattractivegrace. she,
Elsewhere,Pauer vehemently prohibits the use of arpeggiosunlessexpresslynotated in the text, adding that one of the most frequent faults is `playing chords in the arpeggiando firm chords are indicated'. 8 Historical documentation revealsthat whereas manner where each generation of pianists thought of arpeggiation as a modem practice, it was nothing new and was consideredan indispensableexpressivedevice throughout the nineteenth century and earlier. As will be seenbelow, Czerny calls it a `modem' tendency in 1846.

Thereis little doubtthat Pauerwasrailing against styleof playingin which unnotated a in For the basicmeans expression. arpeggiation arpeggiation general and wasoneof of him, the arpeggiated Like to and stylecontributed oversentimental effeminateexpression. the manyotherwriterscited below,Pauerencouraged development equalityof finger of in strength chordplayingandwantedall notesto be distinct without resortingto Earlier writers,too, encouraged arpeggiation. subtlecontrol andbalance finger weight, of to the especially enhance expression the melodynotein a chord.But it is possible that of for Pauerandothers,slight or very tight arpeggiation not considered was arpeggiation at all.

Pauer,Pianoforte Playing, 46. 8Ibid., 70.

113

Othertextsimply that firm chordplayingandarpeggiation wereequallyvaluable.In 1858,SigmundLebertandLudwig Stark,who commented the usefulness on of
dislocation, advise that `one can, and in most cases,should... releasethe chords in the hand which contains the melody sooner [than the melody], which naturally emphasizes

'9 it, the melody,or arpeggio while playingthe melodynotemorestrongly. Hereit is clear that unnotated to the a arpeggiation considered suitablealternative enhance was
expressionof the melody note.

is Aroundthe same time, supportfor the useof unnotated arpeggiation found in Thalberg'sL'Art du chant.He states that: The chordswhich carrya songor melodyto the highernoteshouldalwaysbe played in arpeggiofashion,but very tight andalmosttogether, the noteof the melody and ' thanthe othernotesof the chord. moreexpressively how the melodynotecouldbe playedmore Tantalizingly,Thalbergdoesnot describe Elsewhere L'Art du chant,he presents pianotranscriptions in solo expressively. of indicatingchordsto be arpeggiated struck popularvocal works annotated or with signs firm. Thalberg'stranscriptionOp. 70 of the Lacrymosa from Mozart'sRequiem 626 is K oneof manyexamples providingwritten andpictorial evidence instances of where

9 Lebert and Stark, Klavierschule, part 3,3; `man darf also und soll sogar in den meisten Fllen... den der Melodie in der nmlichen Hand beigegebenAccord schnellerauslassen, wodurch jene von selbst hervortritt, oder harpeggiren,wobei der Gesangnatrlich strker angeschlagen wird. ' 'o Thalberg, L Art du chant, unpaginated[2]; `Les accordsqui porteront un chant la note superieuredevront toujours s'arpt ger, mais TRES SERRES, PresquePLAQUES, et la note de chant plus appuyeeque les autresnotes de l'accord'; trans. in Thalberg and Vieuxtemp'sGrand Concert Book, 5, as; `...The chords which carry a song or melody to the higher note should always be played in arpeggio fashion, but very close and even, and the note of the melody more expressivelythan the other notes of the chord.'

114
to be applied separatelyand together (Fig. arpeggiatedand un-arpeggiatedchords are

3.1).He advises that:

All the chords which have the sign [ [should be played] rigorously together. Those [chords] which have the sign 1must be arpeggiatedin a very tight [or dry] manner and

" almosttogether.
Fig. 3.1 Mozart's Requiem arr. Thalberg, bars 1 to 7.12

M.O. M D. M D.
1o r

M. G. Jj

D.

d 77

77

* lea $

lzA

as% ,

Significantly,in bars3 and4 andotherplaceswherethe main melodyis to be played signs.Wherethe melodyappears softly, the supporting chordsare markedwith arpeggio
in a fortissimo dynamic, Thalberg's notation indicates strictly un-arpeggiatedchords.
11 Thalberg, L' Art du chant, 1; `Tous les accordsportant cc signe [ seront rigoureusement plaques.Ceux portant celui-ci ! devront titre arpegesd'une maniirre tres serree,presqueplaques.' 12 Ibid., 1-2

115
In general, however, here and in other arrangements, Thalberg encourages highly a arpeggiatedstyle of playing. In fact, throughout L'Art du chant, the sign [ rarely appears; the Mozart example is one of the few that usesit extensively. From this evidence,it is to assumethat this practice, once absorbedinto a pianist's technique, might be reasonable in applied freely at appropriate passages other repertoire. In bars 5,6, and 7 and similar instanceswhere there is a break in the main melodic line, however, arpeggiatedand unarpeggiatedchords appearin combination. Yet, neither the criteria underlying this application nor the resulting effects are clarified by Thalberg. In this respect,there is an between such combinations and those encouragedby Bree and obvious correlation attributed to Leschetizky. Bree's explanations,therefore, might bear some resemblanceto the effect intended by Thalberg. It is evident that, in the arrangementabove, he is their combination and must have intended them to create specific effects. particular about

The many arrangementsin L'Art du chant show that, for Thalberg, arpeggiation was an intrinsic expressivedevice. Certain details, however, remain unclear. For example, he did not verbally state where arpeggiation was inappropriate. Furthermore, in the above references,he advisesthat the spreadingof notes be very swill, giving the impression that no variation of speedis permissible. This seemsimprobable for sophisticatedpiano playing, but the overall rule may have been propoundedto prevent studentsand amateurs

from makinginappropriate resultingin exaggerated arpeggiations syncopations, clashes of harmonies, largegapsbetween and successive melodynotes.Without audible it to evidence, is neitherpossible appreciate exactlywhat Thalbergintended, indeed nor to surmise whetherhe followed this rule invariably.

116

Thalberg'spractices may havebeeninheritedfrom earlierFrenchpianism.In his

Methodepour apprendre le piano forte I'aide du guide-mains Op. 108 (c. 1831), Frederic Kalkbrenner (1785-1849) provides a somewhatbrief, though highly significant, few instanceswhere unnotated explanation and pictorial example, outlining a

in arpeggiation maybe applied.Accordingly,only certainparticularmoments a phrase 13 be arpeggiated. Kalkbrenner that: wereto states
In passages double notes, octavesor chords, the long notes must be arpeggiated; of those, which precede,must not be. All the notes which have ao placed above, must be played together.
/111tI. 111tC. e0>
3

01 --n-

0i

110

01 o

lpf

Ci

5
i i-

ixe,
Am 1 ' 1

6'rr :

To

".

frr I

1-1

111.

I.-;:; I,

The aboveadvicerevealsseveralimportantdetails.Kalkbrenner doublenotes, considered if octaves chordssuitablefor arpeggiation thesecoincidedwith the highest,or most and harmonicallydissonant In the pointsin the phrase. suchcases chordsleadingto andfrom Notably, in suchpoints,particularlywhenof equalvalue,wereto remainun-arpeggiated. his illustration,the chordsto be arpeggiated alsoaccented, lendingfurther supportto are Also noticeableis the arpeggio the ideathat arpeggiation suchemphasis. could enhance signnext to the last chordin the left hand.Thoughunstated, arpeggiation would in the presumably enhance, this andothercases, endingof a phraseor pieceby producing a softened effect.As will be seenbelow,Phillip Cord in 1810showsa similar
13 Kalkbrenner, Methode F. pour apprendre le piano forte b Vaide du guide-mains, Op. 108,2nd edn. (Paris, c. 1831), 12; `bans les passages doubles notes, en octaves,ou en accords,les notes en longuesdoivent titre arpegees; celles qui les prudent ne doivent pas titre.'

117 arpeggiation of a final chord. Elsewhere,Kalkbrenner advisesthat `when playing

it [originally] written for orchestra is necessary the compositions aboveall to suppress

'14 arpeggios,the greatestmerit of an orchestraconsisting in the ensemble. Presumably, arpeggiation was not appropriate in piano arrangementsof orchestral compositions,

inherentin orchestral because resultingeffect would not reflectthe synchrony the style. de in Interestingly, his Methodecomplete piano Op. 100(c. 1837),Henri Herzmadea
more direct comparison between the orchestraand the piano saying that: Ensemble is the principal merit of an orchestra:the piano, which imitates it [the imposes on the player the samelaw, above all in those passages which are orchestra] dominated by a complicated harmony.15

In spiteof this advice,it is possible that wherethe harmonywaslesscomplicated, some degree arpeggiation of may havebeenpermitted.

brief description only one is Althoughnoteworthy, is probablethat Kalkbrenner's it for exampleof the innumerable was necessary wherearpeggiation considered situations expressive of effect.Moreover,he saysnothingaboutthe speed arpeggiation whether or this arpeggios shouldcommence or beforethe notionalpulse.Presumably, wasleft to on
the judgement of the player. He also omitted to mention anything about note order.

"H. Herz, Methode complete depiano Op. 100 (Paris, [1837]), 86; `L'ensemble fait le principal mbrite d'un orchestre:le piano, qui en est I'imitation, impose 1'ex6cutantla meme loi, surtout dans les passages domine une harmonic compliquee.' o

14 Ibid., 12; 'enjouant deschosen les compos6es l'orchestreil faut tout--faitsupprimer pour le dans1'ensemble. ' arpeges, plusgrandmcritedun orchestre consistant

118 By the middle of the nineteenth century, certain types of articulation apparently implied the use of arpeggio. In the `Remarkson Touch' in his Studiesfor the Pianoforte Op. 70 16 (London, 1827), Ignace Moscheles advises: dots are used with slurs over double notes and chords, these should be struck when in the Arpeggio manner, giving them the samelength of time as a dot very slightly under a slur requires.
Example:

Should be performed thus:

to Moscheles's Studies accompanying seem havebeenwidely disseminated. remarks and in Theyappeared a later Englishedition in 1844,17 Frenchedition in c. 1845,18 it is and a in little significance ErnstPauer'srevisededition published Londonin 188619 that of no beenunequivocally to Had Pauer includesthe sameinstructions. opposed the arpeggio
be implied in his advice above, it standsto reasonthat he might have manner, as seemsto this part of the text or at least registered his dissent in a footnote. removed or modified And Gordon Saunders'sedition of the works in 1899 also reproducesMoscheles's 21 20Significantly, however, Franklin Taylor's edition in 1915 suppressed Remarks. them.

19 Moscheles, for Studies thePianoforteOp. 70, rev. E. Pauer(London,Augener Co. 1886). & 20Moscheles, Op. (London,A. Hammond,1899). Studies 70, ed.GordonSaunders 21Moscheles, Etudes, F. Taylor (London,Novello & Co., 1915). ed.

16 Moscheles,Studiesfor the Piano Forte Op. 70, Bk. 1(London, S. Chappell and J.B. Cramer I. & Beale, 1827), 6. 17 Moscheles,Studiesfor the Pianoforte Op. 70 (London, Cramer Addison & Beale, 1844). 18 Moscheles,Etudes ou lecons de perfectionnement, avec notes explicatives sur la maniere de les Jiudier et de les executer,pour piano... Op. 70,3rd edn. (Paris, J. Meisonnier et fils, c. 1845).

119

half Thusthe appearance suchdirectionsin the second of the nineteenth of centurygave they cameacross portatosign. the pianiststhe licenceto makearpeggiations wherever

On other occasions,Moscheles required the striking of chords absolutely together in

in for compositions the brilliant style.In his Study particularcircumstances as such

No. 13 (Allegro Brilliant) Op. 70, he remarks that: The perfect performance of double notes and especially 3rds being a very great importance, this Study is intended as a practice for giving precision and facility to their execution. The performer must be particularly careful not to yield to that feeblenessof finger which preventsthe double notes from being struck with equal force and precisely at the sametime.22

Suchcomments havebeenan attemptto stemthe invariableuseof unnotated may arpeggio, they may simply havebeenfor the benefitof technicalstudy. or Furtherdocumentation that the so-called`modern'tendency playingin the of reveals brokenor arpeggio just by during mannermentioned Pauerwasapparently aspervasive the first half of the nineteenth of century.The importance Carl Czerny'snotationof an
arpeggio sign implying that Beethoven employed one in performing the first chord of his

PianoConcerto Op. 58 hasalreadybeencited in Chapter Czemy'svariouswritten texts 2.

show that he certainly approved of unnotated arpeggiation when employed with propriety. Like Pauer, Czerny criticized what he too designatedas the `modem' practice of arpeggiating indiscriminately. In this respect,a very significant comment is to be found in his advice about playing contrapuntal music. Providing the appendedexample, in the Supplementto his Royal Pianoforte School (London, 1846), Czerny statesthat:23

22Moscheles,Studies Op. 70 Bk 2 (London, J.B. Cramer & Beale, 1827), 1. 23Czerny, Supplement, 157.

120

It hasoften beenobserved, thosewho exclusivelydevotethemselves the that to modemstyleof playing,areunableto performa fugueproperly.This arisesfrom the following causes: in 1. In the modem style, all passages many parts are now invariably played in arpeggio; and so greatly is this the case,that many pianists have almost forgotten how to strike chords firmly. Many, otherwise really good players, would not be able to perform the following passage quite firm; that is, to strike all the notes of each chord exactly together.

Elsewhere, Czerny reiterates that in fugue playing `every note must be sustained

to preciselyaccording its value;andperformingin arpeggio,or strikingthe notesof the

different parts one after another, is by no meanspermitted. In this respectthe pianoforte must be treated exactly like the organ, where all chords are struck exactly together.'24 Czerny's comparison between the un-arpeggiatedorgan style and piano playing was not new. As Clive Brown has noted, `the ubiquity of arpeggiation in piano playing in England during the early decadesof the nineteenth century is suggested a letter written by by Samuel Wesley in 1829.' Wesley observesthat pianists `do not put down the Keys simultaneously which on the Organ should always be done, but one after another, beginning at the lowest note of the Base.'25

24Czerny, Supplement, 126.

25C. Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice 1750-1900 (Oxford, 1999), 612.

121 Indeed, in his earlier text, Vollstndige theoretische practische Pianoforte-Schule Op. 500 (Vienna, 1839) translated as Theoretical and Practical Pianoforte School Op. 500 (London, 1839), Czemy registereda stem reaction againstthe overuseof unnotatedarpeggiation: Many players accustomthemselvesso much to Arpeggio chords, that they at last become quite unable to strike full chords or even double notes firmly and at once; latter way is the general rule, while the former constitutes the exception.26 though this The above referencesshow that Czerny did not favour arpeggiationsmade continuously; however, there is no doubt that he approvedof them in specific situations. He noted that `the exception (namely the Arpeggioing of the chords) may so frequently be employed That [sic] we have only to determine in what casesthe one is more suitable with effect. than the other.'27In attempting to describe these,he first listed situations where arpeggios,as a general rule, were to be avoided:

1. All chordsconsistingof very shortnotes,shouldbe struckfirmly andat once,when has indicatedthe contrary. the Composer not expressly

26C. Czerny, vollstndige theoretische practische Pianoforte-Schule Op. 500,3 vols. (Vienna, 1839); trans. as Theoretical and Practical Pianoforte School Op. 500 (London, 1839), vol, 3,55. 27Ibid., vol. 3,55.

122
Allegro vivace

2. Such chords as require to be played with very great power, particularly when they form the commencementor the close of the piece, or of any considerableportion of one, almost always produce the best effect when they are struck plain; as arpeggioing always diminishes and destroyssome part of the Forte. The samerule applies when two or more chords follow one after anothervery quickly. Ex:
Maestoso.

The Composer to shouldalwaysindicatewherehe desires havethesechordsplayedin Arpeggio.

3. Passages several parts, which form a connectedmelody, or which are written in in the syncopatedor strict style, must always be played with firmness and exactly as written; and it is only occasionally, that a single, slow, and full chord, on which a particular emphasisis required, may be played in Arpeggio. Ex:

123

Andante.

Only the 3 chords distinguished by a+ (the last one in every case)will admit of a interrupt the legato.28 moderate arpeggio, which, however, must not It is perhapssurprising to find that no arpeggiation is permitted for the particularly long chords at the beginning of the secondexample above.Although Czerny felt that arpeggiation detracted from the effect of forte, and other writers advised that it causeda weakening effect, Philip Corri (cited below), remarkedthat quick arpeggiation could enhancebrilliancy. Perhapsmore significant is that in strict compositions of severalparts (as in Czerny's third example above), certain arpeggiationswere consideredpermissible, particularly where chords form especially poignant harmonies or consist of an unusually large number of notes. Thus, even in contrapuntal music, unnotated arpeggiationscould enhancethe beauty of certain chords, giving them a particular emphasisor colour. We

in to may concludethat Czernywasnot absolutely opposed the useof arpeggiation music of the stricterstyle suchas fugue.

Furthermore, Czernydiscusses wherearpeggiation situations may definitely be applied: On the otherhand,the arpeggiois employed: 1.In all slow and sustained chordswhich do not form any melody.Ex:

28 Ibid., vol. 3,55-6.

124
Andante

65 43

The last chord in the 0 bar must not be sprinkled, as it closesa section of the melody; while all the other chords must be arpeggioedwith moderatequickness,yet that the in out of its time.29 upper or melodial note shall never come

Thereis an obvioussimilarity between rule andthat of Thalbergcited above. this Czerny's`chordswhich do not form anymelody', obviouslycomprise thosenotes forming a chordbelow freely movingmelodynotes.As such,however, melodynotes the
are part of the chord. Notably, Czerny advisesthat the final chord in this example should be struck firm, presumably to make a contrast with the arpeggiatedchord that precedesit. Therefore, in a standardfeminine cadential formula, the six-four chord receivescolour and emphasisby arpeggiation, and resolvesto an un-arpeggiatedand unaccentedfivethree chord. Czerny advisesthat the speedof arpeggiationbe of moderate quicknessbut so that the melody note soundsin time. It standsto reasonthat the only way to achieve this is to commencethe arpeggiation before the beat; arpeggiating from the beat would result in a delay of the melody note. Here, it is difficult to appreciate what speedor range by of speedsis encompassed the term `moderatequickness'. It is possible that Czerny's `moderatequickness' had a similar meaning to Thalberg's `very tight' or `almost together'. Unfortunately, here and in other places, such descriptive languagelacks clarity. Moreover, Czerny statesthat: 9Ibid., vol. 3,56. N.B. chordsymbols havebeenaddedby N. Peres Costa. Da

125
2. When after a long and smoothly connectedchord, severalothers occur which are quicker, only the first one must be arpeggioed.Ex:
Lento
11

p>
lie r lk

>
S l; a P

Here only the chords distinguished by + are to be arpeggioed. It is still more necessary observethis rule, when the quicker chords are at the same to time to be played staccato.Ex:
Moderato
Li

op
gip , %p .

TE

+++

Heretoo only the 3 chordsmarked+ canbe playedin Arpeggio.

3. In arpeggioing, the single notes may not only be played so extremely fast, that the arpeggioedchord shall almost resemblea chord struck plain; but they may also be played slower and slower, in every possible gradation, down to that degreein which each single note will be equal in duration to a crotchet in slow time; we must measure and apply these different degrees,exactly according as the chord is to be held down long or quickly detached,and struck either piano and smorzando,or forte and hard. Ex:
Largo
ci.. I. 6P. AA

126 Here the single notes of the arpeggioedchords must follow one another extremely begin to count the time prescribed from the last and highest note. slow, and we only forms a sort of pause. To this extension of the time we are entitled, as the passage If, however, this passage marked Fortissimo, the Arpeggio should not by any were meansbe so slow, but rather very quick; or, still better, not be employed at all, unless himself.30 actually prescribed by the Author There is a clear correlation between Czerny's secondand third examplesin which equalvalued chords remain un-arpeggiated,and Kalkbrenner's example showing a similar practice. It is significant that Czerny felt a need to remark that staccatochords should not be arpeggiated.This supportsthe notion that some early-nineteenth-centurypianists made frequent unnotated arpeggiationsregardlessof context or situation. Also significant is that arpeggioscould be played in varying speedsdependingentirely on the characteror features of the composition and its intended effect. Thus, at least in theory, there seemsto be confusion between this and the apparentinflexibility of arpeggio speedpromoted by Thalberg. Although more detailed than many other references,there are issuesregarding the practice of unnotated arpeggiation which are unclear and it is probable that Czerny's advice is only a guide to some of the innumerable situations where it was applicable.

The practiceof unnotated be indirectly referredto in Johann Baptist may arpeggiation Cramer'sInstructions, the Pianoforte(London,1812).He notesthat: for Several intervalsplayedsuccessively form a Melody, whenstrucktogether, they form Harmony,andthe art a combinationcalleda chord,a succession chordsconstitutes of of accompanying voice, or an Instrument a to with chordsplayedaccording some figuressetoverthe BassNotesof a composition, calleda Thoroughbass. is Chordsmaybe playedin two different ways,first in an abruptmannerstriking all the Notesat once,which is donechiefly at the endof a pieceor a sentence. 2.dly In Arpeggiosounding the successively Notesof which the chordis composed, andkeepingthem down until the time of the chordbe filled up.
'o Ibid., vol. 3,55-6.

127 ( rthis : is generally placed by When a chord is to be played in Arpeggio this mark the side of the Chord, some Authors make use of a stroke acrossthe Chord, thus

N.B. The Notes of a Chord are played with more or less velocity, as the characterof the piece requires. When the hand of the performer is too small to reach all the Notes of a Chord, the lower Notes of the Treble may be left out but not the upper one; also the highestNote lowest.31 of the Bass may be omitted but not the Cramer's advice is very important for severalreasons.First, by sayingthat the composer

`generally'marksarpeggios, thereis recognitionthat this wasnot alwaysthe caseand that on an undefinednumberof occasions, arpeggiations wereleft to the whim of the his playingis clearlylinked with the art of of performer.Secondly, discussion arpeggio figuredbassaccompaniment. Herethenis a clearindicationthat early-nineteenth-century
techniquesusedby keyboard players in previous centuries. piano playing retained certain Notably, Cramer consideredun-arpeggiatedchords to have an `abrupt' effect. This might

be relatedto the soundof earlierinstruments suchasthe harpsichord, wherethe simultaneous a striking of the notesof chordsproduces strongandaccented effect because the pluckingof the strings.In the mid-eighteenth of century,C.P.E. Bach that in suggested un-arpeggiated suitablefor morelively sections recitatives, chordswere statingthat `assoonasthe accompaniment to shifts from sustained short,detached notes, the accompanist mustplay detached, resolutechords,un-arpeggiated, fully grasped and by both hands. Later in the eighteenth '32 century,this styleof playingwasalso by to recommended Turk, for example, makea loud effect or emphasis particularlyfor

3' J.B. Cramer,Instructions for the Pianoforte (London, 1812), Appendix, part 4,42. 32Bach, Versuch,422.

128 '33 dissonantharmonies so `that the passionsshould be especially aroused. Foucquet by stating that `when one encountersseveralnotes in the bass,it implied much the same is, to commencewith the lowest and so on, being is necessaryto arpeggiatethem, that for the sake of the melody to make the highest the last, which rendersthe touch careful indispensablefor piecesof sentiment.'34The synonimity of unmellow and graceful chords with loud, accentedand abrupt effects signifies some relationship arpeggiated between harpsichord and early piano technique. Indeed,Mozart's piano style probably harpsichordtechnique, particularly in directing retained elementsof un-arpeggiated incisive audible portrayal of the tempo was concertos, symphoniesand operaswhere an imperative. In this respect,Carl Czerny's recollections of his early lessonswith Beethoven are significant:

in the manual[C.P.E. Bach's Versuch] He thenhadme play throughthe studies given to the legato,which he himself hadmastered suchan andpointedout especially to degree, which all otherpianistsof that time considered be incomparable and impossible executeon the fortepiano,asit wasstill the fashion(asin Mozart's time) to himself told me in later yearsthat he Beethoven in a detached, to play abruptmanner. hadheardMozart play on several a andthat Mozarthaddeveloped modeof occasions, the claviersof that time that wasnot at all suitableto the fortepiano.Some playingon later I alsomadethe acquaintance several persons who hadstudiedunder of years 35 borneout by their playing. Mozart, andfoundBeethoven's remark in Furthermore, confirmingthe appropriateness the abruptstyleat the endof of Cramerimpliesthat othermoments requireda different effect, compositions phrases, or that arpeggios the arpeggiostyle.Like Czerny,Crameralsostates maybe made perhaps
33Tiirk, Klavierschule, 340. 34Foucquet,Pisces de clavecin, preface to Second livre; `S'il se rencontreplusieurs notes dans la basse,il faut les harpeger,c'est dire commencerpar la plus basseet ainsi de suite, observant dansle dessusde faire entendrela plus haute, la dernii re, ce qui rend le toucher moulleux, ' fracieux et indispensablepour le pieces de sentiments. s C. Czerny, `Erinnerungenausmeinem Leben', Neue BeethovenJahrbuch, vol. 9,1939; trans. as `Recollections from my Life' by C. MacClintock, Readings in the History ofMusic in Performance (Bloomington, 1982), 384.

129
at varying speedsaccording to the requirementsof the composition. This again relates closely to harpsichord playing where the arpeggiation of chords with a variety of speeds was considereda type of ornament. C.P.E. Bach advisesthat, in recitative `The pace with which a chord is arpeggiateddependson the tempo and accompaniment, The slower and more affetuoso the latter is, the slower the content of a recitative. arpeggiation.'36Thus, to some extent, the player was expectedto be the composer.In this respect,Brown's observation about the ornamental nature of arpeggiosis of particular interest: As with all such ornamentsin this period, there is no reasonto think that composers troubled to mark every place where they might have expected,or been happy to have heard arpeggiation, or that they specified every aspectof its performance.

Evenstronger proof that annotated was arpeggiation certainlyan earlynineteenth-century pianisticpracticeis found in Philip Corri's L'anima di musica(London,1810).With to reference the givenillustration(No. 1), Corri asksthe readerto:
Andante NO

Observe that in the aboveExample,the longernotesonly, areto be played thosethat areequalareto be strucktogether, appogiando; tho' not staccato; the and endof the tie musthavethe cadence fall, that is; to be touchedlightly. or But if on the contrary,all the chordsareplayedappogiando, without distinction,the Time andMetre would be so confused disguised no air or melody that and could be
36Bach, Versuch,422.

37 Brown,PerformingPractice,610.

130

it that discoverable, therefore, shouldbe remember'd wherenotesor chordsareof and * length,in succession, shouldall be playedtogether. they equal
To prove what I havejust assertedplay the foregoing Example with all the notes Judgethen which is the most pleasing style; the appogiandoand without emphasis1st at No 1- monotonous without expression,the 2nd at No 2 with proper expressionthe 3rd asjust directed, with an excessof expression. or
Andante

The latter style is two [sic] often adoptedby those who affect to play with Taste and from ignorance of its effects, distort and disfigure the melody so hideously that who it out; I therefore recommendthe appogiandoto be used cautiously no one can make and sparingly. There are occasionswhere the appogiandomay be used, altho' it be not for emphasis, for instance; - in a slow strain, the long chords are to be sustained,tho' there are many their harmony is better heard, and producesmore effect by of the samequality, yet being touch'd appogiando,(As the Minims in the following Ex: ) but then observethat the Crotchets that follow, being shorter, ought to be played together as a relief to the other style. Adagio m

..

Further Examples, shewing that the appogiandoshould be used on the long chords; and also on shorter ones, where brilliancy is required to be given, touching them as nearly as possible together. -

131

Allegro

Dussek

Whenthe words`conespressione, Anima, or Dolce etc.' aremark'd at a passage, con be particularlyandoftenused,andmadeaslong it signifiesthat the appogiando must aspossible. 38 I shallnext explain. * [Corri's footnote]Thereis an exception which
The similarities between Corri's and Czerny's advice are clearly evident. The fact that Corri found it necessaryto discussthe practice where `all chords are played appogiando' that in some circles, that is precisely what occurred. It is also again strongly suggests interesting to find that they believed arpeggiation could enhancefaster, more bravura This is a technique by making much swifter arpeggiosthan in slower passages. passages in harpsichord playing. Again it is evident that remnantsof older practices may also used have been retained in early-nineteenth-centurypiano playing.

Most importantly,Corri suggests certaincommondescriptive termssuchascon that indicationsthat arpeggiation must espressione, anima,anddolcewereunequivocal con be appliedfrequentlyandthat sucharpeggios mustin someway fill out the soundof the
bars, and phrases.Presumably,this was achieved by playing arpeggiosslowly, or notes, perhaps(as in harpsichord technique) by rolling the chord in various directions. In such 38 A. Corri, L'anima di musica(London,1810),76-7. P .

132

did compositions, needto insertarpeggio composers not necessarily signs,knowingfull that well that this wasan accepted expected practice.Thus,thereis clearevidence the and
so-called late-nineteenth-centurytendencyto arpeggiatewas already widely cultivated in the early-nineteenth century or even earlier, and representsa continuation of earlier

harpsichord clavichordtechnique. and

In this light, it is impossible to appreciatewhat Corri, Czerny, or Pauer would really have consideredan overuseof unnotatedarpeggiation.Perhapsall they were truly criticizing was the inartistic application of arpeggioscausingdistortion of the phraseor the melodic line. Their rules may have been simply a meansof creating some boundariesfor students that would not necessarilyhave applied to trained artists. It is inappropriate to judge their idea of the sparing use of unnotatedarpeggiationsby today's standards.In any case,it is clear that during the nineteenth century, musical notation simply did not preservemany such practices as were consideredintrinsic to musical expression,any more than

in composers the normallyindicatedvibrato or portamento violin music.In this sense, to the pianistwasexpected be creativeby embellishing scoreaccording currentnotions to of goodtaste.

This improvisedaspectof keyboard For playinghadearlierhistoricalprecedents. example,in the `Preface'to his Toccate partite d'intavolatura (Rome,1614),Girolamo e Frescobaldi that `thebeginningof the toccatas advises shouldbe playedslowly and arpeggiando; similarly, syncopations tied notesin the middle of the piece. and

133 Chordal harmonies should be broken with both handsso that the instrument may not hollow'39 (Fig. 3.2). Frescobaldi encouragedthe performer to embellish certain sound they pleased.Following similar principles, Johann-JakobFroberger's sectionsas Toccataspublished in 1649 and 1656 contain many similar placeswhere, dependingon though not indicated (Fig. keyboard instrument, arpeggiation is necessary the choice of 3.3). And Louis Couperin's Preludes non mesures(c. mid-17th century) give clear indications of arpeggio shapesbut leave elementsof rhythm and speedto the performer (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.2

Frescobaldi Toccata Settima, bars 1 to 4.40

Fig. 3.3

Froberger's Toccata V, bars 1 to 3.41

39G. Frescobaldi, `Preface', Toccate e partite d'intavolatura (Rome, 1614); cited in MacClintock, Readings, 133. 40 Frescobaldi, `Toccatasettima' from `The SecondBook of Toccatas,Canzoni etc.', Orgel und Klavierverke, ed. P. Pidoux (Kassell, Brenreiter, 1963), vol. 4,29. 41J.J. Froberger, `ToccataV', Oevrescompletespour clavecin, ed. H. Schott (Paris, Heugel & Cie., 1979), 17.

134 Fig. 3.4 Louis Couerin Prelude A L'Imitation De Mr. Froberger, opening sequence.

The evidence of recordings

With little doubt the so-called `modern' tendencyto arpeggiate,scornedby Pauer in the half of the nineteenth century and encouragedby Bree in the early-twentieth second had significant historical precedents.It is fortunate that Bree cataloguedfor century, that were consideredindispensableto Leschetizky, though how posterity practices his arpeggiation practices is open to question. successfully she preserved

Leschetizky's evidentin his 1906pianoroll of are unnotated arpeggiations clearly In Mozart's Fantasia 475 andChopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 2.43 Mozart'sFantasia, K

42L. Couperin,`Prelude l'imitation de Mr. Froberger', a Piscesde clavecin,ed.A. Curtis(Paris, [1). Heugel& Cie., 1970),unpaginated

135 Leschetizky makes them more sparingly than in Chopin's Nocturne, but examplesfrom both works reveal how arpeggiationscontribute to a variety of expressiveeffects. In bars 16 and 17 of the Fantasia,Leschetizky arpeggiatesalternative appoggiatura-type falling figures coinciding with the enharmonic shift from G flat to F sharp (Fig. 3.5). Here, the separationsoundscontinuous from the lowest note in the left hand to the highest note in the right hand. Additionally, the first chord of eachbar is spreadmore slowly than those on the third beats.Notably, thesearpeggiationscontribute substantially to the character of longing, delineating the section from the material that precedesor follows.

Fig. 3.5

bars 15to 18,Leschetizky, MozartFantasia, pianoroll recording,1906 (CD 2/1).

In bar 22, Leschetizky's use of arpeggiation helps to differentiate between two distinct characters.Here, the notes in the emphasizedchord on the secondbeat and its resolution on the third beat are struck together. The chord on the fourth beat is arpeggiatedrapidly, however, enhancing the feeling of uncertainty inherent in the diminished seventh harmony (Fig. 3.6).

43 B. the auraleffectof arpeggiations, N. is beforethe unless otherwise stated, thatthey commence notionalbeat,with the highest notealignedwith thebeat.

136
Fig. 3.6 Mozart Fantasia,bars 21 to 22, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 2/2).

-P-jp

At bar 25, Leschetizky the final of threeidenticalchordswhich form the arpeggiates transitioninto a new musicalthought(Fig. 3.7). This helpsproduce greatersense a of finality.

Fig. 3.7

MozartFantasia, 25, Leschetizky, bar pianoroll recording,1906 (CD 2/3).

137

In bars26,28 and32, containingsimilar musicalmaterial,Leschetizky makes to give an emphasis to without harshness the chordsmarked arpeggiations which appear
sforzando (Fig. 3.8).

Fig. 3.8

Mozart Fantasia,bar 26, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 2/4).

Sf

Elsewhere, Leschetizky's added arpeggiosseemto enhancethe mysterious atmosphereof the music. This is particularly evident at the interrupted cadencein bar 33 (Fig. 3.9), and the passagefrom bar 35 leading to the unexpecteddramatic Allegro section (Fig. 3.10).

Fig. 3.9

MozartFantasia, 33, Leschetizky, bar pianoroll recording,1906 (CD 2/5).

3

138 Fig. 3.10 Mozart Fantasia,bars 34 and 35, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 2/5).

In certaininstances, Leschetizky to addsarpeggios onehandonly; the notesin the other

are struck together. For example, the chord in the left hand at the beginning of bar 84 in the cadenzasection is arpeggiatedquickly, while the notes of the octave in the right hand are played together. This gives the chord a renewed energy without harshnessfollowing the descendingscale in the previous bar (Fig. 3.11), and correlates closely with Bree's description of this technique.

Fig. 3.11

Mozart Fantasia,bars 83 and 84, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 2/6).

139 In bar 95, the lowestnoteof the octavein the left handis alignedwith the beat,andthe is struckwith the un-arpeggiated chordin the right hand(Fig. 3.12).This, too, uppernote
Bree's description in which the technique causesa slight delay of the correlateswith melody note, giving it heightenedsignificance.

Fig. 3.12

Mozart Fantasia,bar 95, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 2/7).

Betweenbars86 and93, Leschetizky arpeggiations makesseveral which creatediffering effects(Fig. 3.13).

140 Fig. 3.13 Mozart Fantasia,bars 86 to 93, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 2/8).44

Arpeggiationsoftens thusgivesa gentleexpression the openingchordof the to and phrase commencing bar 86, andthe femininecadence with which it endsat bar 89. at During the phrase thematic enhances commencing bar 90, arpeggiation at eachsuccessive fragment,with the mostpoignantandthe slowestspread savedfor the chordat the beginningof bar 91. The chordat the beginningof bar 92 is alsogentlyexpressed by it, arpeggiating andthe femininecadence bar 93 is treatedasat bar 89, with an at arpeggiated chordresolvingto a chordstruckfirmly. At suchcadence points,the pattern followed by un-arpeggiated the of arpeggiated chordsenhances effect of strongand weak,or tensionandrelease.

asN.B. Only chords which sound noticeably arpeggiatedare marked. Others appearto be very tightly spread.

141 Leschetizky's1906recordingof Chopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 2 provides more yet fascinating Here,the notesof chords arpeggiation. examples his useof unnotated of
comprising thirds, sixths and octavesin the right hand are separatedin a variety of ways.

Sometimes, exemplifiedin bars 10,12 andso on, the lower noteof the chordin the as handanticipates uppernotethat is alignedwith the corresponding in the left the right note hand(Fig. 3.14).

Fig. 3.14

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 10,Leschetizky, pianoroll recording, 1906(CD 2/9).

Leschetizky'sversion

Chopin'soriginal

At suchmoments, separation itself causes melodynoteto be emphasized. bars the In the 13 and40, this type of arpeggiation helpsto markthe poignantsyncopation by caused the accented chordon the third quaverbeat.Again, the uppermelodynotegainsemphasis (Fig. 3.15). simplybecause the pregnant of separation

142 Fig. 3.15 ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 13,Leschetizky, pianoroll recording, 1906(CD 2/10).

Leschetizky'sversion

Chopin's original

At other times, such as bars 14,18,21 and 33, the lower note of the chord is aligned with the correspondingnote in the left hand; the upper melody note is thus emphasizedby being delayed. In bar 14, the arpeggiation is coupled with a dislocation of the hands,thus

furtherdelayingthe uppermelodynote(CD 2/10).In bar 33, this arpeggiation the has effect of continuingthe triplet figurationin the previousbar (Fig. 3.16).

Fig. 3.16

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars 14,32 and33, Leschetizky, pianoroll recording,1906(CD 2/11).

Leschetizky'sversion

Chopin's original

143
In bar 37, both types of arpeggiation are noticeable (Fig. 3.17). Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 37, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 2/12).

Fig. 3.17

Leschetizky'cversion

Chopin's original

And between bars 71 and 74, the two voices in the right-hand polyphony are delineated by arpeggiationsat every possible moment and with varying speeds.Here, the lower note

thereis alsoa of the chordis generallyalignedwith the notionalpulse,thoughsometimes The chordsat the beginningof bars72 and74 are the slight dislocationbetween hands.
spreadmore slowly than the other chords (Fig. 3.18). Brie referred to this technique but statedthat it should only be used at important moments. It is clear that her description fails to convey both the frequency and the nature of Leschetizky's unnotated arpeggiations.

144
Fig. 3.18 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 71 to 74, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 2/13).

Leschetizky'sversion

Chopin's original

highly expressive it In summary, is clearthat Leschetizky unnotated arpeggiations made in manyvariedways.In the workshe recorded, theseenhance: " " the effect of longingor languishing thus the differentiationbetween characters, effectingdramatic chordsof varying contrast "a "a "a " sense ending of transitionbetweensections differing character of smooth for lackingharshness chordsrequiringaccentuation particularemphasis interrupted the mysterious cadence the increase tensionin the or of natureof an transitionto a pregnant pause " by the energetic effect achieved the combinationof an arpeggiated chordin the left handwith a chordstruckfirmly in the right hand "a sense tensionandrelease femininecadence of at points

145
" the expressiongiven to a progressionof thematic fragments,where the slowest arpeggiation is savedfor the most important moment " the gentle expressionfor the beginning of a phrase;and the delineation of different in a polyphonic texture voices

It is evident that Brie's descriptions provide a broad indication of Leschetizky's arpeggiation practices. However, Leschetizky's recordings reveal a greater unnotated and subtlety of arpeggiation than that describedby Bree. Evidently, her text complexity did not have the scopeto mention such subtleties,nor was it necessarilyher intention.

Interestingly, Leschetizky's own edition of the sameNocturne purporting to show exactly how he played it in concert performances,gives no indication of the unnotated arpeggios in his recording of it. This points strongly to the fact that such practices were preserved not consideredin the least special or extraordinary and therefore neededno mention. The edition does contain annotations of addednotes and certain rhythmic nuancesthat will be examined in Chapters4 and 5. Significantly, however, certain key moments where

Leschetizky in with the performance makesarpeggios his recordingcorrespond instructions addedto Chopin'stext. For example, he for wherehe markedespressivo the double-note sequence commencing bar 10(Fig. 3.19),arpeggios be heard.And for at can in the molto espressivo cantandosectioncommencing the middle of bar 70 (Fig. 3.20), help to delineate overlapping the arpeggios compound melodiesin the right hand.It is thushighly likely that, like Corri, Leschetizky's of suchexpressions implied the use

146
without his recording this could not have been application of unnotatedarpeggiations,yet

FollowingLeschetizky's appreciated. editionliterally would produce stylesignificantly a different from that preserved his recordings. on

Fig. 3.19

45 27 No. 2, bar 10,ed.Leschetizky. ChopinNocturneOp.

T&

*i

Fig. 3.20

Chopin's Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 70 to 74, ed. Leschetizky.46

ter.

.a

00i

ei

`"'

e ealrrvda

zs

'mriemmr

r.

lmmLiwimi

W........... ............... ,_.

45 Chopin,`Nocturne 27 No. 2', ed.Leschetizky, Op. 19. 46Ibid., 24.

147

Similar practices observable the recordings Leschetizky's in The of are students. 1929 Nocturneby JohnPowell,reveals that he madevery pianoroll recordingof the same
to his teacherLeschetizky. In bars 10 and 11 Powell similar unnotated arpeggiations arpeggiatesvarious double-note chords in the right hand so that the lower notes anticipate

the uppernotesthat arealignedwith the corresponding notesin the left hand(Fig. 3.21).

Fig. 3.21

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 11 and 12, Powell, piano roll recording, 1929 (CD 2/14).

And in bar 13Powell makesexactlythe samearpeggiation Leschetizky (Fig. 3.22). as

Fig. 3.22

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 13, Powell, piano roll recording, 1929 (CD 2/14).

148
As with Leschetizky, in bar 33 Powell arpeggiates first double-notechord in the right the

hand,continuingthe brokenchordfigure that precedes (Fig. 3.23).Here,the lower note it

is aligned with the correspondingnote in the left hand.

Fig. 3.23

half of bar 32 andfirst half of bar ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, second 33, Powell,pianoroll recording,1929(CD 2/15).

bars71 and74, Powell delineates compound Between the melodyfiguresin the right handby arpeggiating the point wherethey overlap.This is similar to Leschetizky at but at to the norm,from the uppernoteto the lower certainmoments, arpeggios occur,contrary
note (Fig. 3.24).

Fig. 3.24

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars71 to 74, Powell,pianoroll recording,1929(CD 2/16).

149 Frank la Forge, another student of Leschetizky, makesunnotatedarpeggiationsless frequently in his 1912 acoustic recording of the sameNocturne, though where he does, the expressivequality is clear. In bar 33, like Leschetizky and Powell, he arpeggiates,the first chord in the right hand (Fig. 3.23 above). He also arpeggiatesthe first chord in the hand of bar 56 (Fig. 3.25) and the chord in the right hand at the beginning of the right

half of bar 61 (Fig. 3.26). second

Fig. 3.25

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 55 and 56, La Forge, acoustic recording, 1912 (CD 1/17).

Fig. 3.26

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 61, La Forge,acousticrecording,1912 (CD 1/18).

150

bars71 and74 he arpeggiates first chordin the right handof bars71 And between the and73 (Fig. 3.27).

Fig. 3.27

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 71 to 74, La Forge, acoustic recording, 1912 (CD 1/19).

Moriz Rosenthal, made unnotatedarpeggiationsmuch less frequently in his 1936

Nocturne,apparently recordingof the same relying moreon dislocationasan expressive device.He doeshoweverarpeggiate first chordin the right handin bar 33 andthe the And duringthe third chordin the right handin bar 37, in a similar mannerto Leschetizky. sectioncommencing bar 70, he makesonearpeggiation wherethe uppervoice repeats at in the middle of bar 72.

OtherpianistssuchasPachmann Paderewski makeunnotated In also and arpeggiations. his 1915recordingof Chopin'sNocturneOp. 9 No. 2, Pachmann arpeggiates certain chordsin the left handasif to fill out the space whenthereis a significantbroadening of This is particularlyevidentat the beginningof bars2 the tempo,or at poignantmoments. and4 andsimilar places(Fig. 3.28).

151
Fig. 3.28 Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bars 2 and 4, Pachmann,acoustic recording, 1912 (CD 2/20).

JanPaderewski In his 1930recordingof the same makesmorefrequentunnotated work, (CD 2/21).And in the chordalpassage in at arpeggiations the left handthanPackmann bar 12he intersperses dislocationwith tight arpeggiation giving varietyto the chromatic (Fig. 3.29). chordalprogression

Fig. 3.29

Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bar 12, Paderewski, electrical recording, 1930 (CD 2/21).

152 And in his 1917recordingof Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 1, he makes continuous in the left hand,which helpsto delineate tenorvoicemelody the unnotated arpeggiations (Fig. 3.30).

Fig. 3.30

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 1, bars 1 and 2, Paderewski,acoustic recording, 1917 (CD 2/22).

Written texts and recorded evidence

detailed(albeit incomplete)accountof While Bree'sinstructions providean unusually the often extremelybrief, concerning practices arpeggiation practices, written references, in of otherpianists,raiseseriousdoubtsasto what happened reality. In addition,some textsmaybe in dangerof beinginterpreted literally or takenout of context.This is too RobertPascallquotesFlorence particularlyevidentin the caseof Brahms.For example, May ashavinglearnedduringher lessons with Brahmsin 1871that `he particularly

153 by the composer. However,an dislikedchordsto be spread '47 markedso unless examination a largersectionof May's reportprovidesa differentslanton the matter: of
Whatever the music I might be studying, however, he would never allow any kind of ' `expressionmade easy. He particularly disliked chords to be spreadunlessmarked so ' by the composer for the sake of special effect. `No arpege, he used invariably to say if I unconsciously gave way to the habit, or yielded the temptation of softening a chord " by its means.

It appears Brahmsmayhavebeenattempting curtail somecareless habit in May's to that

playing. His paraphrasedwords probably did not reflect his personalpractice. This opinion is supported by the account of Rosenthal,who provided a totally conflicting himself `arpeggiatedall chords'.49In addition, Brahms was view, recalling that Brahms severely criticized for the `incessantspreadingof chords in the slower tempos' after a performance of his Piano Concerto No. 1 in 1865.50

Brahms'suseof dislocationin his recordingof his HungarianDanceNo.I wasnotedin Chapter2. It is apparent he alsomadevery rapid arpeggiations the dottedcrotchet that of chordsin bars 13and 14(the barsat which the recordingcommences), possiblythe and dottedcrotchetin bar 17.He maybe makingadditionalarpeggiations, unfortunately but In the soundquality renders theseundetectable. anycase,considering strongly the less accented character the HungarianDance,Brahmsmay havemadearpeggios of frequentlyandexpressively; work may not providethe bestexamplefrom which to this In discrepancy between written textsabove makean assessment. the end,the apparent the
47May, The Ltfe ofJohannes Brahms, cited in R. Pascall, `Playing Brahms -a Study in 19thcentury PerformancePractice', Papers in Musicology I (Nottingham, 1991), 18. 48May, The Life ofJohannes Brahms, vol. 1,18. 49Hudson, Stolen Time, 333. soReview cited in F. Hass, ZwischenBrahms und Wagner: Der Dirigent Hermann Levi (Zurich and Mainz, 1995), 106; cited in Brown, Performing Practice, 613.

154 might simply arise from too literal an interpretation of May's account, taken out of Brahms may have made such commentsin passingfor May's benefit alone, and context. did not expect them to be taken literally or applied universally. In any case,as probably be seenbelow, many pianists whom he influenced and of whose playing he approved will certainly made extensive unnotatedarpeggiations.

A parallel anomaly seemsto be evident in the one extant referenceto Chopin's use of

Chopin'sstudent Mikuli, givesthe impression he strictly forbadesuch that arpeggiation. 5' additions:
For playing double notes and chords, Chopin demandedthat the notes be struck breaking was allowed only where the composerhimself had specified simultaneously; it. 52

fashion Eigeldingerhasrecentlyopinedthat Chopinwasreacting`to the sentimentalizing its that this of spreading or that chordor beat,an abuse reached peakat the turn of this [the twentieth]century.53 is apparent, however, It that Eigeldingerhaslittle justification
for supposingthat such practices reachedtheir peak at the turn of the twentieth century.

The documented that evidence arpeggiation used abovesuggests unnotated was Thoseheardin the playingof Leschetizky, the prolifically throughout nineteenth century.
Powell, Paderewski and others, were practices belonging to an ongoing tradition. In any

51 The following translation appearsin C. Mikuli, `Introductory Notes' to Frederic Chopin's Complete Worksfor the Piano (U. S.A., G. Schirmer, 1895), unpaginated[2]; `For paired notes and chords he exactedstrictly simultaneousstriking of the notes, an arpeggio being permitted only where marked by the composerhimself. ' SZ Mikuli, Vorwort to Frederic Chopin's Pianoforte-Werke, 17 vols., ed. Mikuli (Leipzig, Kistner, 1880), vol. 1,4.

53 Eigeldinger, Chopin, 108.

155 Chopin's playing, it is impossible to make a case,without audible evidence of comparison between his practices and those of pianists at the turn of the twentieth Eigeldinger's comment cannot, therefore, be substantiated. century.

Indeed, Chopin may have disliked the tendencyto arpeggiateeverything to the point of destroying the melody line. Thus, he may have been strict with his studentsuntil they developed a proper and sophisticatedsenseof how to apply arpeggios.Or he may simply have made such comments in passing,or in the heat of a moment, not expecting that his words would be followed verbatim or applied without exception. It is also possible that very swift or tight arpeggiation was not regardedas arpeggiation.

In anycaseit is arguable in Chopinwashimselfmeticulous his notationof whether Eigeldingernotes,for example, in that Chopin'sannotations a scoreof oneof arpeggios. his otherstudents, Camille Dubois,reveals arpeggiation sign in bar 7 of the Prelude an Op. 28 No. 6, that did not appear the original Frenchedition (Fig. 3.31).54 in This sign bearsremarkable in to visual resemblance othersthat appear the NocturneOp. 32 No. 1 that `thereareplacesin at bar 9 andbar 32 (Figs.3.32 and3.33).Eigeldingeralso states Chopin'scompositions is of wherethe spreading chords,thoughnecessary, not always '55 clearlyspecified,probablybearingin mind the different handspans pianists. He of givesasan examplethe sectioncommencing bar 25 of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 48 at No. 1 (Fig. 3.34).While handspans may havebeenthe criterion for the somewhat erratic notationhere,it is perhaps morelikely that the notatedarpeggios onesthat Chopin are
saIbid., 108. Ibid., 108.

156

particularlywantedto hear.This maynot havebeenintended excludethe additionof to

other arpeggiosaccording to the taste of the individual, their hand span,the acoustic of the hall or the type of piano being played. In the end, it is dangerousto assumefrom Mikuli's comment alone, that unnotatedarpeggiationwas not part of Chopin's expressive practice.

Fig. 3.31

Chopin Prelude Op. 28 No. 6, bar 7, arpeggiation indicated in the Dubois 56

score.

Fig. 3.32

Chopin Nocturne Op. 32 No. 1, bars 8 and 9.57

56 Ibid., 109. 57 Chopin,`Nocturnes', F. Urtext,ed.G. Csalog(Budapest, Knemann Music, 1994),50.

157

Fig. 3.33

ChopinNocturneOp. 32 No. 1, bar 32.58

Fig. 3.34

Chopin Nocturne Op. 48 No. 1, bars 25 to 32.59

,_,

poco 'pi lento

Ul

go

+. + .01

The 1903acoustic RaoulPugnoproveinterestingin this regard.He studied recordings of

Chopin's student GeorgesMathias so it might perhapsbe assumedthat at least some with 58 Ibid., 51. 59 Ibid., 71.

158 of his practices derive from Chopin. Pugno makes unnotatedarpeggiationsin Chopin's Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2 and Valse Op. 34 No. 1. In the Nocturne, he arpeggiatesseveral of the chords in the left hand betweenbars 6 and 9, creating a strummed or harpedeffect which enhancesthe frequent and poignant changesof harmony (Figs. 3.35 and 3.36). These upward arpeggiationshave the aural effect of commencing before the notional

beat.Pugnomakessimilar arpeggiations bars 15and21. in

Fig. 3.35

60 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 6 to 9, ed. Pugno.

W -XW-

14c,

Fig. 3.36

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 6 to 9, Pugno, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 2/23).

Ir

60 Pugno,TheLessons, 67.

159 At the beginning of bars 5 and 13, Pugno doublesthe bassnotes at the lower octave and them so that the lower note comesbefore the notional beat (Fig. 3.37). These arpeggiates in effect to his arpeggiatedoctavesin the left hand at bars 20 and 21 (Fig. sound similar 3.38). Considering this very noticeable employment of unnotatedarpeggiation, some be expectedin his remarks on the performanceof the work, but this is not mention might the case.He never once recommendsthe addition of such arpeggios,even though he the advice, for example, on the performance of Chopin's notated arpeggiation at the gives bar 8 to `spreadout the chord very broadly from the first note in the bassto the A end of begins the melody again. 61 which

Fig. 3.37

ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars5 and 13,Pugno,acoustic recording, 1903(CD 2/24).

61 Ibid., 67.

160
Fig. 3.38 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 20 and 21, Pugno, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 2/25).

In his recordingof the ValseOp. 34 No. 1,Pugnomakesunnotated that arpeggiations the enhance expression the melodywritten in sixthsin the sectioncommencing bar at of
17 (Fig. 3.39). Chopin in any casenotated two arpeggiosat the beginning of bars 26 and

29 (Fig. 3.40)andit seems Pugnosimply extended effect. Significantly,this type this that
of arpeggiation helps to achieve a feeling of dolce e cantando as marked by Pugno. Although there is no direct instruction about the application of extra arpeggiosfor this

in section,theremaybe a veiled message his advicethat:

The theme, which differs wholly in movement, should convey an impression of languid grace. The delicate shadesand meaningsabsolutely forbid the drynessof too precise a rhythm. It is, as it were, a lissome lady at a ball, whose movements in her long trained gown evoke all the charm of the Polish dancemeasure.2

Fig. 3.39

ChopinValseOp. 34 No. 1, bars 17to 20, Pugno,acousticrecording, 1903(CD 2/26).

62 Ibid., 8.

161 Fig. 3.40 63 1, bars 17 to 30, ed. Pugno. Chopin Valse Op. 34 No.

dolce e cantando.

54i1 Al it

Ii

'041

d.

0 U.

0am.

TZ.

3 %.

0`

ix

.0

At the return of the theme at bar 80, Pugno again makes an arpeggiation. His annotation this point statesthat `we come back to the charm, to the delicate shading,to the at delays, the tender coquetry.'M It is apparentthat delicate shading,languid wayward the dolce and cantando feeling are achieved in Pugno's playing by making, grace, and things, unnotated arpeggiations.These also help to avoid `too precise a amongstother and help create wayward delays. rhythm'

do Pugno'swritten adviceandhis practiceis obvious;his annotations The gulf between for he actuallydid. The reason this wassurelythat he expected not conveywhat his erato understand hiddenimplicationsin his words,just asCorri one the musicians of hundred that certaintermssuchasdolce andespressivo earlierhadexplained years

63Ibid., 8. 64Ibid., 10.

162
implied the use of arpeggiation. Now, however, such terminology no longer carries those implications. The hidden meaning remains hidden. Without Pugno's recordings,his be unknown and a reliance on Pugno's written text manner of adding arpeggioswould in a practice quite different from his own. alone would result

in Pugnoseems haveadopted differentattitudeto the useof arpeggiations his to a Op. Chopin'sBerceuse 57. Here,he studiously avoidsanychordspreading, of recording from placeswherethe intervalis too wide to play simultaneously the occasional or apart bassnotedoubling.In his annotations the work, thereareno obviouscomments to about may this; however,an openingcommentforbiddingthe useof too muchexpression hiddenmessage to makearpeggiations: not containa Oneof the peculiaritiesof this pieceis the insistent(volue)monotonyof the bass, impliesa sameness moodin the right hand,an almostcomplete of which necessarily thereunfold carpetwhereon neutralityin the left. This bassis like a soft, spread themselves first, the naiveandtendermelody,andthenthe variationsandthe "pianistic" Fantasys which Chopin'spalettewassorich. No emotionis to be sought in for.65 Again, for modemreaders instructionimpliesperhaps this nothingmorethan simplicity in the interpretation. it is highly likely that Pugno'swordssignifiedmuchmore. But

documentation, Otherlate-nineteenth-century suchasrevisedor instructive written the thosealreadynotatedby the signsthat augment editions,reveals additionof arpeggio found,the frequency suchadditionsdoesnot However,in all cases of composer. in Here, the approach frequency unnotated arpeggiations preserved earlyrecordings. of the striking disparitybetween musicalnotationandactualpracticeis mostevident.In his
65 Ibid., 26.

163 66the pianist and editor Carl Klindworth marks several edition of Chopin's Nocturnes, in the original notation. Theseappearto fulfil specific functions as arpeggio signs not in the table below (Fig. 3.41). noted

Fig. 3.41

Op. ChopinNocturnes 55 No. 1 andOp. 72 No. 1, ed.Klindworth.

WORK
Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 167

NOTATED ARPEGGIO SIGN in right and left handsand chords doubling in left grace-noteoctave hand at the beginningof bar 48 (Appendix B, Figs. IA and 1B)

POSSIBLE INTENDED a softenedeffect for enhancing the end of the section and marking the boundary before proceedingwith the more impassioned mosso pik

chords in right and left handsat the beginningof bar 52 (Appendix B, Figs. 2A and 2B)

the enhances poignancyof the grace note D natural forming a dissonantninth with the C minor harmony

in the left hand at the chord beginningof bar 56 (Appendix B, Figs. 3A and 3B) double-note interval formed by the compound melody on the first beat of bar 58 (Appendix B, Figs. 4A and 4B) double-note interval at bars 59 and 63 (Appendix B, Figs. 5A and 5B)

sameeffect as bar 52; N.B. Chopin marked an arpeggiationin the right hand delineatesthe entry of the second voice

distinguishesbetweenthe compound voices; in the caseof bar 63, the arpeggio may mark the boundary betweenthe decrescendothat precedesand the crescendothat follows

chord in the left hand at bar 69; b. the chord in the right hand n. remainsunarpeggiated (Appendix B, Figs. 6A and 6B)

similar to Brde's description of this technique, creating energy without harshness appropriate to the character;here, the chords form an energeticpivot point

66F. Chopin, Oeuvres completes revues,doiglces et soigneusement corrigees d'apres les editions de Paris, Londres, Bruxelles et Leipsic [sic] par Charles Klindworth (Berlin, E. Bote & G. Bock, c. 1890).

164
Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1 Chopin Nocturne Op. 72 No. 19 chord formed on the restruck pedal point F at bar 87 (Appendix B, Figs. 7A and 7B) on first beat in the right octave hand at bar 10 (Appendix B, Figs. 8A and 8B) arpeggiationof the third last double-notetriplet chord in the right handat bar 12 (Appendix B, Figs. 9A and 9B) delineatesthe end of the decrescendo the right hand in and the start of a crescendo distinguishes betweenlower voice and the newly introduced upper voice clarifies the re-entry of the upper voice that has beenmomentarily silent, and also propels the momentumforward into the next bar the emphasizes poignancyof the dissonantninth formed with the bass

double-note chord on the third beat in the right hand at crotchet bar 14 (Appendix B, Figs. 1OA and IOB) chord in the right handat the beginning of bar 26 (Appendix B, Figs. 11A and 1IB) last octave of a pattern of four in the right hand at bar 41 (Appendix B, Figs. 12A and 12B)

the emphasizes enhances and effect of strong/weak at the feminine cadence gives heightenedsignificanceand leap helpsto mark the subsequent of the upper voice down an

octave
third last triplet-quaver chord in the right hand at bar 41 (Appendix B, Figs. 12A and 120) first chord in the right hand at bar 46; here, there is an addedE as well as an addedgrace-note doubling in the left hand octave (Appendix B, Figs.13A and 13B) final chord in the left hand at bar 57 (Appendix B, Figs. 14A and sameeffect as at bar 12, propelling the movementforward

the enhances resolving or softening effectof the chordthat is preceded a common by formula cadence
the enhances calando effect

in Chopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 269 Klindworth's additionsof arpeggio signs are His particularlysignificantasthey afford comparison with audibleexamples. only additionalarpeggiosigns,in the right handin bars 11,13, and33 (Figs.3.42,3.43and 3.44),beara resemblance thosemadeby Leschetizky, Powell,La ForgeandPachmann to
67Ibid., 57-60. 68 Ibid., 73-5. 69 Ibid., 29-32.

165 cited above. However, it is evident that they make much more frequent arpeggiations. The disparity between the frequency of arpeggiosin Klindworth's edition and those preservedin many early recordings is clear. On the other hand, there is nothing to suggest that Klindworth did not expect more to be added.Here, and in other places,he may leaving simply have marked those arpeggiationsthat he thought absolutely necessary, others to the taste and skill of the performer.

Fig. 3.42

7 ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 11,ed.Klindworth.

:t.

.. ..

tai?

Y:

!.

ii.

.y:

Fig. 3.43

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 13, ed. Klindworth. 71

-- ---. _. _

Si'

70Ibid., 29. 71Ibid., 29.

166
Fig. 3.44 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 33, ed. Klindworth. 72

tt

icema

#"

Klindworth's additionalarpeggio can signsin Chopin'sNocturnes be seento have than that he felt the needfor morearpeggiation specificexpressive purpose confirm and
by Chopin. Klindworth's edition is valuable for the study of lateoriginally notated nineteenth-centuryperforming practice; it provides notated evidence of the types of

However,a strict adherence his in someearlyrecordings. to arpeggiation preserved lessarpeggiation thanwasmadeby manyplayers. notationwould producesignificantly
He simply did not mark arpeggiosas frequently as many players made them. Earlier in the nineteenth century, the addition of arpeggio signs to Classical masterworks seemsto have been a fairly common practice. Klindworth was precededat least by Carl Czerny who notated an arpeggio for the first chord of the third movement of Beethoven's Piano SonataOp. 7 (Fig. 3.45), as well as notating one for the first chord of Beethoven's Piano Concerto Op. 58. In this regard, either Czerny rememberedBeethoven's practice or thought that an arpeggio was appropriate for the enhancementof Beethoven's indication

72 Ibid., 30.

167

dolce.Thoughhe doesnot sayso, it seems that he expected type of this probable p

to continue at other appropriatemoments in the movement. arpeggiation

Fig. 3.45

SonataOp. 7, third movement, ed. Czerny.73 BeethovenPiano

st4JI0

Klindworth in adding Anotherimportantpianistandeditor,Cipriani Potter,preceded

signs. Between 1822 and 1859,Potter was associatedwith the Royal Academy arpeggio of Music in London, first as a teacher and eventually as its Principal. In 1817, he had 74Potter's editions of Mozart's piano apparently studied with Beethoven in Vienna. began to be published in about 1836 and were reissuedby Novello in 1851.75 sonatas They reveal many added arpeggios,of which some are listed in the table below (Fig.

3.46).

73Czerny, Supplement,38. 74P.H. Peter, `Cipriani Potter', New Grove, 1st. edn., vol. 15,159. 73W.A. Mozart, An Entirely Honourable and Complete Edition of the Pianoforte Workswith and without Accompaniments of this Celebrated Composer, ed. C. Potter (London, J.A. Novello, c. 1857).

168 Fig. 3.46

K Mozart Sonata 310,ed.Potter.

WORK
Mozart Sonata K 310; first movement - Allegro maestoso76

NOTATED ARPEGGIO SIGN compound melody in the right hand at bar 17 (Appendix C, Figs. lA and 1B)

POSSIBLE INTENDED differentiation of two voices when one entersan octave higher; N. B. the similarity betweenthis and Bree's advice to use arpeggiationin polyphonic writing enhances accentand fills the sf soundof the bar adds to the bravura characterby creating a strummedeffect; it is obvious that this is to be continuedthroughout even though the arpeggio signsdo not continue; Potter prompts the player at bar 63

in the left hand at bar 57 chord (Appendix C, Figs. 2A and 2B) minim chords in the right hand during the section from bar 58 to bar 68 inclusive (Appendix C, Figs. 2A and 2B)

alternating chords in the left hand from bars 118 to 119 (Appendix C, Figs. 3A and 3B) in the left hand at bar 126 chord and the right hand at bar 127 (Appendix C, Figs. 4A and 4B) the first beat marked chord on left and right handsat bar across 2 (Appendix C, Figs. 5A and 5B)

the enhancing effectof strongand weak the enhances sforzando effectand fills out the bar
to gives emphasis the six-four harmony on the first beat that resolvesto an un-arpeggiated five-three harmony on the second beat; this occurs at many other feminine cadences throughout the movement

Secondmovement- Andante cantabilecon espressione77

chord on the third beat marked acrossthe left and right hand in bar 2 even though an anticipatory arpeggio was alreadynotated by Mozart; N. B. Potter addsnotes to Mozart's original chord (Appendix C, Figs. 5A and 5B)

the enhances effectof thefp marking

'6 Ibid., 107-13. 77Ibid., 114-9.

169
Secondmovement - Andante cantabilecon espressione first chord in the right hand in bar 3 (Appendix C, Figs. 5A and 5B) the enhances poignancyof the dominant seventhharmony

chord in the right hand at bar 27 and correspondingmaterial in bar 82 (Appendix C, Figs. 6A and 6B) chords on the first beat in the right handat bar 40 and bar 42 (Appendix C, Fig. 7A and 7B)

the enhances accentand fills out the soundin the bar

the emphasizes strong beatsand poignant dissonantharmonies

Potter also produced editions of Beethoven's piano sonatasthat appearto have received

little attentionin the scholarlyliterature.These provideinteresting too examples added of

arpeggio signs (Fig. 3.47).

Fig. 3.47

Op. 13,ed.Potter. Beethoven Pathetique Sonata

WORK UNNOTATED ARPEGGIATION chord on the first beat acrossleft and right hand at bar 1 and bar 3 (Appendix D, Figs. IA and 1B) POSSIBLE EFFECT createsheighteneddramatic effect; N.B. chord at the beginning of bar 2 is not

BeethovenSonata Pathetique Op. 1378; First movement - Grave

for arpeggiated, perhaps a contrasting effect

chord on the first beat of bar 133; createsheighteneddramatic

herethe left andright handhave signs arpeggio separate D, (Appendix Figs.2A and2B) Second Movement Adagio cantabile79 chords the first andsecond on left crotchetbeatsacross and D, right handin bar 9 (Appendix Fig. 3A and3B)

effect;N.B. the signis only used oncein this section, perhaps simplyto remindthe playerto
make arpeggios

the enhances singingquality impliedin the indication cantando conmottoespress.; and hereagainthereis intermittent
use of arpeggio signs,perhaps just as a meansof prompting the

player the chordon the first beatacross em hasisof the six-fourchord

78L. van Beethoven,Sonata Pathetiquefor the Piano Forte, ed. Potter (London, R Mills, 1854), 1-9. 79Ibid., 9-11.

170
SecondMovement - Adagio cantabile left and right handat bar 16 (Appendix D, Figs. 4A and 4B) chord on the first beat acrossthe left and right handat repeat of the opening material at bar 29 (Appendix D, Figs. 5A and 5B) chords on the first beat acrossthe left and right handat bars 52 (Appendix D, Figs. 6A and 6B) and bar 59 (Appendix D, Figs. 7A and 713) long chords acrossthe left and right handat bars 18 and 22 (Appendix D, Figs. 8A and 8B) octave in the right hand at bar 75 (Appendix D, Figs. 9A and 9B that resolvesto an unarpeggiated five-three chord enhances singing quality; it is surprisingthat Potter did not mark the samearpeggio sign at the opening enhances singing quality; again there is intermittent use of arpeggio signs

Third movement - Rondo-Allegro non tanto8

createsheighteneddramatic for emphasis the markingfp and fills out the soundof the bar delineatesthe compound voices

Potter'sedition of Beethoven's MoonlightSonataOp. 27 No. 1 alsoprovidessome fascinating In bars6 and7 he clearlymarksthe examples addedarpeggio signs. of in the right handto be arpeggiated, therebyseparating melodynotefrom the the octaves
inner voice accompaniment(Appendix E, Figs. 1A and 1B). This type of arpeggiation

intended continuethroughout movement. Potteralsomarksan the to waspresumably

arpeggio for the interval of a ninth in the right hand at bars 52 and 54 (Appendix E, Figs.

2A and2B). This may simply havebeenfor the benefitof thosefor whomthe interval wastoo wide. On the otherhand,he may havemarkedit speciallysothat thosewho did that could strike the interval simultaneously not do so, considering the extraordinarily by poignantharmonyneeded achieved arpeggiation, particularexpression

In Potter'seditions,it is not alwayspossible appreciate to why he indicatedarpeggio theseare apparently signsat somemoments not at others.Sometimes and usedas

go 12-17. Ibid.,

171 prompts to remind the player to arpeggiateor simply to provide an example of when to

do so.Nevertheless, they exist is proof of the importance arpeggiation this time. that of at
Potter was not the only editor to mark arpeggiationsin the first and secondmovementsof the Sonata Pathetique. In an edition of 1861,W. Dorrell follows the tradition, perhaps inculcated by Potter, by marking an arpeggio for the opening chord of the first movement bar 133 (Fig. 3.48).81A further example is found in the and the correspondingchord at 82 Tutor (Leipzig, 1891), where the anonymous Magazine of Music: Pictorial Pianoforte

chord(A flat-B flat) in the right hand editor markedan arpeggiosignfor the double-note
bar 11 of the secondmovement (Fig. 3.49). Like Potter, this might have been to make at

Significantly,however, editor the surethat the poignantharmonywasindeedarpeggiated. for the first chordin the right handat bar 13,forming a alsomarkedan arpeggio sign
dissonant seventh(Fig. 3.49).

Fig. 3.48

Op. bar Beethoven SonataPathetique 13,first movement, 1, ed. W. Dorrell.83

81L. for the Pianoforte, 2 vols., ed. W. Dowell van Beethoven, The Sonatas of Beethoven (London, Boosey & Sons, 1861), 100-2.

B2 van Beethoven, L. `Adagio' from `Sonata Pathetique', MagazineofMusic, part 2,130. 93 van Beethoven, Sonatas Beethoven thePianoforte,2 L. The for of vols. ed.Dorrell, 100.

172
Fig. 3.49 Beethoven. S'onafaPathetique Op. 13, second movement, bars 11 to 13, Music. 84 published in the Magazine of

i !{

h.

;3 irr

, ---it 101. , J/

Al

10

Another enlightening example found in the Magazine of Music: Pictorial Pianoforte Tutor reveals that, in certain cases, poignant harmonies were required to be arpeggiated. In the following excerpt from Beethoven's Marcia Funebre sulla morse d'un eroe, an is marked for the chord in the right hand at the beginning of bar 25 and the arpeggio sign following notice in a footnote: 85 anonymous editor appended the

lt is recommendedto play the C natural with the secondfinger and to spreadthis chord, in order to make the sublime beauty of this change into major fully heard and appreciated.
subito p un porn crescendo

I.

I.

I-

rr

Further examples of added arpeggio signs listed below can be found in other Beethoven sonatas edited by W. Dorrell (Fig. 3.50). Often, Dorrell notated an arpeggio sign only on "qBeethoven,`Adagio' from `Sonatapathetique', Magazine of Music, part 2,130. "5

Beethoven, `Marcia Funebre sulla morte d'un eroe', Magazine of'Music, part 2,31.

173 the first appearance recurringmusicalmaterial.Like Potter,his markingmayhave of

been intended as a prompt to continue arpeggiatingwhere appropriate.

Fig. 3.50

Beethoven SonatasOp. 2 No. 1 and Op. 22, ed. Dowell.

WORK Beethoven's SonataOp. 2 No. 1; First movement - Allegro86

NOTATED ARPEGGIO SIGN long chord acrossthe left and right handsat the penultimatebar (Appendix F, Figs. 1A and 113) long chords acrossthe left and right handsat bars 146 and 148 (Appendix F, Figs. 2A and 2B) chord on the first beat in the right hand at bar 13 (Appendix F, Figs. 3A and 3B)

POSSIBLE INTENDED EFFECT the enhances effect offf and its resolution on to the unfills out the sound of the bar similar effect to above

of the exposition bar 47 -

arpeggiated chordin bar48, and

Beethoven's SonataOp. 22; Secondmovement - Adagio con molto espressione87

the enhances expressiveeffect of the E flat major harmony;N. B. this arpeggiationis not marked at

othersimilarplaces suchasbars
15,19, and 21 but a similar arpeggio may well have been expected

58 (Appendix F, Figs. 4A and 4B

first chordin the right handat bar

similareffectto above

Fromthe above,it is evidentthat somenineteenth-century editorsaddedarpeggio signsto the composer's effect. Yet it is clearthat in the case original text for particularexpressive late-nineteenth-century the numberof signsdoesnot correspond of with the editions, frequency It that the editors with which manypianistsmadearpeggiations. is possible to be added;however,the sporadic cited abovewishedno otherarpeggios natureof their additionsmakesthis highly unlikely.

86 Beethoven, Sonatas Beethoven, Dorrell, 1-3. The of ed. 87 Ibid., 139-42.

174 Strong evidence that some nineteenth-centuryeditors did not consider their markings as binding is exemplified in the unnotatedarpeggiation practices of Carl Reinecke. In his own published arrangementof the Larghetto from Mozart's Piano Concerto K 537,88 Reinecke is quite specific in the notation of arpeggio signs, indicating placeswhere intervals are too widely spacedto be played simultaneously or perhapswhere large chords in both hands should be arpeggiated.At other places, such as bars 1 to 8, no arpeggio signs are indicated (Fig. 3.51). However, Reineceke's 1905 piano roll of the

Larghettoreveals that in thesebarsandmanyothers,he introduced significantnumber a

arpeggiations(Fig. 3.52). Often, thesehave the aural effect of sounding of unnotated

beforethe beat;the melodynotesgive a notionalsense pulse.Thereis alsoa very of flexible attitudeto the alterationof the notesthemselves. example, For fleshes Reinecke the chordson the first beatof bars 1 and5, creatingforwardpropulsionthat is out dramaticin effect.Examples Reinecke's dislocationpractices havealreadybeencited of in Chapter2. It is evidentthat he interspersed arpeggiations dislocations and closely, producingan overall effect of almostcontinuous syncopation.

8' Mozart,Larghetto Reinecke, 2-7. art.

175 Fig. 3.51 Mozart Larghetto arr. Reinecke, bars 1 to 8.89

f. -4

Fig. 3.52

Mozart Larghetto arr. Reinecke, bars 1 to 8, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/27).

I&-

s9Ibid., 2.

176
Of significance here is Reinecke's interpretation of the portato notation, particularly in the main theme where Mozart did not use it. Reinecke's practices are noticeable certainly in keeping with Moscheles's principle (quoted above) that portato articulations implied arpeggiation.Note for example the left-hand arpeggiationsof chords over chords marked with portato in bars 2,3 and 7.

Bars 9 and 10 also provide examplesof Reinecke's unnotated arpeggiations(Figs. 3.53

beforethe beatin the left-handfigurationsis 3.54).Here,the effect of arpeggiation and clearly audible.

Fig. 3.53

bars9 and 10.9 MozartLarghettoarr. Reinecke,

I.

1w. h:

90 Ibid., 2.

177
Fig. 3.54 Mozart Larghetto arr. Reinecke, bars 9 and 10, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/27).

In the section from bars 15 to 19, Reinecke embellishesthe melody and arpeggiates almost every chord in the accompanimentcontrary to his own notation (Figs. 3.55 and 3.56). Here, too, the arpeggiationssound before a notional beat punctuatedby the melodic material in the right hand.

Fig. 3.55

Mozart's Larghetto arr. Reinecke, bars 15 to 22.91

91 Ibid., 3.

178 Fig. 3.56 Mozart Larghetto arr. Reinecke, bars 15 to 19, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/28).

Reinecke the the arpeggiates chordsacross left andright handon the first beatsof bars 28,29 and30 (Figs.3.57and3.58).Here,the arpeggiations swift andstartbeforethe are beat.In addition,Reinecke to significantchanges his notation.Similar makesseveral bars36 and41. arpeggiations alsomadebetween are

179 Fig. 3.57 Mozart Larghetto an. Reinecke, bars 28 to 30.92

A.
;
;P-o--*

--

4-1 --

lp

I-w

if

Fig. 3.58

Mozart Larghetto arr. Reinecke, bars 29 to 30, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/29).

Clearly,Reinecke not regardhis notationasbinding.The implicationshereare did intrinsic the manifold.His notationdoesnot preserve natureor frequency arpeggiation of to his style.In fact, a strict adherence his notationwould producea resultentirely to different from his own. Reinecke pianistdid not adhere the notationof Reinecke the to the editor andarranger.

92Ibid., 3.

180 This discrepancybetween notation and actual practice has strong historical precedents. Reinecke, like Corri and earlier writers, may have employed verbal expressionslike con dolce and by inference larghelto, to convey that, in addition espressione,con anima, and to those marked in the score, other highly expressivearpeggiosshould frequently be added.Thus, Reinecke is perhapsa true representativeof a tradition that had already been in existence for a considerableperiod.

By modem standards,Reinecke's recording of the Larghetto soundsextraordinary becausewe are unaccustomedto such a highly arpeggiatedstyle. It is likely, however, that for many nineteenth-centurymusicians, such a style was the norm. In this respect, the Scottish composerRonald Stevenson(b. 1928) has noted that:

Schumann notatedmoreof the Romanticstylethanpossiblyanyof his but by contemporaries; it is probablethat arpeggiation not notated evenearlier was because wasa widespread it masters, suchasWeberandSchubert, simply practice, 93 takenfor grantedandleft to the individualperformer'sdiscretion. Schumann's figuresthat imply notationcertainlypreserves abudance grace-note an of This is noticeable, example, manyplacesthroughout Warum? in for his arpeggiation. Op. 12No. 3 (Fig. 3.64below).In spiteof this, pianistssuchasReinecke addedmore
arpeggiosto the texture. During the sequencein bar 20 (repeatedin bar 24) in his 1905 recording of the work, he arpeggiatesthe syncopatedchord in the right hand that introduces a significant leap, playing the lower note before the notional beat (Figs. 3.59 and 3.60).

93 Stevenson, Paderewski The Paradox,13-14.

181
Fig. 3.59 Schumann Warum?Op. 12 No. 3, bar 20.`'4

rr

Fig. 3.60

Schumann Warum? Op. 12 No. 3, bar 20, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/30).

And during the sequencein bar 34 (repeatedin bar 38), the last chord in the left hand is occasionally arpeggiated.This separationof the narrowly-spacedchord draws attention to the chromatic note C flat, as well as enhancing its question-like nature (Figs. 3.61 and 3.62).

')' R. Schumann, Warum? Op. 12 No. 3, Klavierwerke ed. C. Schumann,86

182 Fig. 3.61 Schumann Warum?Op. 12 No. 2, bars 34 to 42.95

~f}

I-

1r At*

_ '00

ot

as

1! *

$ -xZ

Fig. 3.62

Schumann Warum? Op. 12 No. 3, bar 38, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/31).

And in the section from bars 35 to 40 and its repeat, Reinecke delineates,wherever the compound melodies in the right hand by arpeggiating the notes that coincide possible, (Fig. 3.63). Here, there is a similarity with ree's advice in this regard. Of particular interest is the downward arpeggiation of the right-hand chord at the beginning of bar 38.

95Ibid., 86.

183 Fig. 3.63 Schumann Warum?Op. 12 No. 3, bars 35 to 40, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/31).

is alsonoticeable his mannerof playingthe in This seemingly unconventional practice last left-handchordin bars4 and16(with similar material).Here,an archingshape is in is arpeggiated the order- lowest/highest/middle produced whenthe three-note chord
note (Figs. 3.64 and 3.65).

Fig. 3.64

Schumann Warum? Op. 12 No. 2, bars 1 to 16.96

86
--

Pourqaoi? Langsam und zart. M. M.J. se) Leisto

e te*eras. eute i1

Warum?
(l I

Why?
Q-. hI

a 1

61" I!

9.. za",

It

--

--

96 Ibid., 86.

184 Fig. 3.65 Schumann Warum?Op. 12 No. 3, bar 4, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/32).

Reinecke was not alone in applying such arpeggiationsto Warum?.Paderewski's 1912 recording of it also revealsthe use of severalunnotatedarpeggiations.In bars 10,11,12, and 18 (the first time only) Paderewskidelineatesthe compound melodies in the right hand by arpeggiating wherever necessary (Fig. 3.66).

Fig. 3.66

Schumann's Op. 12No. 3, bars 10to 12,Paderewski, Warum? acoustic recording,1912(CD 2/33).

At placeswherethesecompound in melodiesform a seventh the right hand,suchasin bars27 and29, Paderewski (Fig. 3.67).In both cases, makesfurther arpeggiations the

185

is playedbeforethe lower noteB that is alignedwith the notionalbeat.The A gracenote is playedlast. In addition,the right andleft hands dislocated are producingan even
stronger effect of arpeggiation.

Fig. 3.67

Schumann Warum? Op. 12 No. 3, bars 27 to 29, Paderewski,acoustic recording, 1912 (CD 2/34).

And in the section from bars 35 to 40 (the first time), Paderewskimakes similar

in orderto delineate compound to Reinecke's the arpeggiations melodiesin apparently the right hand(seeFig. 3.63,CD 2/35).On the repeat,he variesthese,sometimes playing Paderewski's the notesin a moresynchronous arpeggiations manner. weretherefore Curiously,althoughhe commented calculated, simply automaticmannerisms. not he the extensively rubatopractices, nevermentions practiceof unnotated on arpeggiation.

Indeed, it seemsthat arpeggiationswere often applied to Warum?Here, the advice of Moritz Moskowski (cited in Chapter 2) is particularly significant. 97He regardedthe use of continual arpeggio `as one of the most perfunctory styles of which a pianist can be guilty. ' Would Moskowski have raised an eyebrow at the practices of Reinecke and 97 Chapter page68. See 2,

186
Paderewskiwho, in Warum?,do exactly what he forbids? The obvious disparity between

is againclearlyevident. written adviceandactualpractice

Klindworth certainlyadvocated Moskowski'sopinionhowever. Not all editorsshared an by Schumann the beginningof bar 11in the right hand at not arpeggio originally notated
in his edition of Warum?published between 1883 and 1888 (Fig. 3.68). He may have

to be addedasa matterof course. others expected

Fig. 3.68

No. 3, bar 11, ed. Klindworth. 98 Schumann Warum? Op. 12

Otherwritten references identify serious that contradictions are difficult to comprehend. For example, description Saint-Saans's the causticreactionto a particularperformance of doesnot tally with Saint-Saans's practices. From Grieg to Brahms In own of Paderewski (1927),Daniel Masonsaysin his `Postscript' that:
It was unfortunate for Saint-Satins,who lived to be eighty-seven,that old age soured rather than sweetenedhim, and that though he retained to the end his intellectual curiosity and his mordant wit, his human sympathies,always his weak point, shriveled until he must have become a scolding and domineering old bore. No one was safe
98R. Schumann,`Warum?', Schumann's Worksfor the Pianoforte, K. Klindworth (London, S. ed. Lucas, Weber & Co., 1883-1888), 8.

187
from his crotchets. Once Paderewskipaid him the compliment of playing one of his pieces on a state occasion signalizing the cordial political relations of Poland and France. Alas, the Dean of French music, as Saint-Satinswas then impressively called, the Polish romanticist's habit of arpeggiating or "breaking" all his could not abide instead of playing their notes together -a romantic habit that must have chords violated the deepestinstinct of his pseudoclassical soul. Stateoccasion or no, he rose from his seat and in his dry, nasal, insistent voice droned: "Monsieur Paderewski,il ne faut pasjouer comme ca (gestureof arpeggiatedchord) il faut jouer comme ca (gesture of solid chord). Silence of scandalizedconsternationas the skeleton at the feast resumedhis seat. In Saint-Saens'slater days it was almost as dangerousto play 99 his compositions as not to play them.

Apparently,Saint-Saens employment unnotated of could not toleratePaderewski's

in his music. But if Mason's description gives the impressionthat he would arpeggiation never have permitted its use, this is simply not the case;many annotated arpeggiations

in his 1905pianoroll recordings his own musicaswell asof Chopin's of arepreserved d'AuvergneOp. 73 he makesunnotated NocturneOp. 15No. 1. In his Rhapsodie arpeggiations bars 15,17,19 (Figs.3.69and3.70),althoughhis only indicationof at arpeggiois at the endof bar 12.

99D.G. Mason, From Grieg to Brahms: Studies SomeModern Composers of and Their Art, `Postscriptafter Twenty Five Years' (1902); 2nd edn. (New York, 1927), 236. -

188
Fig. 3.69 Saint-SatinsRhapsodieD'Auvergne Op. 73, bars 12 to 20.100

oro antin_

vp cantabile

mf
wpm . tem ten. ten.

'w C. Saint-Saans, Rhapsodie d'Auvergne Op. 73 (Paris, Durand Schoenewerkeet Cie., c. 1890), 2.

189 Fig. 3.70 Saint-Saans RhapsodieD'Auvergne Op. 73, bars 15 and 19, Saint-Satns, piano roll recording, 1905(CD 2/36).

And during bar 42, markedpp espressivo,he makes arpeggiationsnot indicated in the

score(Figs.3.71and3.72).

190 Fig. 3.71 Saint-SatinsRhapsodieD'Auvergne Op. 73, bars 40 to 44.101

Fig. 3.72

Saint-Satins D'AuvergneOp. 73, bars42 and43, Saint-Satins, Rhapsodie pianoroll recording,1905(CD 2/37).

'o` Ibid., 4.

191 frequently In the first section of Chopin's Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, Saint-Saans in the left hand, in a similar way to Pugno, creating richer expressive arpeggiateschords These vary in speedaccording to characterand are particularly noticeable sonorities. bars 6,7,17,18 and 19 (Figure 3.73). Many other examplescan be heard in the during `Doppio movimento' section of the work

Fig. 3.73

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 6 and 7 and bars 17 to 19, SaintSaens,piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 2/38 and 39).
Ar

s3-"---

In this light, it is impossible appreciate to why Saint-Satins reacted he did to as Paderewski's It maybe that he foundPaderewski's too arpeggiations performance. frequentandtoo noticeable, simply that Paderewski playedthemin placeswherehe or havedone.Whatever reason, is clearthat in this casethereis a curious it the would not

192 discrepancybetween what Saint-Safts expectedfrom others and what he himself did. The written text gives a misleading impression.

Manner of execution

In addition to the anomaliesthat exist between written texts and recorded evidence discussedabove, matters concerning the speedof arpeggiosand their placement raise many questions.Writers in the first half of the nineteenth century, such as Cord and Czerny, indicate that the speedof arpeggioswas to be variable dependingon the character and context of the music. Yet, in the mid-century, Thalberg recommendsan apparently unvarying fast speedwhich makesthe notes sound almost together.

The speed arpeggios a factorthat concerned of several writers duringthe latewas is evidentin the following adviceto a nineteenth century.Carl Reinecke's concern Regarding `Andante'from Beethoven's Sonata Op. 10No. 1,Reinecke the student. says: In the sixth bar of the Subjectis an arpeggio sign,andI makeuseof the opportunityto the warn against too broadseparation the notesfrom the lowestbassnoteto the of highesttrebleone.The melodyruns:

and therefore the a [flat] must sound in the closest connection with the preceding d[flat]; this would, however, be prevented by a slow arpeggio upwards from the bass. In general, the arpeggio sign signifies that the chord should not be struck quite together, which in this casewould, of course, sound hard.102

102 Reinecke, Beethoven The PianoforteSonatas, 21-2.

193 Op. Sonata 31,No. 2, he says: And of Beethoven's

The first chord should not be broadly spread.The arpeggio sign, generally, has always the signification that the chord in question is not to be struck Quite precisely only together; if the composerreally desiresit broadly spread,he writes it differently... The in which Beethoven has written the arpeggiosat the beginning of the secondpart, way above.Here they must be more broadly separatedone from confirms my view given division between the two handsin such a way that the left hand takes another, and a 103 is much to be recommended. the minim every time, Furthermore, he saysregarding the transition to the `Finale' of Beethoven's Sonata 104 Op. 106:

in I havealreadymentioned my formerletters,that arpeggio oughtneverto be chords this, for the too slowly broken.The threebarsof transitionto the Finalecorroborate melodythereinis:A-IV 11% A, -* -- qw

and were the chord at the pausebroken slowly, the two notes, a[flat] and d[flat], which belong together, would be too widely separatedfrom one another. Therefore, not something like this.

Reinecke by the that, apartfrom specialcircumstances givesthe impression notated the composer, notesof chordsto be arpeggiated oughtto be spread quickly andalmost together,similarly to Thalberg'sadviceabove.In his 1905pianoroll of his arrangement of Mozart's Larghetto,however,Reinecke'sarpeggiations often soundbroaderthan implied by his words,andin any case,thereis no doubtthat he variedtheir speed. It
103 Ibid., 59-60. 104 Ibid., 81.

194

therefore, that eitherReinecke that advised something he did not follow in reality, seems, significantlydifferentnow thanit did then. or that his terminologymeans something
For him, striking the notes `not quite together' or `not precisely together' encompassed a

interpretation than a face-value suggests. wider rangeof speed

be Otherlate-nineteenth-century textsadvisethat arpeggios alignedwith the beat written

than starting before it. At least in theory, such arpeggiationsare notated to be rather played swiftly so that they will not interfere with the rhythmic pattern of accompanying

This is exemplifiedin Billow's annotations Cramer'sStudyNo. 19wherehe to parts. "' states: The directionsgivenin No.1 regarding correctmannerof playingarpeggiochords the find, if needbe, their mostobvious justification in this andthe following study.The acousticimpurity which mustresultfrom strikingthe lower notesof a chord beforehand sounding themtogether and with noteswhich belongto anotherharmony thenceforth to toleratethe will wounda sensitiveear;andwill leadthe teacher not slightestcarelessness the pupil's part in this respect.The executionis hereonce on moreplainly setbeforethe player:
bar 1

in slowerpracticeeventuallythusalso
bar 3

los11 von Billow, `Annotations' to J.B. Cramer, Sixty SelectedPianoforte-Studies, with Preface, Fingering, Marks of Execution and Explanatory Notes by Hans von Billow, trans. C. Bache, 3rd edn. (Munich, Jos. Aibl., 1889), 43.

195 And in another reference,Billow insists that arpeggiosnotated as grace notes should be 106 beat. With referenceto Cramer's Study No. 29, he says: aligned with the With regard to the arpeggio notes in the left hand, which appearas acciaccalure (or the reader is referred to what has been already said in the foot-notes to short prefixes), Nos. 1 and 18. As the acciaccatura gives the bassof the chord it should be marked than the note following it, as the latter, being a longer note, would strike the stronger forcibly. With regard to the triplets in the right hand the execution must be as ear more follows:

A-4
j kn

is sitt

This same point is emphasizedagain in Billow's annotationsof Cramer's Study No. 38.

Further signicant evidence that some musicians required arpeggiationsto occur within the beat and therefore quickly is found in an annotation of the secondmovement of Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata Op. 13 cited in the Magu.:ine of Music (1891). Here, the in the right hand at bar 16 is annotatedto be played as shown at the end arpeggio marked of the excerpt (Fig. 3.74).

""' Ibid., 63.

196

Fig. 3.74

Beethoven Moonlight Sonata Op. 13, bars 14 to 23 published in the Music. 107 Magazine of

`ti.

The above referencesseemto have been aimed at stemming the practice of arpeggiating too slowly and before the beat, thus causing in the handsof inexperiencedperformers the confusion of harmony, the destruction of rhythm and the such unmusical effects as distortion of the melody line. In spite of such written advice, however, early recordings that many pianists such as Reinecke, Leschetizky, Saint-Satins,Pugno, Pachmann, reveal and Paderewskiused a variety of speedsas well as placementsof notated and unnotated arpeggiosbefore and with the beat, dependingon context and required effect. Other written referencessuch as the following imply that arpeggio speedshould vary according to the characterof the composition. Regardingthe grace-notearpeggiosin Schumann's Warum? Op. 12 No. 3 (Fig. 3.75), Clara Schumannexplained that: 108

108 Schumann, `Annotations' to R. Schumann, `Warum? Op. 12 No. 3', C. ed. C. Schumann, 86.

107 van Beethoven,'Moonlight SonataOp. 13', Magazine L. of'Music, part 2,129.

197
This arpeggio in accordance with the character of the piece, must not be played quickly but as follows:
f "J

(t

s L. _...-__{-

_-J
. 1
Schumann Warum?Op. 12 No. 3, bar 13.109

Fig. 3.75

.. tt1ipu t

:1T

Here, it is notable that Clara Schumannevidently intended the arpeggio to start on the beat, rather than before it, and repositioned the quaver rest to make the point clear.

Changing tastes

During the secondhalf of the nineteenth century, severalwriters confirm the widespread practice of unnotatedarpeggiation, but seek its judicious use or total eradication. In The

109 Schumann,`Warum? Op. 12 No. 3', ed. C. Schumann,86.

198 Art of Piano Playing and Teaching (c. 1895),Maria Grimaldi notes the tendencyto arpeggiate,branding it as a weakness: I have noticed in many people a tendencyto spreadchords which are meant to be played as a whole. The ensembleof an orchestrais its most beautiful quality being the in harmony, why not do the samewith our ten fingers? It is to me a grave fault, unity to sentimentalism.' 10 and almost always shows a proclivity Walter Gieseking also made this analogy with orchestral playing in 1932.Expressing a disdain for the arpeggio manner, he opined that `it is remarkablethat even amateurs criticize an orchestra,if chords are not played precisely together; whereason the concert

"11 feelingis nearlyalwaysoverlooked. all platform this grievous offenceagainst musical

Hansvon Billow alsoappears havebeenstaunchly to to opposed the useof arpeggiation to wherenot indicatedin the score.With reference the StudyNo. 1 in his editionof J.B. Cramer'sPianoforteStudies warnsthat: he
The teacher should insist on a systematicarpeggio wherever this indication is given, and shouldjust as strictly insist on the avoidanceof the mannerism of striking notes arpeggio where not specifically so marked. The least concessionon this point - at the beginning of teaching brings ineradicable harm with it. 112 -

And in Cramer'sStudyNo. 44, Billow againmakesit clearthat no unnotated is He that: `In orderto makethe piecesoundwell it arpeggiation to be tolerated. advises ' is absolutely that all intervalsshouldbe playedperfectlyandevenlytogether', 13 essential

110 L. Grimaldi, TheArt M. of Piano Playing and Teaching (London, c. 1895), 22. 1' Gieseking and Leimer, Pianistic Perfection, 56. 112 B. Cramer,Sixty SelectedPianoforte-Studies, J. ed. BUlow, 3. 113 Ibid., 99.

199 while in Cramer's Study No. 47, Billow admonishesany tendencytowards arpeggio

playingstatingthat: `If undrilledfingersshowanyinclinationto play the sixthsarpeggio

be checkedby the teacher. 114 this must

In 1877,LindsaySlopermakesreference the difficulty of playingdoublenotesand to

absolutely together in his Technical Guide to Touch,Fingering, and Execution on chords the Pianoforte, stating that: As the rule, due attention is scarcelypaid to the practice of Chords, which should, on the contrary, be the object of sedulousstudy. The difficulty to be conqueredis to strike all the component notes of a Chord exactly together and with equal strength:how rarely this is accomplished,their broken and inarticulate performance,especially by the left hand, constantly attests;and thereby mars the effect of otherwise meritorious playing. As thesenotes are sometimesall white, or all black keys, at others, white and black mingled, the most scrupulouscare is requisite, under thesevarying conditions, so as to regulate the curve of each finger in the act of striking, that the fingers used into contact with the keys precisely at the samemoment.115 may all come

Arpeggioplayingwasapparently muchthe normthat firm chordplayingwasregarded so technicalstudyandattention. Nowadays, the asa skill to be achieved only by serious situationis completelyreversed the majority of pianistsaretaughtfrom an earlyage and how to play the notesin chordsabsolutely Thus,firm chordplayinghasbecome together. second nature.

Sloperwasnot alonein insistingthat the fingersmakeevencontactwith the keys.Earlier in the nineteenth the century,GatienMarcailhoumentioned problemof playingoctaves
simultaneously in the left hand, opining that:
114 Ibid., 106.

is L. Sloper,TechnicalGuideto Touch,Fingering, and Executionon thePianoforte(London, 1877),21.

200 A big difficulty ariseson the piano when playing octavesin the left hand; it concerns the action of the thumb and fifth finger. The hand is always biased the simultaneity of towards the thumb and the resulting octave tends to be arpeggiated,rather than force between thumb and fifth finger. A weaknessthus occurs in executedwith equal is less resonant,even `boxy'; the strong beat often the octave and the soundobtained is weakened,precision is disturbed and, in turn, the associatedwith an octave 16 rhythm. Billow, too, warned against arpeggiatingoctavesin the left hand in an annotation to J.B. Cramer's Study No. 39 (Fig. 3.76). Here, the difficulty of playing the continuous be lessenedby arpeggiatingthe octavesand semiquaver passages would undoubtedly thus freeing the hand. In spite of this, Billow advisesthat `the player must guard against bar begins arpeggio.' 117 playing the octave with which each

Fig. 3.76

Cramer Study No. 39, bars I to 6.118

.....

1'

" ..

116 Marcailhou, L'Art de composeret d'executer la musique legere (London, 1854), 7; `Une G. difficulte existe au piano, lorsqu'on attaquedes octaves main gauche,eile consiste grande donner de la simultaneite au deux doigts qui frappent ! 'octave, c'est dire au 5.e et au pouce de la la main est toujours entraineedu cote du pouce, et ! 'octave, au lieu de frapper avec main gauche; la meme force dans la 5.e et le pouce, ! 'execute en arpege:il en resulte de la faiblessedans ('octave, le son obtenu, est moins fort, ! 'octave est en un mot, boiteuse,le temps fort qui est souventattaqueen octave est faible, ce qui nuit beaucoup la precision, et ('entrain du rhythme.'
117 B. Cramer, Sixty Selected PianoJrte-Siudies, ed. Billow, 85. J. mIbid., 84.

201 With referenceto Henry Bertini's Preparatory Studies Op. 32, the editor Gordon Saunderswarned that chords should be played exactly together. For Bertini's Study No. 6 he says, `The theme of this study is carried on in double notes, which must be played ' 119 together. And for Study No. 8 his annotation states,`As in all passages of strictly double notes, the greatestcare must be taken in the alternatedthirds and sixths occurring in this Exercise, to play the two notes exactly together.' 120

Earlier in the nineteenth that writers mentioned in certainsituations several century, doublenotesto be playedby onehandshouldbe strucktogether. 1846,Czerny In
several examples.Regarding a passagein Henselt's unnamedcomposition provides

'21 Op. 11he states that:

The double notes in the right hand must be struck exactly together. It would be an error so to separatethem, as if the under note were an appoggiatura.
1'irac"e S sr. . FMS,....
Oprh. "%rcnn ) iw

'FYI .1 al bAsla

110'n; marrata Inn

Fon: prang .

122 And concerning passage Chopin'sPianoConcertoOp. 21, Czernysays: in a The doublenotesin the right handmustalsobe struckexactlytogether,andthe whole bravura. mustbe performedquite unconstrainedly, without apparent
1 H. Bertini, TwentyFive Preparatory Studies Op. 32for 19 the Pianoforte, rev. G. Saunders (London, Hammond & Co., 1902), 10.

uo Ibid., 12. 121 Czerny, 14. Supplement, 122 Ibid., 15.

202
x. 'd0. (j ui op: let. ) x141 i _..

% r+

Nlrro

t.
1+: 1+1

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3t

y i+3+ 1443+

y. J -*

I y M1 i1+ 1L1+t A .......... 2 1+tl ... Lir+i 4I! 11)i. 1e+4,3 wt

si_8 oll +
-aArd: elf

6s:

Vol,
I+

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red:

alc

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r 'r{IV 49

. 06 1It1+

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123 And with referenceto Willmer's unnamedcomposition Op. 28, Czerny warns that: The upper octaves,which form the melody, must be struck particularly loud and firm, (but not arpeggio), and the player must possess sure command over the whole keya board.
14"j.: 30 (fi"u, n Op, MA.) -. "

I'M

The arpeggiation doublenotesmustso often havebeenappliedthat Czernyfelt a need of the to censure practicein certainsituations.

Althoughunnotated the was centuryto give arpeggiation usedthroughout nineteenth heightened to melodynotes,it is evidentthat the bringing out of the melody expression

123 Ibid., 20.

203 Indeed,Czernystronglyimplied this was without the useof arpeggiation alsoadvocated. in an annotation an unidentifiedcomposition slow character, to of sayingthat:
Its performance must be dignified and important, and quietly progressive,and it must be made intelligible by attentively given relief to the melody. Ex:
ILA
4dapio .
T T

Here, in preferenceto everything else, we must observe,in both handsa strict legato according to the value of the notes.All the parts of each chord must be struck with firmness and energy; and the highest notes in the right hand, must be brought out becausethey form the melody.' 4 rather prominently,

It is clearthereforethat in additionto the useof arpeggiation, Czernyadvocated the development finger weight for bringingout melodynoteswhile playingfirm chords. of Many otherwriters,at leastin theory,adopted practicelater in the century.Adolphe this Kullak in 1861states that: Whena melodious in is accompanied the samehandby another, Thalberggives part the rule that the doublednotesthus formedshouldbe arpeggio'd,in orderto give the It melodythe necessary emphasis. cannotbe denied,that the melodycanbe more easilymarkedin this way. But in no caseshouldoneneglectto practiseemphasizing the melody-note Aside from the whenstriking two or morenotessimultaneously. by duringa utility of suchpractice,the monotonycaused the continuous arpeggios long movement mitigatedby the change. is This monotonywould be unavoidable, for instance, the first part of Beethoven's [sharp] in C Sonata, shouldthe player -minor constantly Hereit is bestto savethe strike the melody-note after the accompaniment. for The arpeggio the mostpregnant passages. middle movement the Sonate of
124 Ibid., 75.

204

in intended. give the To pathetique would be an excellentpractice-piece the sense for fingersthe necessary independence the purpose question, in both hands might play the following exercise:

The large notes are to be accentedmore strongly than the others.125

how to express melodyusingfinger weightrather Kullak's recommendation the about documents, leastin his case,a moveawayfrom the useof thancontinualarpeggiation at
unnotated arpeggiation. But Kullak was not completely opposedto it, particularly for `the most pregnant passages'.Though not clarified, such places might contain dissonant melodic or harmonic notes, syncopations,or places where there are significant leaps in the melodic material; in short, places of extraordinary character.Here, the contradictions between various written texts are again apparent.It is significant, for example, that Kullak advised the avoidanceof arpeggiation in Beethoven's SonataPathethique and Moonlight Sonata, contradicting the directions in Potter's editions of these works. Certainly, pianists such as Paderewskimade use of arpeggio in the Moonlight Sonata.

Kullak's exercise developing digital independence for the to needed accentuate an individual notein a chordmaybe oneof the earliestof its kind. He mayhaveseta by that precedent wasto be adopted later nineteenth-century pedagogues, as such FranklinTaylor (cited below) who insistedthat unnotated arpeggiation chordsand of compound melodiesbe assiduously avoidedin artistic pianism.
125 Kullak, Die sthetikdesKlavierspiels(Berlin, 1861); A. trans.of the3rd German edn.by Dr. T.H. BakerasTheAesthetics PianofortePlaying, rev. anded. Dr. H. Bischoff (New York, of 1893;repr.New York, 1972),297-8.

205 forbade the use of unnotatedarpeggiation. Other late-nineteenth-centurypedagogues Concerning Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata, C.A. Ehrenfechter's opinion regarding arpeggiation in the first movement of Beethoven'sMoonlight Sonata is cited in In Chapter 2.126: spite of this and other warnings, many pianists employed unnotated frequently and with significant expressiveeffect. arpeggiations

An enlighteningdescription the complexityof bringingout the melodyoccursin the of

Magazine of Music (1891). It gives the impression that Anton Rubinstein used only finger to emphasizethe melody notes. In the absenceof audible evidence,however, this weight

to cannotbe verified. With reference Chopin'sNocturneOp. 48 No. 1, the anonymous authorwrites:

At the poco pi lento of this Nocturne, a student whose musical education has not included that most important of all branchesof pianoforte playing, Touch, is liable to come to grief, and to wonder vaguely why it is that his playing soundsso unsatisfactory.

The reason beingthat in playinglegatochords,he hasneverlearned that the highestor treblenotesmustbe sung;howeverto do this requiresno small power;so that evenif it. lies the ideastrikeshim from intuition, he knowsnot how to produce The secret in the positionof the right hand,andin the workedout strength the last two fingers, of the 3rd and4th. The weight of the handmustlie on the outerpositionof the hand,the thumbandfirst fingerstouchingthe keysmorelightly thanthe finger playingthe topmostnote,which finger,muststrike the key boldly, andin the centreof the ivory. By this we get,asChopinintended, following melodyclear,unclouded, the and singing: -

etc.

126 Chapter page67. See 2,

206

Of coursethe result is not attained without months of labour, but then pianoforte is an art, not an accomplishment,as too many suppose. playing At the sametime however, even although this melody must sing above all other notes, it does not follow that these may be slurred over or blurred; they must all be audible the bassnotes being not louder but more sonorous;the nature of and all evenly struck; instrument making this possible, so that the studentmust simply bear in mind that the he is to strike all the notes with equal strength,with the exception of the melody notes, 27 which must be given with a strongertouch. This type of technical advice finds its most detailed manifestation in Franklin Taylor's Techniqueand Expression in Pianoforte Playing (London, 1897).Taylor was primarily a interpreter and was regardedvery highly by pupils and colleagues.`From teacher and 1859 to 1861, he studied at the Leipzig Conservatory with Plaidy and Moscheles...He ... is probably best rememberedfor the remarkable seriesof Progressive Studiesfor the is still used today' 128, Pianoforte. His Techniqueand Expression in Pianoforte Playing it is indeed interesting to find advice such as the following, which must have and influenced many musicians throughout the twentieth century. Taylor describesthe difficulties of playing melodies and accompaniments,particularly when they are written to be played by the samehand. He offers highly detailed solutions, censuring any tendency to make unnotated arpeggiations.It seemsthat such advice becamethe focal in piano playing particularly during the secondhalf of the twentieth point of expression 129 century: The simplest conditions necessitatingthe observanceof balance of tone occur when the right hand plays a melody and the left hand the accompaniment.As the right hand is naturally stronger than the left, there is no great difficulty in making the melody sufficiently prominent, though care and judgement must be exercised,that the amount difference between the two parts shall be suitable to the character of the music. But of 127 Anon., `Touch- WhatRubinstein saysaboutit', MagazineofMusic, part 2,172. 128 GroveandJ.M. Allan, `FranklinTaylor', NewGrove, 1stedn.,vol. 18,605. G. 129 Taylor, Technique Expression PianofortePlaying (London, 1897),61-2. F. in and

207 the difficulty is increasedwhen it is a question of rendering three parts - melody, bass and inner accompaniment.In such a combination the melody must be strongest,the bass coming next in order of strength,and the accompanimentmust be the weakest Two of the parts must necessarilybe played by one hand, in the majority of cases part. the right hand (though the left hand may likewise be required to undertakethis with duty), and it therefore becomesnecessary acquire the power of striking two notes to with one hand and at the samemoment, the strength of one of the notes being decidedly in excess. It is not easyto describe in writing the exact way in which this is to be accomplished. Of course, the strength of the tone dependsupon the speedof the blow and the amount of pressurecombined, but if one of the two fingers engagedwere to move decidedly than the other, it would be the first to depressits key, and the two sounds quicker not be produced simultaneously,the weaker soundwould follow the other. would There is no doubt, however, that the finger which producesthe strong tone does move little quicker than the other, but so little that it hasjust time to give the requisite a amount of pressureat the precise moment at which the weaker finger arrives at the depth of its key without any pressurewhatsoever.Such minute differences cannot be calculated; it is a question of senseof touch, which can be cultivated and developedin this direction to a surprising extent, given the necessary and attention. perseverance

It maybe of benefitto suggest herecertainforms of exercise which the necessary by it that control overthe fingersmaybe acquired, beingobserved suchexercises may be multiplied andamplified to anyextent,andalwaysrepaythe labourbestowed them. on In practisingthemit mustbe observed it is far easierto play two notesof that dissimilarstrength after the otherthanboth,together,andthat thereis one the this consequently temptationto spread notes,in the mannerof arpeggio; a be In tendency the against. the examples, noteswith must,of course, carefullyguarded openheads to be madestrongandthe black notesweak,andthe opennoteswith are quaverstemsareto be playedof the valueof quavers only:-

208

In an earlier publication,Primer of PianofortePlaying (1877),Taylor emphasized that

arpeggiation must not be used where a melody and accompanimentappearin the same

130 hand:
Melody and accompanimenthave frequently to be played by the samehand, and when the arrangementis similar to that shown in Ex. 1, the combination presentsno particular difficulty. When, however, it happensthat a note of the melody and one of the accompanimenthave to be played at the samemoment as in Ex. 2, the caseis different, and demandsspecial study in order to produce two different qualities of breaking the first chord of in the samehand as the sametime. In such a passage, sound i. e. playing the B of Ex. 2 after the D which accompaniesit - must by no a group be allowed, although a very common habit in such cases,and an easymethod means of making a difference in the strengthof the two sounds.Playing a chord arpeggio is it is indicated by the composer.In our presentcasewe very rarely permissible unless have to seekto produce as great a difference of tone as possible between melody-notes those of the accompanimentwithout separatingthem in the slightest degree,and and this may be accomplishedby holding the hand, immediately before soundingthe notes, in such a position that the tip of the finger which is to reproducethe strongest tone is on a slightly lower level than that of the other finger.
(1) (2)

It is evidentthat by 1900somepianistswereactivelytrying to eliminatearpeggiation and dislocationfrom their playing.That FerruccioBusoniwasoneof the leaders this trend of in Chapter Busoniwarnedthat in playingthe musicof Bach,the pianist 2. wasnoted should`be speciallycarefulto strike all the tonesof a (solid) chordtogether. Arpeggios... of very doubtfultaste;firstly, because [they are] contraryto the character are because '131 theyproducethe effect of over-exertion. of the organ;secondly,

130 Taylor, Primer Pianoforte Playing, F. of ed. G. Grove, 1st edn. (1877); this edn. rev. and partly rewritten (London and New York, 1899) 13.

131 Busoni,`Vortrag', 87.

209
A further indication that Busoni consideredarpeggiosto emasculatethe musical effect in certain situations is found in an annotation in his edition of J.S. Bach's 15 Two part Inventions (Leipzig, 1914). Regarding the arpeggiation of the final chord of Invention No. 1 BWV 772, Busoni opines 132 that:

Arpeggiando 5. The incomprehensible sign,which onefinds beforethis chordin many in is contraryto the manlystyleof the piece,andmaybe classed Bach's editions, in cases, as"styleless".Againstsucheffeminacies this andin analogous phraseology is the student especially warned:
bars 21-22

from J.S. Busoni's 1925pianoroll recordingof his own transcription the Chaconne of but for Bach'sSuite Solo Violin, showsa fairly studious avoidance arpeggios, a few of harmonicallypoignantmoments. in his 1922 be But canoccasionally heardto enhance Clavier there Bach'sPreludeandFuguein C Book 1 of TheWell Tempered recordingof is absolutely arpeggiation. his 1922recordingof Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 2, In no he certainlyusesit in the sectionfrom bars 17to 21 in the left hand(CD 2/40),but to a muchlesserextentthanpianistssuchas Saint-Saans Pugno.It is evidentthat and

132 Ferruccio Busoni, `Annotations' to J.S. Bach, `Two-Part Inventions BWV 772-786', Klavierwerke Busoni-Ausgabeiv ZweistimmigeInventionen (BWW772-786), cd. F. Busoni, E. Petri and B. Mugellini, trans. L. Elson (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hrtel, c. 1930-50), 3; `Das ungebriefliche Arpeggiandozeichen,welches man vor diesem Schlussakkordevielfach in AusgabenantrifTt, widerspricht durchausdem mnnlichen Stile des Stckesund ist, im Bach'schenSinne, als "Stillosigkeit" zu qualifizieren. Vor solchen Verweichlichungen soll der Schler an dieser und anderenanalogenStellen besondersgewarnt werden.'

210
although Busoni may have been trying to rid piano playing of the so-called effeminacies

he to associated arpeggiations, continued makethemon certainoccasions. with unnotated

In any case,unnotated arpeggiationswere advocatedin editions with which Busoni was associated.Egon Petri who was entrustedto edit certain works of J.S. Bach arrangedby from the French Suite BWV 814 in which Busoni Busoni, suggests that, in the Sarabande has augmentedthe sound and harmonies with large chords, `the chords can also be played with gentle 133 arpeggio' (Fig. 3.77)

Fig. 3.77

from French Suite BWV 814 arr. Petri, bar 1 to bar J.S. Bach Sarabande
4134

Although many pianists at the turn of the twentieth century continued to make considerable use of arpeggiation, it is evident that some, such as Grieg, were already using it infrequently. The table below shows the number of occasionson which Grieg made unnotated arpeggiationsin his 1903 recordings of his own works compared with those arpeggiations notated in the music (Fig. 3.78).

133 S. Bach, French Suites anr.F. Busoni, J. ed. E. Petri (London, British & Continental Music A encies, 1941) 37.

1 Ibid., 37.

211 Fig. 3.78 Grieg's unnotatedarpeggiationsin his 1903 recordings.

WORK To Spring Op. 43 No. 6

NOTATED ARPEGGIOS bars 11 and 13 - curved line in the chords in the left arpeggios

UNNOTATED ARPEGGIOS no unnotatedarpeggiations

hand
bars 23 and 27 - bassnote

in octaveadditions acciacatura the left hand

bars 45 to 68 - acciacaturagrace notes indicating the arpeggiation the octavesin the right hand of

line bar 71 - crenellated arpeggio

indicating separationfrom lowest note to highestnote bar 72 - arpeggiatedchord with

Op `Finale'from Sonata 7 .

notesnotatedseparately line bar 85 - crenellated arpeggio from lowest indicating separation note noteto highest

bar 64 to 66 - variationof the creating rhythms notated arpeggiations

bar 75 - possible arpeggiation from lowest to highestnote of seconddotted quaver chord no unnotated arpeggiations bar 17 - arpeggiationfrom the lowest to the highestnote of the

Gangar Op. 54 No. 2 `Alta Menuetto' from Sonata Op. 7

iations. no notated ae no notated arpeggiations

Wedding at Troldhaugen Day Op. 65 No. 6

in arpeggiations the no notated that section Griegrecorded.

chordin the right hand bar 19- arpeggiation from lowest to highest noteof the first chord in thebar.
bar 56 - arpeggiation from lowest in the bar bar 41 - possible arpeggiation

to highest noteof the first chord

Humoreske Op. 6 No. 2

no notated arpeggiations

Op. Bridal Procession 19No. 2

bars68 and72 - grace-note

no notated arpeggiations

figures in the left hand arpeggio at the beginning of eachbar

from lowestto highest note of the chord no unnotated arpeggiations

bar 58 - arpeggiation from lowest to highest note of the chord on

Remembrances Op. 71 No. 7

beatin thep ht hand the second

212
From this it is clear that Grieg made unnotatedarpeggiationsvery infrequently in the he recorded. This is one of the reasonswhy his playing soundsmore synchronized music than many pianists of a similar generation.Though it is possible that in other repertoire,

Chopinor Schumann, might havearpeggiated he suchas morefrequently,this doesnot in 2. to accordwith the evidence his pianoplayingdiscussed Chapter of seem

During the first half of the twentiethcentury,pianistssuchasJosefHofmann,Mark HambourgandWalter Gieseking Their playingshows the railed against arpeggio manner.
correspondingly less use of unnotated arpeggiationthan other pianists. At certain key

however,it is clearthat theycould not resistthe technique. his 1912 In moments,

recording of Chopin's Nocturne Op. 9 No. 1 Hofuran makes unnotatedarpeggiationsat

bar 12 in the right handandtwice in bar 19.And duringbars30 and31, he makesoctave in Warum? Op. 12No. 3, he makesa arpeggiations the right hand.In Schumann's the noticeablearpeggiation the beginningof bar 10andarpeggiates chordin the left at handat bars21 and25. In bar 34, he effectsa rathercuriousarpeggiation addingaD by flat to the textureof the first chordandmakinga separation betweenit andthe notatedC flat. He alsoarpeggiates first chordin the right handat bar 38 in a similar way to the Reinecke.

In 1922, Mark Hambourg gave particular point to the deleterious effect of unnotated Significantly, Hambourg arpeggiation, providing the annotations cited in Chapter 2.135 can be seento have opposedthe style of playing indispensableto his teacher Leschetiz y, with whom he studied between 1891 and 1895. 135 Chapter page93. See 2,

213
In spite of the efforts of Busoni, Hofmann, Gieseking and Hambourg to stamp out the use of unnotated arpeggiation in early-twentieth-centurypianism, some pianists continued to use this device as late as the 1950s.Unnotated arpeggiation can be heard particularly in the recordings of pianists associatedwith Clara Schumannand Brahms or their students. For example, Ilona Eibenschtz,who studied with both Schumannand Brahms, makes a

few unnotated in BalladeOp. 118No. 3 recorded arpeggiations Brahms'svery energetic in 1903.The chordsin the right handon the lastbeatof bar 10andthe repeatat bar 86 to mark the beginningof a differentmood(CD 2/41).Shealso arearpeggiated
arpeggiatesthe chord in the right hand at the beginning of bar 21, making the dissonance more effective (CD 2/42). And by making a sweepingarpeggiation from the lowest note

in the fourth quaverbeatto the highestnoteof the chordin the middle of bars33 and35, Eibenschtz harmony(CD produces very effectiveemphasis the diminishedseventh a on 2/43). Shealsomakessimilar unnotated in arpeggiations her 1950recordings the of from Beethoven's Sonata Op. 109,andSchumann's Op. Romance 28 movement second No. 2. Hereit is clearthat, in spiteof the change taste,Eibenschtz in retainedpractices that sheinheritedfrom late-nineteenth-century style.

Adelina de Lara makes frequent unnotatedarpeggiationsin her 1951 recording of Brahms's Intermezzo Op. 117 No. 1. These include arpeggiationsof the chords in the left hand at bar 3, very noticeable separationsof the octaves in the left hand bar 7 at and the sixths and octavesbetween bars 18 and 20 (CD 2/44). She arpeggiatesthe chords in the left and right hands on the seconddotted crotchet beat of bar 12, producing an agogic emphasis.In bar 26, she expressesthe first chord with great delicacy by playing the

214 lowest bassnote first and gently, but swiftly, arpeggiating the remaining notes in the left hands.Theseunnotated arpeggiationstogether with frequent dislocations give and right feeling of continuous syncopation,much in the style of the entire performance a Reinecke. Although there are no earlier recordings of de Lara, she, like Eibenschiitz does to have modified her style significantly. not seem

Early recordings reveal, therefore, that unnotated arpeggiation was, for many pianists, an indispensableperforming practice around the turn of the twentieth century. Many of the reachedtheir peak during the secondhalf of oldest generation of pianists, whose careers the nineteenth century, can be heard making frequent expressivearpeggiationsthat are in the score. Though many pianists of the time have been accusedof not marked in the practice, this cannot be verified. In fact, written documentation overindulging shows that the tendencyto arpeggiatewas endemic throughout the nineteenth century and from earlier keyboard practices. Therefore, the frequency of very probably stemmed in many early recordings probably gives, if anything, a unnotated arpeggiation preserved that had already passedits zenith. In this light, it is significant that glimpse of a practice the oldest recorded pianist, Reinecke, usesit most.

Althoughearlyrecordings employment unnotated of arpeggiation, reveala widespread Indeed,the texts fail to document and clearlyits importance characteristics. written impression the practicefrom written textsalonedoesnot correspond andin some to, of is cases completelydivergentwith, reality. Many playerscanbe seento havepractised something entirelydifferentto what they advised verballyor markedin the score.

215 Early recordings also show that some pianists had already adopteda more synchronous style of playing with far less use of unnotatedarpeggiation.Changing tastesand attitudes for such a change,which, however, did not take a firm grip until the second must account half of the twentieth century.

between The comparison that the unnotated reveals written textsandearlyrecordings

arpeggiation practices of the oldest generationof nineteenth-centurypianists, such as

Reinecke, Saint-Satins, well asseveral Leschetizky, as generations followed, who and indulgences, remnants an olderstyle, sentimental not simply exaggerations, or of were but a continuation expressive that practices wereconsidered of vitally importantfor a significantperiodbeforeandduringthe twentiethcentury.

216

Chapter 4 Metrical rubato and other forms of rhythmic alteration

Metrical rubato, the practice of rhythmically altering melody notes while essentially preserving the metrical regularity of the accompanimentcontinued to be an expressive device in piano playing around the turn of the twentieth century. Early recordings reveal that many pianists, in some casesentirely contrary to modem conventions,displace single melody notes or multiple adjacent melody notes within a bar by lengthening or shortening them. In some cases,larger-scaledisplacementoccurs from one bar to the next. The device can also be heard in the playing of other instrumentalistsand singers. This flexible placement of melody notes often leads to asynchronybetweennotes of the melody and accompanimentthat are vertically aligned in the notation. Sometimes,too,

thereis a subtlerbendingof rhythmsin a stylesimilar to the Baroque practiceof notes inegalesor inequality.Thesepractices correspond strikingly with a numberof written descriptions musicalillustrationsfrom the second half of the nineteenth and centuryand earlier,thoughthe mannerin which they occuron earlyrecordings could hardlyhave beenpredictedfrom written evidence alone.On manyearlyrecordings, metricalrubato but occursmostfrequentlyin musicof a slow or tendercharacter, canalsobe heardin fastermusic.Althoughit shares with dislocationandarpeggiation characteristic the of displacement, metricalrubatois a significantlydifferentpractice.

217 by half of the twentiethcentury,metricalrubatowasconsidered manyto By the second 1962review of a recording Moriz by be old-fashioned. EdwardSackville-West's
Rosenthal supportsthis fact, while showing awareness that it was in previous times an important and widespreadpractice: There is one curious and interesting feature of Rosenthal's rubato which amountsto an the text. I mean the habit of introducing dotted notes into phrasesthat alteration of them. For example, in the passage referred to, Chopin wrote as were written without (a), but Rosenthalplayed this as (b); and again, two lines later, the samething happens,the score reading as (c) and Rosenthalplaying as (d).
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

If a contemporary pianisttook that kind of liberty we shouldprobablythink it in shockinglybadtaste- andwe shouldbe right, because suchlibertiesdo not go with the modernattitudeto the printedscore,or the neattechnique hard-boiledstyle and to. that we havebecome It accustomed Theywould soundlike meremistakes. is a I really, of how thesethingsaredone.In the caseof Rosenthal think it is question, dottednotesarepart andparcelof his sense the phrase clearthat thoseoccasional of just asIrving's or Forbes-Robertson's tricks of diction werepart of their view of

218
Shakespeare's They are a kind of decoration - like those which pianists of a still verse. introduced, quite naturally, into the concertosof Mozart. ' earlier generation Sackville-West describesone of the numeroustypes of alterations preservedin early recordings. The modem attitude he mentions was increasingly adoptedduring the twentieth century and becamethe hallmark of late-twentieth-centurystyle. Metrical rubato is now seldom employed in mainstreamclassical performance in which synchrony between melody and accompaniment,among other things, is taken for granted.Any significant deviation from the notation is usually consideredto be a mistake, a technical deficiency, or a sign of poor taste. Yet in other spheres,such as folk, jazz, and popular music, metrical rubato remains an intrinsic expressivedevice.

To date,the recordings the oldestgeneration pianistson recordsuchasReinecke, of of Saint-Satins, Leschetizky, GriegandBrahmshavenot beenexamined anydepth.These in showclearlythat metricalrubatoandvariousothertypesof rhythmicalterationwerean intrinsic part of their expressive Yet, without havingfully considered vital technique. this RichardHudsonhasconcluded aroundthe turn of the twentiethcentury, that evidence but musicians usedrhythmicalteration(which they inheritedfrom earlierpractices) that he suchpractices`hadbeenmostly forgotten'. Elsewhere, claimsthat `isolatedelements of the technique'of metricalrubato`lingeredon in the controversial conceptof "compensation" (meaning thenthat retardandacceleration shouldbe exactlyequal

1Sackville-West, `Rosenthal', 216. 2Hudson, StolenTime,340.

219
within a bar, phraseor piece) and in the pianists' custom of arpeggiatingchordsor "breaking hands".'3 The evidencepresentedbelow shows,however, that this is only part of the truth; the earliest piano recordings and some later onestoo, reveal striking alteration preservedin written referencesfrom the similarities with practices of rhythmic In her article `The Uses of Rubato in Music, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Eighteenth to Twentieth Centuries' (1994), SandraRosenblumhas only briefly it seems,having listened to them herself. Robert acknowledged early recordings, without, Philip has given more considerationto early recordingsbut seemsto have overlooked those of the oldest generation.

Metrical rubatoandotherformsof rhythmicalterationcanbe heardin the recordings features subtleto be listed below (Fig. 4.1) andmanyothers.Thesepreserve too by to conveyed written textsandalsoindicatethe degree which particularartists Metrical rubatowasusedin Classical Romanticrepertoire thesepractices. employed and is in which the character textureof the accompaniment sufficientlydifferentfrom the and less melodyto allow rhythmicindependence, so in Baroque sometypesof and Contemporary Other to repertoirefor which a stricterstyleseems havebeenpreferred. recordings showthat somepianistsusedmetricalrubatoto a lesserextent;their playing, which sounds moresynchronized, represent may eithera divergenttradition or the first important. stageof a moveawayfrom a practicethat manystill considered

3R. Hudson,`Rubato',NewGrove,2nd edn.,vol. 21,834.

220 Fig. 4.1 Some early recordings in which metrical rubato is evident.
PIANISTS JohannesBrahms Camille Saint-Satins RECORDINGS Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, acoustic recording 1889 BeethovenSonataOp. 31 No. 1,2nd movement - Adagio grazioso,piano roll, 1905; Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, piano roll, 1905 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, piano roll, 1906; Mozart FantasiaK 475, piano roll, 1906 Mozart Piano Concerto K 537,2nd movement, Larghetto arr. Reinecke piano roll, 1905 Grieg SonataOp. 7,3rd movement - Alla Menuetto, acousticrecording, 1903; HumoresqueOp. 6 No 2, acousticrecording, 1903 Chopin SonataNo. 2 Op. 35 - Marche funebre, acousticrecording, 1903; Chopin, Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, acousticrecording, 1903 Grieg Bridal Procession Op. 19 No. 2, acoustic recording, 1900 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, acoustic recording, 1916 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 1, acoustic recording, 1917 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, piano roll, 1929 Saint-SatinsSonataNo. 1 Op. 32,2nd movement electrical recording, 1935 SchumannSymphonic Etudes, 6th Variation and Finale, 1953; Beethoven's SonataOp. 14 No. 2 -2nd movemen 1953 Brahms Intermezzo Op. 117 No. 1,1951 SchumannPiano Concerto Op. 54, ist movement 1951 movements, 1953

Theodor Leschetizky Carl Reinecke Edvard Grieg

Raoul Pugno

Landon Ronald Vlademir de Pachmann IgnaceJan Paderewski John Powell Isidor Philipp with Paul Bazelaire Carl Friedberg

Adelina de Lara Fanny Davies

EtelkaFreund

BrahmsSonata 5,1st, 2nd and4th Op.

its Considering widespread particularlyby generations pianistswhosecareers use, of

flourished in the secondhalf of the nineteenth century, it is curious that highly detailed

221
discourses by pedagogues such as Lussy and Riemann neglect to discuss metrical rubato.

Franklin Taylor, on the other hand, noted its value in 1897,stating that: 4
There still remains to be noticed one more modification of tempo, which is of the greatest service to expression when suitably introduced, but which requires great caution and sound judgment in use, since it is more liable than any variation of speed to degenerate into affectation. This is the tempo ruhuto (literally "robbed time"), in which one part of a phrase is quickened, and another slackened in proportion, so that the general march of the rhythm is undisturbed, and the duration of the whole phrase remains the same as it would have been if played in strict time throughout. Such variations are too delicate and subtle to be expressed in notation, and the effect must depend for its success entirely on the discretion of the player, but it should be observed that any independent accompaniment to a rubuto phrase must always keep strict time, and it is, therefore, quite possible that no note of a rubuto melody will fall exactly together with its corresponding note in the accompaniment, except perhaps, the first note in each bar. The following is a good example of rubato melody with strict accompaniment: -

C 411.14 11

_r

Taylor's advice suggeststhat metrical rubato was indeed important in late-nineteenthcentury piano playing and would often have caused conspicuous asynchrony between melody and accompaniment. His explanation seems to refer to two separate but related practices. The first involves alterations to melody notes by the performer; the second involves a compositional style shown in the accompanying example that produces a similar effect.

Taylor, TechniqueAnd Expression, 72-3.

222
Metrical rubato, also apparently important in violin playing, was discussedin the Violinschule (Berlin, 1902-5) of JosephJoachim and AndreasMoser. Speaking particularly of music of earlier periods containing regular continuo-type basslines, they

advisethat:
Should a violinist possessed no innate feeling for musical style, and who has never of had proper tuition, permit himself to perform thesemelodies with spontaneous tempo, such as might be introduced in the rendering of a modem solo changesof he would certainly not only misrepresentthe intentions of the composer,but piece, also assignto the airs an entirely false physiognomy.It would be an offence would moving forward in notes of equal time-value, against all musical feeling if the basses, were to lose their seriousdignity, and in order to keep in with the violin, constantly have to changethe tempo of their movement... No doubt can be felt that an exact, the melodies in question, lying over the continuo would metronomic performance of in itself be correct, but in regard to expressionthe effect produced would be certainly one of deadly dullness. It is not sufficient to play the notes correctly; the living spirit of the work of art must be made apparentif its reproduction is to make any impression. If the player is what may be called an innate musician, his inclination towards a certain freedom will impel him to throw off the constraint which the continuo exercises.He will, as it were, try to soften its rigidity, and assistthe life with which the melodies seemto blossom forth. In other words, wherever the courseof the seemsurgently to demand it, the performer will so far slackenthe rhythmic cantilena structure of the bar that he will no longer feel the continuo as a burdsome fetter, but rather as "Freedom's hallowed guard". As freedom is not caprice but rather the inward to assimilation of, and conformity to Law, it is hardly necessary point out with what extreme caution this liberty must be used.For apart from the fact that even in the performance of more modem music much harm can be done to the characterof a piece by the use of unjustifiable liberties, the apparently inexorable strictnessof the continuo is especially distinctive of the older classical art in which it was used. 5

It seems Joachimappliedmetricalrubatouniversally. that Frequent alterations clearly are in the 1903recordingof his Romance C, examples which arecited below, in preserved of HungarianDanceand(although aswell asin his recordings Brahms'sfirst andsecond of from Bach's Solo Sonatas Partitas, unaccompanied) two movements of and

5J. Joachim A. Moser,Violinschule, trans.A. Moffat (Berlin und Leipzig, 1905),vol. 3,16. and

223 Franklin Taylor's advice was precededby Adolphe Christiani, who in 1885 mentioned importance of metrical rubato in ThePrinciples of Expression in Pianoforte Playing. the `Rubato', he says,`may be describedin severalways': 1. Any temporary retardation or accelerationis rubato. 2. Any negative grammatical accentuation(for example, syncopation),by which the time becomesrobbed of its regular accents,is a rubato. 3. That capricious and disorderly mode of performanceby which some notes are beyond their proper duration and others are curtailed, without, however, protracted is a rubato.6 the aggregateduration of each measure, changing

Christianiattributes latterway to Chopin,notingthat it is `verybeautifulandartistic the in its properplaceandlimitation,but very ugly andpernicious whenout of place, when he two '? Furthermore, mentions methods execution: of or exaggerated. i.e., both hands 1.Both handsin sympathy accelerating retarding and with eachother, together.

2. Or, the two handsnot in sympathy, i. e., the accompanyinghand keeping strict time, the other alone is playing rubato. while

8 is the truly artistic rubato. The latterway is the morebeautifulof the two, and
In effect, the first method describesa type of tempo modification. That will be examined

(apparently in Chapter5. The second moresophisticated) methodclearly describes Here,Christianiemphasizes importance preserving pulse, the the of metricalrubato. suchaswaltzes,andcharacter piecessuchas of addingthat the character certaingenres lullabies,serenades includingnocturnes, barcaroles, `marches, etc., mazurkas, polonaises, destroyed the underlyingaccompaniment if is are and songs romances, without words' in time. He regards populardictum that `onehandshouldbe kept in strict the not played

6 Christuni, The Principles of Expression, 299. 7 Ibid., 299.

8Ibid., 299.

224 time, while the other hand retards or accelerates'as the basis of highly expressive performance,and comparesthis to the practices of virtuoso singers: Now it may be said that this is impossible. But such is, by no means,the case.Listen, in Italian opera, to a first-class singer, and notice how steadily the orchestral accompanimentproceeds,while the soloist retards and accelerates,at almost every moment. It is just this steadiness not-giving-way of the accompanimentwhich the and general desires,expecting only from the conductor that he will follow, or soloist needsand for him, at the tenuto orfermate points. Just so should the pianist keep either wait in time.9 time, and yet be free Of particular interest is that singerswould make alterations `at almost every moment'. This frequency suggests that metrical rubato was not reservedfor special or unusual imparted an improvisatory characterto the composition. Moreover, moments and Christiani extols the virtues of this style, apparently evident in Thalberg's piano playing: When Thalberg played a melody, it stood out in bold dynamic relief; not becausehe but becausehe kept the accompanimentduly subdued.And when he pounded, or embellished his melody, the accompanimentproceededwith accelerated,retarded, by the emotion displayed in the solo parts. steady,unwavering precision, unaffected

This method,far from beingstiff or rigid, is not only rationalandmusicalbut beautiful highly artistic; neverprovokingandexasperating, out-of-timeplayingwith both as and hands, alwaysgratifying,attractive,andpossessing peculiarcharm,which would but a be entirelylost, if the accompaniment of on weredependent the melody,instead independent it. ' of However,he Without doubt,Christianiconsidered styleasa modelto be emulated. this for detailsindispensable a comprehensive appreciation the of omittedsignificant This lack of Without these,the character the alterations technique. of remainsobscure. detail alsopervades descriptions Chopin'smetricalrubatoby his variousstudents. the of Note' to his completeedition of Chopin'spianoworks,Mikuli In the `Introductory
9Ibid., 298-9. 10 Ibid., 298.

225 highlights the mysticism surrounding Chopin's piano playing, explaining that, `According to a tradition - and, be it said, an erroneousone - Chopin's playing was like that of one dreaming rather than awake - scarcely audible in its continual pianissimos and cordas, with feebly developedtechnique and quite lacking in confidence, or at least una distorted out of all rhythmic form by an incessanttempo rubato. "1 indistinct, and

Mikuli states Attemptingto dispelsuchimpressions, that:

In keeping time Chopin was inflexible, and many will be surprisedto learn that the metronome never left the piano. Even in his oft-decried tempo rubato one hand - that having the accompaniment- always played on in strict time, while the other, singing the melody, either hesitatedas if undecided,or, with increasedanimation, anticipating kind of impatient vehemenceas if in passionateutterances,maintained the with a from the fetters of strict regularity. 12 freedom of musical expression

in by Mikuli's opinionis supported Mathias,who remarked 1882that: Chopin,asMme CamilleDuboisexplainssowell, often Therewasanotheraspect: shouldmaintainstrict time, requiredthat the left hand,playingthe accompaniment, the melodicline shouldenjoyfreedomof expression while with fluctuationsof speed. This is quite feasible: are canbe early,you canbe late,the two hands not in you In the thenyou makea compensation phase; which re-establishes ensemble. Weber's Chopinrecommended way of playing.He oftentold me to this music,for example, it, it's asthoughI still hearhim. 13 use Chopin'sstudents, And in 1879,Kleczynskiparaphrases statingthat:
Some of Chopin's pupils have assuredme that in the rubato the left hand ought to keep perfect time, whilst the right indulges its fancy; and that in such a caseChopin " would say, "The left hand is the conductor of the orchestra. Many passages the of Berceusecan be executed in this manner. Paganini also, playing with the orchestra, recommendedthat the instrumentalist should observethe time, whilst he himself departedfrom it. 14

14 How to play Chopin,57. Kleczynski,

1 Mikuli, `Introductory Notes' unpaginated[I]. 12Ibid., unpaginated[1]. 13G. Mathias, `Preface' to I. Philipp, Exercise quolidiens tires des oevresde Chopin (Paris, 1882), 5; cited in Eigeldinger, Chopin, 49-50.

226

in In 1868,Wilhelm von Lenzconfirmssimilar characteristics Chopin'splayingsaying that:

One of the things which particularly characterisedChopin's playing, was his rubato, in the rhythm and time throughout remained accurate. `The left hand,' he often which `is the conductor. It must not waver, nor lose ground: do with the right hand said, can'. He told his pupils: `Supposinga composition is to what you will and what you last a certain number of minutes. It may take just so long to perform the whole, but in deviations may occur'. 15 details,

Collectively,the abovereferences of providestrongevidence Chopin'suseof metrical However,like Christian's text, only the general principleof rhythmicflexibility rubato. leavingthe individualfeatures the melodywithin a metricalframeworkis preserved, of of
Chopin's style to the imagination. As noted below, many writers found the difficulties of

insurmountable. clearly describing notatingsuchsubtleandvariedrhythmicnuances or

The features metricalrubatoandotherformsof rhythmicalterationin pianoplaying of in in to havebeendiscussed anydegree written textsduringthe nineteenth seemnot However,a morecomprehensive understanding be gainedby referringto may century. in of practices otherdisciplinessuchassinging.The publications the influential singing
teacherManuel Garcia, for instance,provide illuminating descriptions and examples.

With little doubt,the applicationof vocalpractices pianoplayingwasconsidered to highly appropriate duringthe nineteenth for centuryasevidenced, example,in the fact

15 W. von Lenz, `Die grossenPianoforte-Virtuosen unsererZeit auspersnlicher Bekanntschaft: Liszt, Chopin, Tausig', Neue Berliner Musikzeitung (1868), XXIU38,302; repub. as Die grossen Pianoforte- Virtuosen unserer Zeit aus persnlicher Bekanntschaft: Liszt, Chopin, Tausig, Henselt (Berlin, 1872); trans. M. Baker as The Great Piano Virtuosos of Our Time: Liszt, Chopin, Tausig, Henselt (New York, 1899); modem edn. ed. P. Reder (London, 1983), 54-5.

227

in an anthology historicalkeyboard that Garcia'sprecepts of entitledLe werecited works 16 (Paris,1861-72). Otherproof of this existsin titles suchas Tresordespianistes
Thalberg's L'Art du chant applique au piano, clearly describing the close relationship between singing and piano playing.

Garcia's Traite complet de 1'art du chant was published in two parts (Paris, c. 1840 or 41/ English translation as 1847). A version combining both parts appearedin a condensed

Garcia'sNew Treatiseon theArt of Singing(London,1857)andin FrenchandGerman treatisecalled two yearslater.Towardsthe endof his life, Garciaalsopublished another Hints on Singing(London,1894).Henceforth, original Frencheditionwill be referred the
to as the Traite complet, and the English edition of 1857 as the New Treatise.

Garcfadescribes In the second metricalrubatoas: part of theNew Treatise,

the momentary increaseof values, which is given to one or severalsounds,to the detriment of the rest, while the total length of the bar remains unaltered. The distribution of notes into long and short, breaks the monotony of regular movements, '7 bursts of passion. and gives greatervehemenceto

in This definition is further elucidated theNew Treatise that wherehe advises in orderto in makemetricalrubatoperceptible singing: the accents time of an accompaniment shouldbe strictly maintained: and uponthis by introduced a singerwill standout in relief, and monotonous ground,all alterations '' the change character certainphrases. of

16 and L. Farrenc(eds.), Le Tresor despianisles, 23 A. vols. (Paris, 1861-72; repr. Da Capo, 1977). 17 Garcia,New Treatise, 50. 'a Ibid., 51.

228

his Together, For the basisfor Garcia'sdiscussion. convenience, thesereferences provide texts,aswell asthoseof otherwriters,aredividedinto threecategories; namely,smallinequality,andlarge-scale alteration. scalealteration,

Small-scale alteration: written texts

Small-scale any alterationdescribes modificationmadeto oneor a few notes,causing

to become significantly unequal by creating dotted or triplet adjacent notes of equal value

figuresandso on. Oftenthesemodifications emphasize particularnotethat requires a heightened Henceforth, stated, alterations all unlessotherwise referto melody expression. notes.

in in An accountof certainsmall-scale alterations pianoplaying(hithertounmentioned detail,occursin Heinrich Germer's the the literature)which discusses matterin unusual Wiespielt manklavier? Op. 30 (1881).Germerremarks that:
Mozart, Beethoven and especially Chopin have often made an extreme use of tempo rubato in their piano playing, as their contemporariesinform us.

What is so extraordinary style? aboutsucha performance is The description only a very vagueandimperfectindication;because translation the "robbedor robbingtempo" will not makeit clearerto us.The tempois actuallyrarely it, but morethe beat(takt) andthe rhythm;because: part of within the metric and division the performergiveshimself licenceto change. rhythmical 1. Often only one,the melodicallymostimportantnote in the bar,will be prolonged. handgoeson strictly in the meter- it is described, Because accompanying for the exampleof Mozart as an admiredcharacteristic onehasto rob the following notesof their notatedlengthasmuchaswasgivento the lengthened note,i.e. they haveto be playedthat muchfaster.This way of rubatohappens very often in the performance of

229

because course accentuated with simultaneous of an melodiesasalsopassages; note lengthening be presented the mostimportantbecause the resultingovertones, as will of by thanwhenit is only emphasized the accent.
2. Sometimessmaller groups of notes are changedrhythmically. Three notesthat for example are written as triplet quaversare executedas a quaver and two semiquavers vice versa; or quintuplet quaverswill be interpreted as two semiquavers,one and quaver and two semiquavers.Mostly the thought of lengthening the most important melodic notes (maybe also the highest note) of the figure is the reasonfor such 19 modification. Germer describesthe prolongation of a single note in order to give it addedemphasis,and the rhythmic alteration of equal-valuenotes resulting in the prolongation of one or more important notes. As will be seenbelow, his description correspondsclosely with certain in early recordings.However, it is evident that severalpianists made practices preserved alterations that modified the original notation even more radically. Significantly, Germer notes that the use of small-scale alteration was not limited to Romantic repertoire but applied more widely, a fact that is supportedin early recordings.

Furtherdetailsof small-scale are alterations foundin the first part of Garcia'sTraits d'rret, sayingthat: completwherehe highlightsa practicecalledtemps
The tempsd'arret is a momentary prolongation of the value given to any note in a The temps d'arret, in giving support to the sequenceformed of equal-value notes... voice, permits it to render distinctly that which would otherwise be passedover, and deal in effect.20 the sequence gains a great

19 Germer, Wie H. spielt man klavier? Op. 30, Fnf didaktische Abhandlungen aber Tonbildung, Accentuation, Dynamik Tempo und Vortrag (Leipzig, 1881), 36. N. B. the original German is provided in Appendix G. M. Garcia, Traue complet de 1'art du chant (Paris et Londres, 1847), part 1,49; `Le temps d'arret est une prolongation momentaneede valeur donn6eA une note prise hazard dans au un trait composd de notes d'egale valeur... Le temps d'arret en donnant un appui la voix, lui , permet de rendre distinct ce qui aurait manqud de nettetd,et les traits y gagnentbeaucoupd'elTet.'

230

rk.

_____________

ffir J
r _

ainsi zuadiIhs res traits so trcuve"ont

The In the appended the exampleabove,a crossindicates notesto be lengthened.

resulting variants showing the approximate effect are also indicated. Prolongation of a particular note requires a compensatorymodification of the notes coming before or after it. Presumablythere are caseswhere notes both before and after are affected. That Garcia

in this considered the mostimportantandbasicrule of metricalrubatois supported the it the Trauecompletwherehe describes as `thefirst elementof tempo second part of Z' rubato'.

In the New Treatise, Garciashowshow small-scale help preventmonotony alterations from Donizetti'sAnnaBolenaand andenhance passion annotated examples with Rossini'sGazza it Ladra (Fig. 4.2). In the first example, is notablethat the sequence that it thereforehelpto makethe precedes is in E flat major; the rhythmicalterations chromaticnotesD flat andC flat moreprominent.Without Garcf annotations, a's such

Z' Ibid., part2,24; `Le tempsd'arret...estle premier61ement tempo du ' rubato.

231

features the triplet rhythmsin the first example, the equalizing the back-dotted or of as havebeenenvisaged. in the second might never example rhythms

Fig. 4.2

Donizetti Anna Bolena and Rossini GazzaLadra, showing Garcia's

alterations. Attu 1'. 22

Aloderato.

DoxusTTI. daw Bo1MO. Ti ram men is 11 mi .o for do glio non lu - ciar

a-

non Ia - idir-tt
aa

in

- da . g.

lo
NIAFXTTA. dllogm

61
-

-1,10 r

r.
" {t In do - gor.

non IN " cier

U. non ]noiar

Ro. snrz. ' liarsa Ladrd. Ah gis di - mon"8- co i will tar- wen 4 ct quan- if eon - tee iL

di - men - ti-co

i ahoi for - men -H

quer - ti

NNW con -

Nq

rill

In the New Treatise, Garciaprescribes small-scale alterationto vary repeated passages:

When the secondsection of a phraseis composedof the samevalues as the first, its colouring should be sometimesthe tempo rubato and sometimesthe piano opposedto theforte... When the identical thought is repeatedseveraltimes in succession,as it is frequently with all composers,especially Mozart; or when the thought pursuesan ascendingor descendingprogression... each different development should be submitted, according to the sentiment of the phrase,to the crescendoor diminuendo the accelerando or ritardando; in rarer instances,to isolated accentsand the tempo 23 rubato.

In the Traite complet,he providesan exampleof this from Mozart'sLe nozze Figaro di in which the musicalmaterialhasbeenpreviouslypresented (Fig. 4.3). For the sakeof The variety,the noteE on the syllable`giar' is alteredto aG andlengthened. descending sequence notesthat follows is thusrobbedof time. Similar alterationoccursto the note of
22Garcia, New Treatise, 51. 23Ibid., New Treatise, 55.

232

the syllable`gra' andthe notesthat follow. Here,variationis effectednot only by on but thoughGarciamadeno mentionof the latter. prolongation alsoby embellishment,

Fig. 4.3

24 di MozartLe norme Figaro, showingGarcia'salterations.

Com "A"

MOZART

'

Nozze Aria.

I'

ISO
Exi cation
giar

r
cor

di can_giarrin _ gra_to " ml prds_tas sva_naspe ran_za

din gra

to

tor

Garciaalsorecommends useof metricalrubatoratherthantempomodificationto the

enhanceand energizefinal cadencepoints. In the New Treatise he advisesthat: Accelerando and rallentando movementsrequire the voice and accompanimentto proceed in concert; whereas,tempo rubato allows liberty to the voice only. A serious error is therefore committed, when a singer, in order to give spirit to the final cadences of a piece, usesritardando at the last bar but one, instead of the tempo rubato; as he only becomesawkward and dull. 25 while aiming at spirit and enthusiasm, In the Traite complet, Garcia's example from Rossini's II barbiere di Siviglia reveals prolongation of the note on a particular syllable and subsequentdiminution of those that follow to create the requisite energizing effect (Fig. 4.4). Hudson has pointed out that the orchestrain a different register doubles the vocal pitches and rhythms and that therefore the melody is heard in two different forms simultaneously (Fig. 4.5). Again, without Garcia's annotation, the possibility of this type of doubling would probably not have been realized.

Z' Garcia, Traite complet, part 2,24. 25Garcia,New Treatise, 51.

233 Fig. 4.4 26 barbiere di Siviglia, with Garcia's alterations. Rossini Il

Rosstar . "v Darbiere

A1lusro,

y
-t> aMiavoulauobruobravotn
it

d,. 1)".

cwwvQstow h"bMalowr!

_ta

(A

si

bra%brmo ins
46 A

1i

dwtoreeslorm brajobrawinrrei-ti

cbeioSuoafooebrayobr1voinwrf.t}

sloe

brarobvubur.

rJ - 11

Fig. 4.5

27 Hudson's annotationswith an orchestral reduction.

a- Potontaed Allegro

h Written nWr tY (in-] ven } no - ne'. Brax vv. u -= .r ti.

., I

Mm- vo in vc -r

All l*-m-!, - nrch. ;'. i"

11.1
r7

: =z

TAM :.;'L

ry

_...

: '.

+...:. .

_"

'...

.w

had This type of disjunctionwith a doublingaccompaniment historicalprecedents, RichardMaunderhas sources. examples which canbe found in late-eighteenth-century of in pointedout two, of many,examples DomenicoCorri's SelectCollectionof Choice in Music (Londonc. 1790).The first appears bar 19of Corri's arrangement the popular of in accompanied `Seplacar' (Fig. 4.6), andthe second aria appears bar 15 in Corri's

ZbGarcia, Traue complet, part 2,24. 2' Hudson, Stolen Time, 72.

234

di arrangement the accompanied `Nel partir' from J.C. Bach'sLa Clemenza aria of
Scipione (Fig. 4.7). Maunder opines that: Although Conn does no more than hint at the practice in his introduction, considerable rhythmic license [sic] is allowed not only in recitatives but also in arias, though in the latter the accompanimentcontinues in strict time, and measures not are This type of `rubato' often results in the voice and accompanimentfailing extended... 28 in what is otherwise a unison passage. to coincide exactly `Se Placar', bars 19 to 22.29

Fig. 4.6

Fig. 4.7

di J.C. Bach,`Nel partir' from La Clemenza Scipione, bars 12to 17.30

29 Ibid., 49. 30 Ibid., 90.

2E Maunder, `Introduction', Domeninco Corri's Treatise Singing R. Select Collection, and on -A The Singer's Preceptor, 4 vols., ed. R. Maunder (New York and London, 1993), vol. 1, vii.

235

Garciastates the lengthening particulartypesof notesinvests In theNew Treatise, that of interestto the melodyasa whole: themwith specialexpression, giving increased
This prolongation is usually concededto appoggiaturas, notes placed on long to those which are naturally salient in the harmony. In all such cases,the syllables, and time lost must be regainedby acceleratingother notes. This is a good method for 31 giving colour and variety to melodies. Although this is a useful outline of specific placesthat were habitually altered, Garcia implies that there are also other placesnot made clear. In the New Treatise, his example taken from Donizetti's Lucia (Fig. 4.8) usesdoubled note stemsto indicate the lengthening of the first in each group of four notes of a coloratura sequence. Unusually,

for Garcia,the annotation of no provides sense the actualrhythmicrelationship.

Fig. 4.8

32 DonizettiLucia, with Garcia'salterations.

LuctA.

rar - chanon ho del

ran

--

t*

1'i.

to - ti

- ea

---

bil

vo

--

Ia.

Four possible interpretations of the above example are presentedbelow (Fig. 4.9). The

last exampleshowsa variety of alterations to with the highestmelodynotelengthened a greaterextentthan in the otherexamples.

31 Garcia, New Treatise, 51. 32 Ibid., 51.

236 Fig. 4.9 (1) Donizetti Lucia, possible alterations to bar 3 in Figure 4.8 above. 3 (2)

31

(31

(4)

-3

Garciaalsoconsidered commencement trills earlierthannotated be a type of to the of he that: metricalrubato.In the New Treatise states
The tempo rubato, again is useful in preparing a shake,by permitting this preparation 33to take place on the preceding notes; thus:

COUNT. "Nhwf.

.t

i"

Ec - oo Aden-t. l.

-.

la

spun

la bei - is

an "-"

to

rp u to la b01-la snro

."

"ra,

In the accompanying helpsto of examplethe earlycommencement the trill presumably AlthoughGarciadid not suggest this, Louis Spohrmade achieve rapidity andenergy.
referenceto it in 1833, explaining that: In order to produce the shakesfull and brilliant, the half of the value of the preceding has been taken and addedto the shakenote.34 note

33 Ibid., 51.

237

Spohrpresents annotated of example the soloviolin part from Rode'sViolin Concerto an No. 7 in which the lengthsof the trills in bars 17,18 and 19areeffectivelydoubled the original notation(Figs.4.10and4.11). compared with

Fig. 4.10

35 No. RodeViolin Concerto 7, bars 17to 19,with Spohr'salterations.

II

Fig. 4.11

Rode'soriginal rhythmsagainstSpohr'salterations.
d a.. J. d.

spMes vurinn

Radekoriginal

In summary, Garciaprescribes for: alterations small-scale

" the variation of passages containing even notes

the intensificationof passionate melodies 9 phrases 9 the variationof repeated

34L. Spohr, Violinschule (Vienna, [1832]); trans. C. Rudolphus Louis Spohr's Grand Violin as School (London, 1833), 183.

31 Ibid., 183.

238 the energizing of final cadences

and noteson long syllables, the emphasis singlenotessuchasappoggiaturas, of 9 thoseof harmonicsignificance 9 the variationof phrases " the preparation enhancement trills of and

In additionhe asserts thesecanhelp: that

" 9 " to prevent monotony to emphasizeand support notes which would ordinarily be ignored to changethe character of a melody

"

the to enhance colour andvarietyof melodies

Clearly,however, that thesearejust a few of the typesof rhythmicalterations were by singers the time. Othersignificantexamples small-scale of of expected enjoyed and du in the Methodede chant,composee pour sesclasses are alterations preserved
(1849) by Laure Cinti-Damoreau (1801-1863). Damoreau, who was conservatoire the greatestsingersof her era, shows how to make vocal variations to consideredone of from standardnineteenth-centuryoperas.Hudson has remarked that `some of passages the variants simply replace the composer's original passage... others, however, remain close enough to the original melody for one to recognize the technique of melodic '36It is here that metrical rubato alterations are recognizable. The original variation. line with orchestral reduction is given by Hudson (Fig. 4.12) Although Cintimelody

36 Hudson, StolenTime,81.

239 Damoreau did not offer verbal explanations,her variations on an excerpt from Meyerbeer's Robert le diable show the use of anticipation and delay of the original (Fig. 4.13). Such alterations seemextreme by modem standardsbut were melody notes obviously considerednormal in the mid-nineteenth century.

Fig. 4.12

le diable, orchestral reduction by Hudson.37 Meyerbeer Robert

c Pnnted score

Coeur,,.

mon bon =heurtat ex,

tre

me,

37 Hudson, StolenTime,82.

240

Fig. 4.13

38 by Meyerbeer Robertle diable,alterations Cinti-Damoreau.

Ir (T'. ) 0,

1r

uk 0

mnn lion-harr est' rt ' '-" 1t -

4. VAR: 49ah

ex _ trt - me t"^'" , , .,.

molt

bob-heat . -"

ett

ex

tri'! _me tr

all viens Sr

Time

rill

viena

Ah ah. _.._

W.El; t
ah! na "Tip,
61

vioA

VAR*; ah
t

-- viens

. lelem
"1

!a 'Alt.
aT_. h! vina mL!

Anotherannotated alterationin singingis found in Jean-Baptiste of small-scale example Faure's(1830-1914) Voixet le chant:traitepratique (1886).He states La that:
Among the varieties of rhythm, it is necessary put the anticipations at the top. It is to the processthat consists in borrowing from a beat a little of its value, in order to give it beat that follows. This is what the Italians call tempo rubato.39 to the According to Faure, metrical rubato gives the `rhythm a greater freedom of movement' and imparts to the melody `the stirring characterof improvisation'. His accompanying illustration (Fig. 4.14) shows alterations, made in bar 3 of an excerpt from Donizetti's

" L. Cinti-Damoreau, Methode de chant, composCe pour ses classesdu conserratoire (Paris, 1849), 97. 39J. Faure,La Voix le . et chant: traite pratique (Paris, 1886), 182; `Parini les varietes de rhythm, il faut placer en premiere ligne les anticipations. C'est le procdd6 qui consiste emprunter A un temps un peu de sa valeur, pour la reporter sur le temps qui suit. Ce que les Italiens appellent: le tempo rubato. '

241 Lucia di Lammermoor, by the Italian baritone Giorgio Ronconi (1810-90). In the given

Ronconianticipated orchestra the syllable`ta'. the on example,

Fig. 4.14

Faure's annotationsof Ronconi's alterations to an excerpt from 40 Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor.

LUCIA. (DO!IIZETT11

And{Q

a tat-el
a . j, -

'-PN

original. And p
?e:tocl
BOIYCOl1j/.

T te ex

Ah! mio aast_ guell'ho tra_di 5. . trete.

3-, !, %

la sta_fra mortee vita _ >>1

3 r

"

la etafra tra: dita! a el _ Ah! d niia san guell'ho __o .

li *i tti$ cldlnt et try Port

mottee vi_ taw

Small-scale alterations: audible evidence

by Early recordings similar to thosediscussed Garcia,Germerand revealthat techniques generations pianists.In these of others,areexemplifiedin the playingof several from singlenotesto moreextended a of recordings, rangeof melodicmaterial sequences in somecases between conspicuous notesarerhythmicallymodified,creating asynchrony In othercases, flexibility of rhythm andexpression a melodyandaccompaniment. not inherentin the original notationcanalsobe heard.

40Ibid., 183.

242 Modification of notes of equal value and unequal value

Despite the poor sound quality of Brahms's 1889wax cylinder recording of his Hungarian Dance No. 1, it is possible to discern that he altered significantly the rhythmic In values in certain passages. Brahms at the Piano: an Analysis of Data from the Brahms
Cylinder, Berger and Nichols conclude that:

continues in measures25-36, Brahms although in the score the pattern alters this group considerably in his performance,subverting the
rhythmic units in Brahms's performance units... This shift... to is consistent with the composer's predilection for metric ambiguity Brahms gives the ... 4 in dotted 38.1 its full

quarter note

value only once,

measure

The aural effect preservedin the recording is stark becauseBrahms evensout the strongly Hungarian dancedotted rhythm. The most obvious moment when this characteristic occurs is during bars 39 and 40 (Fig. 4.15).

Fig. 4.15

Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 39 and 40, Brahms, acoustic 1889,(CD 3/1).42 recording,

`' Berger rundNichols, Brahms at the Piano, 27. 42J. Brahms, Ungarische 'Tnze Pianoforte fr gesetzt(Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hrtel, c. 1890), 2.

243

dance. This Joachim, the dottedrhythmsin his 1903recording the same too, subverted of be heardparticularlyin bars22 and23 (CD 3/2).A similar effect is heardin can in the Joachim's1903recordingof his Romance C, wherehe changes dottedrhythmin
bar 154 to equal-value notes (Fig. 4.16).

Fig. 4.16

Joachim Romancein C, bars 154 and 155,Joachim, acoustic recording, 1903, (CD 3/2).

Joachim'sversion

loachim's original

in 1905pianoroll Numerous typesof small-scale preserved Saint-Saans's alterationare Sonata 31 No. 1. In bar 7, the lengthening Op. Beethoven's the second of of of movement dottedsemiquaver causes displacement the following E andG C the the second of (Fig. 4.17).In bar 71, containingsimilar material,this displacement startsearlierwith the C lengthening the second dottedsemiquaver (Fig. 4.18). of

244 Fig. 4.17 Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1, secondmovement,bar 7, Saint-Satns, 1905, piano roll recording (CD 3/3).

Saint-SaMs'sversion

Beethoven'soriginal

Fig. 4.18

Op. bar Beethoven Sonata 31 No. 1, second movement, 71, Saint-Saans, 1905,pianoroll recording(CD 3/4).

Saint"SeEns's version

Boa[hoven's original

In bar 70, Saint-Saans lengthens first tied A. This resultsin the delayandhemiolathe A, like syncopated placement the repeated giving it a peculiarlyexpressive of emphasis.
(Fig. 4.19).

245

Fig. 4.19

Op. Sonata 31 No. 1 second bar Beethoven movement, 70, Saint-Saans, (CD 3/5). 1905,pianoroll recording

Saint-Sadns's version

Beethoven's original

Saint-Saans's in alterations bars53 and54 with identicalmaterial,cause unusual an

effect that is disturbing by `modem' standards(Fig. 4.20). Here, the C in the inner voice

half of the bar areplayedapproximately its accompaniment A flat in the second and note beatearly.The resultingsyncopation the accentuates poignantshift in onesemiquaver tonality from G to A flat. Althoughboth melodyandaccompaniment altered,the are metricalrubatoeffect is retainedbecause the preservation the underlyingpulse. of of

246

Fig. 4.20

bar Op. Sonata 31 No. 1 second Beethoven movement, 53, Saint-Saans, (CD 3/6). 1905,pianoroll recording

Saint-Satns's version

Beethoven's original

In a similar way, Saint-Saans's one of placement the F sharpin bar 92, approximately beatearly,creates syncopation emphasizes commencement the that the of a semiquaver chromaticscale(Fig. 4.21). rising

247

Fig. 4.21

Op. Sonata 31 No. I second bars91 and92, SaintBeethoven movement, (CD 3/7). 1905,pianoroll recording Saans,

Saint-Sans's version

Beethoven'soriginal

lengthenstrills to the extent that their terminations or In bars 27,65 and 91, Saint-Sa&ns nachschlagsand the notes that follow are significantly displaced (Figs. 4.22 and 4.23). Although there appearsto be no historical written evidence supporting this practice, its frequent use here effects small-scale alteration that cannot simply be a technical

aberration.

Fig. 4.22

Op. Beethoven Sonata 31 No. I second bar movement, 27, Saint-Saans, 1905,pianoroll recording(CD 3/8).

Saint-SaCns's version

Beethoven's original

248

Fig. 4.23

Op. bar Sonata 31 No. 1 second Beethoven movement, 65, Saint-Saens, (CD 3/9). 1905,pianoroll recording

Saint"Sadns's version

Beethoven's original

Saint-Saans's pianoroll of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 2 alsopreserves of examples small-scale alteration.In bar 2, the F sharpis doubledin lengthandthe following two (Fig. 4.24). notesA andD arehalvedto effect compensation

249

Fig. 4.24

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 1 to 5, Saint-Sadns,1905, piano roll (CD 3/10). recording

Saint"Saans's version

Chopin'soriginal

3N

for The first A sharpin bar 5 is lengthened, that creatinga syncopation is compensated by the shortening following two melodynotesF doublesharpandD sharp(Fig. 4.24).Both d'rret cited above.In bar 3, correspond closelywith Garcia'stemps of theseexamples the quintupletis playedin sucha way asto soundlike two triplets.Within the second triplet, thereis a lengthening the D naturalanda shortening the following C sharp of of (Fig. 4.24).This examplecorresponds closelywith Genner'sdescriptionof such
though Saint-Saans'splaying shows a more complex combination of practices,

alterations.

250

C Saint-Saftsaltersthe sextupletfigureat the endof bar 12by shortening preceding the the G doublesharpearlier.In addition,the E naturalis made sharpandcommencing
by lengthening it and shorteningthe following D sharp (Fig. 4.25). more expressive

Fig. 4.25

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 10 to 12, Saint-Saans,1905, piano roll recording (CD 3/11).
6-

Saint-Saftes

vcfinn

Cho ins original

in by Similarly, the septuplet bar 10 is modifiedto form a sextuplet shortening the C sharpandcommencing following A sharpearlier(Fig. 4.25).Again, the the preceding by GarciaandGermerareobvious;however techniques similaritieswith mentioned Saint-Saans's by treatmentis morevariedand subtlethan might havebeensuggested their texts.

251 Leschetizky's 1906 piano roll of Chopin's Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 reveals that he frequently made expressivesmall-scalealterations.In bar 31 the tied E, embellished with a trill, is played a quaver beat early and extendedbeyond its notated length. This causes the rising melodic figure in the secondhalf of the bar to be played in a hurried manner resembling a quintuplet of demisemiquavers(Fig. 4.26). Leschetizky's own edition of

Chopin'soriginal notationto matchhis modifications this work showsthat he changed

(Fig. 4.27), providing incontrovertible proof that this effect was fully intended and not the

productof a technicalaberration.

Fig. 4.26

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 31, Leschetizky, pianoroll recording, 1906(CD 3/12).

-6--. -. _

Lmchctizky'.venioo

CMom'* cxiginal

252 Fig. 4.27 43 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 31, ed. Leschetizky.

.,

a----

In bar 36, the second chordis playedearlierthannotated(Fig. 4.28).This creates a hemiola-type that givesit emphasis is similar to the effect heardin Saintand rhythm
Saans'splaying.

Fig. 4.28

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 36, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 3/13).

Leschetizky's version

Chopin's original

43Chopin,`Nocturne 27 No. 2', ed.Leschetizky, Op. 20.

253

In bar 57, Leschetizky the syncopated expressive chordon the third quaverbeata gives by playingit earlierthannotated(Fig. 4.29).The chordsof the poignantemphasis
following descendingsequenceare shortened,causing the end of the bar to sound

dramaticallyaccelerated. and suddenly

Fig. 4.29

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 57, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 3/14).

Leschetizky's vcrsion

Chopin's original

A similar effect is heardin the anticipations in madeby Joachimin his Romance C, bars 116and 120(Figs.4.30 and4.31).Here, particularlyin bars40 and41 andbetween the effect is of a passionate fiery snap. and

254 Fig. 4.30 Joachim Romancein C, bars 40 and 41, Joachim, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 3/15).

Joachim'sversion

Joachim's original

Fig. 4.31

Joachim Romance in C, bars 116 to 120, Joachim, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 3/16).

Joachim'c version

Joachim'soriginal

And AdelinaPatti madesimilar anticipations creatingangularrhythmsin bar 45 andin line in bar 46 of Bellini's CastaDiva (Fig. 4.32). the embellished melody

255 Fig. 4.32 Bellini Casta Diva, bars 44 to 47, Patti, acoustic recording, 1906 (CD 3/17).

Patti's version

Bellini's original

In Chopin'sNocturne,Leschetizky the shortens chordsof the triplet andquintuplet figuresin the second half of bar 39, creatingpassages demisemiquavers produce that of (Fig. 4.33). the effect of a sudden accelerando

256

Fig. 4.33

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 39, Leschetizky, pianoroll recording, 1906(CD 3/18).

LevchetizIy's version

Chopin's original

half of bars42 In a similar way,Leschetizky creates accelerando an effect in the second

43 (Fig. 4.34). In both bars, the high note G is extendedbeyond its notated length and and the following triplet semiquaversare modified into equal demisemiquavers.Thus the three against two rhythm in Chopin's notation is radically altered in Leschetizky's The effect is further exaggeratedby the slight truncation of the last beat in performance.

eachbar.

257

Fig. 4.34

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 42 and 43, Leschetizky, piano roll 1906(CD 3/18). recording,

Leschetizkyt version

Chopins version

In the secondhalf of bar 50, Leschetizky shortensthe values of the first two triplet figures (Fig. 4.35). The B flat, which is in effect the resolution of the long appoggiaturaC flat, is played earlier, increasing its length and giving it significantly more expressive than if the sequencehad been played as notated. quality

Fig. 4.35

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 50, Leschetizky, pianoroll recording, 1906(CD 3/19).

Lcschctizky's vcrsion

Chopin's original

258

A featurecommonto the threeexamples aboveis that onesequence equal-value notes of into is transformed a sequence equal-value notesdiffering from the original. of

Leschetizky's student John Powell makes abundantuse of small-scalealteration for in his 1929 piano roll of the samework. In bar 14, the secondchord is expressiveeffect lengthened,emphasizing its dissonantquality (Fig. 4.36). It is probable that Powell this from Leschetizky's edition (Fig. 4.37). adopted

Fig. 4.36

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 14,Powell,pianoroll recording,1929 (CD 3/20).

Powell's version

Chopin's original

259

Fig. 4.37

44 ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 14,ed.Leschctizky.

x1

a lexpo

p
: .

halb

:}:

Similarly, Powell enhances effect of the dissonant the chordon the penultimate quaver beatof bar40 by prolongingit (Fig.4.38).In this casehowever, alterationis not the in Leschetizky's edition of the work. marked

Fig. 4.38

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 40, Powell, piano roll recording, 1929 (CD 3/21).

Powell's version

Oopin's original

44Ibid., 19.

260 by In bar 58, it is the consonant the penultimate that is heightened chord effect of (Fig. 4.39). prolongation

Fig. 4.39

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 58 and 59, Powell, piano roll recording, 1929 (CD 3/22).

Powoll's version

Chopin's original

In addition,in bars58 and59, Powell alsomodifiesthe accompaniment, creatingan dottedeffect (Fig. 4.39). intermittentexpressive

C In bar 53, Powell rhythmicallyinflectsthe dissonant flat, giving it increased poignancy. is And in bar 54, the second that is alsodissonant significantlylengthened chord (Fig. 4.40).

261
Fig. 4.40 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 53 and 54, Powell, piano roll recording, 1929(CD 3/23).

Powell's version

Chopin'9 original

lengthens first chordin the triplet, thus In bars 11and 14,Powell expressively the effectingmoreangularrhythms(Figs.4.36 aboveand4.41below).

Fig. 4.41

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 11, Powell, piano roll recording, 1929 (CD 3/24).

Powell's version

Chopin's original

262 A rather extraordinary example of Powell's small-scale alterations occurs in bar 36. Here, he plays the double-note chord D-F sharp slightly early and the triplets in the secondhalf the bar are shortened,creating very angular rhythms (Fig. 4.42). Again, these of

edition of the work. arenot markedin Leschetizky's alterations

Fig. 4.42

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 36, Powell, piano roll recording, 1929 (CD 3/25).

Powell's version

Chopin's original

Dotting and tripletizing

Sonata 31 No. 1, Saint-Saans In bar 15of the second Op. of movement Beethoven's the altersthe triplet by prolongingthe D andshortening E (Fig. 4.43).This dottedrhythm dotted to to seems give emphasis the poignant7th at the point of arrival on the second beatof the bar. crotchet

263 Fig. 4.43 Op. Sonata 31 No. 1 second bar Beethoven movement, 15,Saint-Saans, 1905(CD 3/26). pianoroll recording,

Saint-Saans's version

Beethoven's original

Saint-Saens octaves the endof bar 37, creatinga dotted at altersthe semiquaver (long/short)figure that hasthe effect of giving emphasis the downbeat bar 38 (Fig. to of
4.44).

Fig. 4.44

Op. bar Sonata 31 No. 1 second Beethoven movement, 37, Saint-Satins, 1905(CD 3/27). pianoroll recording,

Saint-Saans's version

Beethoven's original

264

He usesthis technique the endof bar 78. Here,the transformation the equalagainat of F sharpandG into a dottedfigure emphasizes angularity the the of valuemelodynotes following leapof a seventh downto A (Fig.4.45).

Fig. 4.45

Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1 secondmovement,bar 78, Saint-Saens, 1905 (CD 3/28). piano roll recording,

-Saint-SaCns's version

Beethoven'soriginal

And in bars 12,23 and24 of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 2, Saint-Saans lengthens the notes,creatingdottedfigures(Figs.4.46 and4.47). penultimate

265 Fig. 4.46 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bar 12, Saint-Saans, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 3/29).

Saint.&I&3 version

Chopidtorigial

Fig. 4.47

ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars23 and24, Saint"Saans, pianoroll recording,1905(CD 3/30).

. ----^6

Sain["Saens'a version

Chopin's originwi

In RaoulPugno's1903recordingof the samework, he altersthe quintupletin bar 3, creatingtwo semiquavers a triplet within which further alterationcreates dotted and a figure (Fig. 4.48).

266
Fig. 4.48 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bar 2, Pugno, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 3/31).

Pugno'sversion

Chopin's original

He And in bar 13,he altersthe quintupletto form a triplet followedby two semiquavers.
tripletizes the dotted figure on the third quaver beat of the bar (Fig. 4.49). also

Fig. 4.49

ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bar 13,Pugno,acousticrecording,1903 (CD 3/32).

Pugno's version

Chopin's original

267

in Over-dotting alsoa characteristic the playingof someearlypianorecordings. is Frank La Forgeover-dots rhetoricalfigure in bar 20 of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 2 in the its dramaticeffect (Fig. 4.50).Rosenthal his 1912recording, doesa similar enhancing
thing in his 1936 recording of the samework. But he also over-dots in more gentle

suchasbars 10and26 (Figs.4.51and4.52). moments

Fig. 4.50

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 20, La Forge, acoustic recording, 1912 (CD 3/33).

La Forge's version

Chopin'soriginal

268

Fig. 4.51

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 10,Rosenthal, electricalrecording, 1936(CD 3/34).

Rosenthal's version

Chopin's original

Fig. 4.52

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 26, Rosenthal, electrical recording, 1936 (CD 3/35).

Rosenthal's version

Chopin's original

269 The modification of dotted figures into triplets can be heard in Saint-Saens'spiano roll of Chopin's Nocturne 4p. 15 No. 2 during the first half of bars 19 and 21 (Fig. 4.53). This to Brahms's practice of altering dotted figures into equal-value notes, appearssimilar

above. mentioned

Fig. 4.53

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 19 to 21, Saint-Satins, piano roll 1905(CD 3/36). recording,

-1Saint-Saans's version

-9-

Cbopin's

ong1D8(

In fact, tripletizing is perhaps mostcommonfeatureof Saint-Saans's the of performance this work. This is clearly audiblein bars 1,3,4,13,19 and21 andsimilar places,in figuresanddottedfiguresarealteredto form triplets notes,quintuplet which equal-value (Fig. 4.54).

270 Fig. 4.54 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 1 to 5, Saint-Saans, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 3/10).

Saint-SaNns's version

Beethoven'soriginal

-3'

-3-..

Griegmodifiesequal-value notesinto triplet figuresin his 1903recordingof the third bars 17 and27, the quavers the bassare Op. in movement his Sonata 7. Between of tripletized(Fig. 4.55).

271 Fig. 4.55 Grieg SonataOp. 7 third movement, bars 17 to 21, Grieg, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 3/37).

-I-

Grieg's version

Grieg's original

In bars 18,20 and22, Griegmodifiesthe dottedfiguresin the right handinto triplets (Fig. 4.55).A similar type of tripletizing of dottedfiguresis audiblein bars21,22,25 26 in his 1903recordingof his Humoresque 6 No. 2 (Fig. 4.56). Op. and

Fig. 4.56

Grieg HumoresqueOp. 6 No. 2, bars 21 to 26, Grieg, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 3/38).
r3r'3 r3 , rJ-, r3.3 3

Grog, version

(ii og'i original

272

In Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 1, Paderewski tripletizesdottedfiguresin bars3 and5.

And he also createsdotted figures within triplets in bars 5,6 and 7 (Fig. 4.57).

Fig. 4.57

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 1, bars 1 to 8, Paderewski,acoustic recording, 1917 (CD 3/39).

Paderewski's version

Chopin's original

r-3-

273
Concerning the assimilation betweendotted and triplet figures, Brown has pointed out that, by the secondhalf of the eighteenthcentury, writers such as Lhlein in 1765advised that `when triplets and dotted figures occurred together, the latter should be played with a triplet rhythm.' Brown provides parallel examplesfrom the works of Haydn, Beethoven " is little doubt that assimilation was necessary. and Schubert in which there One particular example from `Erstarung' in Schubert's Winterreise is provided in Figure 4.58. Here, the notation implies assimilation. Schubert Winterreise, showing assimilation of triplets and dotted fgures. 46
Ziemlich schnell
3

Fig. 4.58

Commencement of trills

It wasnotedabovethat GarciaandSpohrdescribed metricalrubatotechnique the of to trills slightly earlierthantheir notatedpositionin order,it seems, make commencing themmorebrilliant. This technique clearlybe heardin bars3,27,29,65,67,91,93, can 99 and 104of Saint-Sadns's Sonata movement Beethoven's recordingof the second of Op. 31 No. 1. In bars27,29,91,99 and 103the auraleffect is that the trill continues on figure (CD 3/40).The slightly earlycommencement from the preceding to seems serveas
asBrown,PerformingPractice,614-21. 46Ibid., 617.

274 technical meansof energizing the trill before the entranceof the corresponding a accompaniment.Although by `modern' standardsthe effect in Saint-Saans'splaying is the written historical evidenceindicates that this was probably wholly intentional. sloppy, On the other hand, without his recording, this effect (presumablyone of many createdby the early commencementof trills) would scarcelyhave been envisaged.

The early commencementof trills is also heard in Patti's performance in bar 32 of

Bellini's CastaDiva (Fig. 4.59).Here,instead Bellini's extended turn, shesingsa of This trill, startingsignificantlyearlierandon a highernotethanthe onenotated. rapid her both to showoff her technicalagility andalsoto effect a metricalrubato. allows

275 Fig. 4.59 Bellini Casta Diva, bars 32 and 33, Patti, acoustic recording, 1906,(CD 3/41).

Patti's veniou

Belimi's onginal

In summary, aboveexamples the the of alterations, features reveala rangeof small-scale from written textsatone.Typically,these would not havebeendiscernible which include: alterations the modificationof equal-value notesto different notesof equalvalue 9 " "
9

the modificationof unequal-value notesto equal-value notes the tripletizing of figureswhich wereoriginally equal-value dotted or
the creation of dotted figures from equal-value notes

" "

the over-dottingof certainnotes the commencement trills beforetheir notatedposition of

276

Inequality: written texts

Anothertype of small-scale alteration,sometimes referredto asinequalityor notes inegale,in which equal-value notesareplayedslightly unequally, mustalsobe de here.Brown hascitedthe comments Charles Beriot regarding subtle the of considered
flexibility that musicians of the mid-nineteenth century `might have been inclined to

introduceinto passages equal-length notes'.In his Methodede violon (Mainz, 1858), of Beriot advises that:
In very soft music the composersdo not always mark the long and short notes, for fear that the song should take too rhythmical a form. In such casesthey leave to the singer the care of marking the syllables with that infinite delicacy which lends so great a charm. Thus, for instance, if we sangwith absolute equality the two quaverswhich begin each bar of the following Romance,our diction would be flat and cold. But if the composerhad written those notes as dotted notes this sweet song would be too jerky in effect and would agreebut little with the sentiment of its poem. It is here that form is required, which the feelings alone can understand,and which no a medium It is sufficient for the first quaver to be a little longer than the second sign can express. 47 interval which separates be almost insensible. them should and that the small

This type of rhythmicinflection of adjacent In noteshad stronghistoricalprecedents. how to makeinequalitysayingthat: 1550,LoysBourgeois describes The mannerof singingwell the semiminims[crotchets]... to singthemtwo by two, is dwelling somelittle bit of time longeron the first, than on the second asthoughthe first hada dot andthe second is werea fusa[quaver].The reason that the first is a It they have consonance, the second mostoftena dissonance... is alsobecause and 48 in this way...thanif theywereall equal. more gracewhensung

47C. de Beriot, Methode de violon (Mainz, 1858), 232, cited in Brown, Performing Practice, 1623.

"aL. Bourgeois, droict [sic] cheminde musique Le (1550);trans.S.E. Hefling in Rhythmic Alteration in Seventeenth- Eighteenth-Century Music (New York, 1993),3. and

277 Hudson has noted that `SantaMaria gives examplesin 1565 in which the first note, others in which the secondnote of a pair is lengthened.Caccini saysin 1602that passages in such manner "have more grace". For Frescobaldiin 1616,the secondof performed be "somewhat dotted" when a passage eighths and of each pair of sixteenth notes should together in both hands.According to Couperin in 1713,the second sixteenthsare played the two slurred eighth notes in a coule should be prolonged.'49 of

Couperin Indeedin 1717,Francois notedthat: therearedefectsin our way of writing music,which correspond the manner to of language. is that we write differentlyto the way we play:which causes It writing our foreigners play our musiclesswell thanwe play theirs.By contrast Italians to the it. we write their musicin the true valuesin which they conceive For example, point by however,we mark themequal;our that proceed conjunctdegrees; severalcrotchets 50 hasenslaved andwe continue. custom us; Furthermore, Hudsonsaysthat `therewerealsoduringthe same periodthe different in `good'notesin a series evennotesby slightly concepts all countriesof accentuating of
lengthening them and de-emphasizingthe `bad' notes by correspondingly shortening

In them...the notesarewritten equally,but performed unequally. sometheoretical is indicatedby the useof a dotted the sources methodof performance approximately however, in The lengthening suchcases, might actuallybe moreor lessthana note. dottednote,andin anyeventwould vary.'51

49Hudson, Stolen Time, 26. soCouperin, L'art de toucher le clavecin, 39-40. 51Hudson, Stolen Time, 26-7.

278

in This conceptof goodandbadnoteswasmentioned the eighteenth centuryby Quantz, that who advised the player:
know how to make a distinction between the principal notes, ordinarily called must in the Italian manner,good notes, and those that pass, which some accented or foreigners call bad notes. Where it is possible, the principal notes always must be than the passing...the quickest notes in every piece of moderate emphasizedmore in the Adagio, though they seemto have the samevalue, must be tempo, or even little unequally, so that the stressednotes of each figure, namely the first, played a fifth, and seventh,are held slightly longer than the passing,namely the second, third, this lengthening must not be as much as if the notes fourth, sixth, and eighth, although dotted.52 were between this and Beriot's description above is obvious, though Beriot does The similarity

a rule of it. not make

Inequality: audible examples

by the useof inequalityin the mannerdescribed Beriot Early recordings alsopreserve between bars 15and 17 in his 1905piano In the passage andearlierwriters cited above. lengthens shortens Reinecke his arrangement Mozart'sLarghetto, adjacent and of roll of is (Fig. 4.60).The rhythmicrelationship too subtleto in variouscombinations notes
but soundsapproximately in the proportion 3:2. In the example notate with any accuracy

lengthened shortened Notably, in bars 15 below,the lettersL and S represent and notes. 17,the patternof shortfollowed by long notesgivesthe effect of a `scotchsnap'. and

52 J. Quantz, Versucheiner Anweisung die Flte traversiere zu spielen (Berlin, 1752); trans. J. E.R. Reilly as On Playing the Flute (1966), 2nd edn., (London, 1985), 123.

279

between bars78 and80, Very similar inequalityis heardwhenthe materialis repeated inflection. sort,but an intended rhythmic of provingthat this wasnot an aberration some

Fig. 4.60

Mozart Larghetto arr. by Reinecke, bars 15 to 17, Reinecke, piano roll 1905 (CD 3/42). recording,

SitrLStr

Reinecke'sversion

Reinecke'soriginal

1S

St

in Reinecke's of inequalityis againevidentin the descending sequence quavers of use bars31 and33 (Fig. 4.61) andin the descending the endof bars semiquaver sequences at 46 and48 (Fig. 4.62).

280

Fig. 4.61

bars31 to 33, Reinecke, Mozart Larghetto by Reinecke, pianoroll arr. 1905(CD 3/43). recording,
bar31 bau33

Reinecke's version

Reineckes original

Fig. 4.62

Mozart Larghetto arr. by Reinecke, bar 46, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 3/44).

Reinecke's version

Reinecke's original

Francis Plante usesinequality for the adjacent semiquavermelody notes in the `Etwas langsamer' section (bars 33 to 62) of his 1928 recording of Schumann'sRomane Op. 32 No. 3. Here, the falling melodic sequenceis played with approximately the following on each appearance(Fig. 4.63). rhythmic nuance

281 Fig. 4.63 SchumannRomanzeOp. 32 No. 3, bars 33 to 37, Plante, electrical recording, 1928 (CD 4/45).

LS

Ls

At the appearanceof the portato sign at bars 2,4,28, and 30 in Beethoven's SonataOp.

31 No. 1, Saint-Sams and subtleinflectionsby lengthening shortening notesin the makes

below (Fig. 4.64). sequenceshown

Fig. 4.64

Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1, secondmovement, bar 2, Saint-Satins, 1905 (CD 3/46). piano roll recording,
QLSLSLS

Saint-Saans's version

Beethoven's original

interpretation the portatobearssomesimilarity to the instructions Saint-Sadns's of of in Adam andPollini mentioned Chapter2, in which they advisethat melodynotesought

282 to be somewhatdisplaced.Although their examplesshow melody notes delayedafter the correspondingnote of the accompaniment,the underlying principle of inflection is clear. The effect would probably have been much more subtle and varied than their notation suggests.In any casetheir texts, as well as those of other writers, provide somehistorical for Saint-Saens'spractice. Indeed, his playing correspondsvery closely with context Bdriot's description, and the proportions he usesare almost exactly those recommended for eighteenth-centuryinequality as describedfor example by Quantz.

Large-scale alteration: written texts

is usedhereto describe displacement melodic The term large-scale the alteration of within a bar, andfrom onebar into the next.In the New overextended sequences material Treatise,Garciaillustratedthis styleof metricalrubatoby reference that of his father53 to (1782-1840), providedthe revealingexamplefrom and andthe violinist Niccol6 Paganini barbieredi Siviglia below (Fig. 4.66): Rossini's11
Two artists of a very different class - Garcia (the author's father) and Paganini excelled in the use of the tempo rubato. While the time was regularly maintained by the orchestra,they would abandonthemselvesto their inspiration, till the instant a chord changed,or else to the very end of the phrase.An excellent perception of on rhythm, and great self-possession the part of a musician, however, are requisite for the adoption of this method, which should be resortedto only in passages where the harmony is stable, or only slightly varied - in any other case,it would appear singularly difficult, and give immensetrouble to an executant.The annexedexample illustrates our meaning [footnote: This passagepresentsan approximate example of the use which the author's late father made of the tempo rubato.]. "

33Manuel del Pbpulo Vicente Rodriguez Garcia (1775-1832). 4 Garcia, New Treatise, 51.

283

Garciamakesit clearthat the introductionof highly artistic rhythmicalterations was largelydependent the underlyingrateof harmonicchange. example The below(Fig. on
4.65) reveals the lengthening of the highest notes towards the phraseclimax and the Continuous rhythmic alteration results in the creation of poignant suspensions.

displacement melodicmaterialfrom the first bar into the second andfurther bar of foundin into displacement the third bar.This is perhaps only extensive the example The texts this nineteenth-century illustratingsuchpractices. similarity between type of displacement example displacement a at over the bar line andthe seventeenth-century of by the cadence Bacilly cited below is clear.Furthermore, additionof notesat the endof bar 2 andthroughout 3 causes bar moreextensive alterationto the original melody. Garcia'sannotations that revealpractices would havebeenvery comprehensively difficult to describe. is tantalizingthat he providedonly oneexample; plethoraof It the Recognizing the can effectsthat mayhavebeenproduced only be imagined. other impossibilityof notatingsuchrhythmicsubtleties, Garciaacknowledged the that
following example was only an approximation to actual practice.

Fig. 4.65

55 RossiniIl Barbieredi Siviglia, showingGarcia'salterations.

Del rot - con

dd -b

mi.

men - to

qual. etw

moo ---

to

da

-.

to

- lax.

DA Vol " an

W"

l&

,, mi -.

omam - to qua - as

-mor

..

-------'I -

t 40 " do

D. Qo

"

a; in.

55 Garcia, New Treatise, 51.

284

in Garciaoffersthe following caveat: To concludehis discussion, theNew Treatise The temporubato,if usedaffectedly,or without discretion,destroys balance, and all 56 so torturesthe melody.
How is this comment to be evaluatedfrom today's standpoint?For example, in the large-

the scaledisplacements shownabove, original melodyis distortedin a waythat would be now. How muchmorealien would the practices extremeor evengrotesque considered seemtoday? which Garciafoundaffectedor indiscreet

Large-scalealteration: audible examples

Suchpractices be heardin bars20,41 and44 of Patti's recordingof Bellini's Casta can (Figs. Diva. Here,shesignificantlyaltersthe positionof notesof descending sequences 4.66,4.67and4.68).Notably,eachversionis slightly different,creatingvariety for the In a similar way to Garcia'sexample, Patti displaces last noteof the repeated material. bar 44 into bar 45 (Fig. 4.68).The subtleinflectionsof Patti's alterations may but demonstrate stylethat Garciaexpected, that could only be notatedin an the fashion.At the sametime, Garcia'stext providesan historicalcontextfor approximate Patti's alterations.

56Ibid., 50-1.

285 Fig. 4.66 Bellini Casta Diva, bars 20 and 21, Patti, acoustic recording, 1906 (CD 3/47).

Patti'sversion

Bellini'soriginal

Fig. 4.67

Bellini CastaDiva, bar 41, Patti, acoustic recording,1906(CD 3/48).

Patti'stversion

Bellini'soriginal

286 Fig. 4.68 Bellini Casta Diva, bars 44 and 45, Patti, acoustic recording, 1906 (CD 3/49).

Patti's version

Bellini's original

Joachimalsomadelarge-scale that displaced melodicmaterialfrom onebar to alterations bars67 and68 andbars 133and 134of his Romance This is evidentbetween another.
in C (Figs. 4.69 and 4.70).

Fig. 4.69

JoachimRomance C, bars66 to 68, Joachim, in acousticrecording,1903 (CD 3/50).

Joachim'sversion

Joachim's original

287 Fig. 4.70 Joachim Romancein C, bars 133 and 134, Joachim, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 2/51).

Joachim's version

Joachim's original

he Elsewhere, displaced materialfrom onebar to anotherby anticipationratherthan

delay. By making an accelerandoor shortening notes in the first bar, notes at the

bar bars 19and beginningof the second aremadeto arriveearly,ascanbe heardbetween bars52 and53 (Figs.4.71,4.72,4.73and4.74). 20,23 and24,41 and42, andbetween

288

Fig. 4.71

Joachim Romancein C, bars 19 and 20, Joachim, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 3/52).

Joachim'sversion

Joachim'soriginal

Fig. 4.72

Joachim Romancein C, bars 23 and 24, Joachim, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 3/52).

Joachim'sversion

Joachim'aoriginal

289 Fig. 4.73 Joachim Romancein C, bars 41 and 42, Joachim, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 4/53).

Joachim'sversion

Joachim'soriginal

Fig. 4.74

Joachim Romance in C, bars 52 and 53, Joachim, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 3/54).

Joachim'w version

Joachim'soriginal

Similar large-scalealterations are preservedon early piano recordings. For example, in

Sonata 31 No. 1, Saint-Satins Beethoven's Op. bar 13of the second of movement

290

figure of the final dotted the positionof notesin the descending substantially alters
crotchet beat. Here, the lengthening of the B causesongoing displacement(Fig. 4.75).

Fig. 4.75

Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1 secondmovement, bar 13, Saint-SaCns, recording, 1905 (CD 3/55). piano roll

Saint-Saens'sversion

Beethoven'soriginal

For the identicalmaterialin bar 77 (Fig. 4.76),both the B andthe following A are lengthened, into the F sharpis shortened the E is displaced bar 78. and while

Fig. 4.76

Sonata 31 No. 1 second Op. Beethoven bars77 and78, Saintmovement, Sadns, recording,1905(CD 3/56). pianoroll

Saint-SaBns's version

D ethoven'aoriginal

291

displacement bar Leschetizky over melodicmaterial,often causing modifiessequential half of bar 6 of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, the C is somewhat lines.In the second
lengthened,causing continuous displacementinto bar 7 (Fig. 4.77). The sametechnique is used again in the secondhalf of bar 8, causing displacementinto bar 9.

Fig. 4.77

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 6 to 9, Leschetizky, piano roll, 1906 (CD 3/57).

Lenchetizky'n ver%km

Chopin! original s

292

Significantly,in Leschetizky's the editionof the work, he notated rising scalein the half of bar 8 to be playedcantando. This stronglysuggests this term, and that second
to presumably many others, provided a coded message make expressivealterations.The similarity with Dussek's use of the word espressivoto signify metrical rubato and Philip Cord's use of similar expressionssuch as con espressione, con anima, and dolce in the to indicate arpeggio is obvious. early-eighteenthcentury

Vlademir de Pachmann's 1915recordingof Chopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 2 showsthat, he like Leschetizky Saint-Saans, madealterations and effectinglarger-scale displacement. This canbe heardclearlyin bars28 and30 (Figs.4.78 and4.79).

Fig. 4.78

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 28 and 29, Pachmann,acoustic recording, 1915 (CD 3/58).

Pachmann's version

Chopin's original

293 Fig. 4.79 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 30 and 31, Pachmann,acoustic 1915 (CD 3/58). recording,

Pachmann'sversion

Chopin's original

delayof the terminationof the trill from Saint-Saans's displacement Large-scale results Sonata 31 No. 1.Here,the final C Op. Beethoven's in bar 65 of the second of movement between bars67 and68 (Fig. 4.80) into bar 66. Similar displacement is displaced occurs bars91 and92. between andagain

294 Fig. 4.80 Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1 secondmovement, bars 65 to 68, SaintSagns,piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 3159).

Saint-Saens's version

Beethoven'soriginal

lengthens first dottedsemiquaver C In bar 71 of the samework, Saint-Saens the

displacing the following four notes. Furthermore, the penultimate note F is also

lengthened, the displacement the final noteB into bar 72 (Fig. 4.81). of causing Fig. 4.81 Op. Sonata 31 No. I second bars71 and72, SaintBeethoven movement, Saans, roll recording,1905(CD 3/60). piano

Saint-SaCns's vorsion

oethoven's original

295

large-scale Here, And in bars93 and94, Saint-Satins makes extraordinary an alteration. to the G in bar 93 is lengthened the extentthat part of the following descending tirade is
displaced into bar 94 (Fig. 4.82). significantly

Fig. 4.82

Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1, secondmovement, bars 93 to 94, SaintSaans,piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 3/61).

Saint-Sans's version

Beethoven'soriginal

broadens Similarly in bars 18 and20 of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 2, Saint"Sadns the displacingthe final A. He alsoaltersthe descending tirade gracenotes,substantially half of bar 21, displacingthe final noteinto bar 22 (Fig. 4.83). dottedfigure in the second like The auraleffect is somewhat a hemiolaacross bar line. the

296 Fig. 4.83 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 18 to 22, Saint-Satins, piano roll 1905 (CD 3/62). recording,

Saint-SuOn? version s

Chopinboriginal

broadens endof the quintuplet, half of bar 23, Saint-Satins the And in the second
displacing the final note into bar 24 (Fig. 4.84).

297

Fig. 4.84

ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars23 and24, Saint-Saans, pianoroll recording,1905(CD 3/62).

-6

Saint-Saens'sversion

Chopin's original

broadens notestowardsthe endof In Chopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 2 Leschetizky the the fioritura in bar 52. This resultsin the displacement the final C into bar 53, creating of (Fig. 4.85). appoggiatura an expressive

Fig. 4.85

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars52 and53,Leschetizky, pianoroll 1906(CD 3/63). recording,

8w ----------------------------Lcsohetizky's version

Chopin's original

298

In his recordingof the samework, Powell lengthens penultimate the noteof bar 21,
the final note to be displaced into bar 22 (Fig. 4.86). causing

Fig. 4.86

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 21 and 22, Powell, piano roll 1929 (CD 3/4). recording,

Powcll'sversion

Chopin's original

And at bars28 and30, Powell lengthens penultimate the notesof the compound derivedfrom Leschetizky, the causing displacement the final notes of embellishments into the following bar (Fig. 4.87).

299 Fig. 4.87 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 28 to 33, Powell, piano roll 1929 (CD 3/65). recording,

Powell's

vtmiom

Chopin's original

The problems inherent in descriptive language and musical notation

The examples that couldhardlyhavebeen aboverevealthe detailsof the practices from written textsalone.In the caseof pianoplaying,metricalrubatoreceived a surmised The treatmentin contemporary written documentation. complexandvaried cursory large-scale that importantlate-nineteenth- early-twentiethalterations small-and and thoughthe purposes seemto havebeenoverlooked, centurypianistsmadefor expressive to similaritieswith references vocal practiceareclear.The difficulty of conveyingthe features suchalterations terminologyandmusicalnotationwasnoted with descriptive of

300

duringthe nineteenth century.In 1823,an anonymous on several occasions author that: remarked
There are many other delicate shadesin music, which do not fall within the sphereof a writer, and can only be learnt and felt by the genius and practise [sic]of a performer. The portamento del voce, or carriage of the voice, the trill and perfect shake,the of cadences,the tempo rubato, or occassionalretardation of the time for the variety the expression,- like the longing, lingering, look of a lover purpose of enforcing taking leave of his mistress,- theseand a thousandother delicate traits of performance 57 be given effect to only by the hand of a master. can

in This sentiment wasreiterated TheArt of OrganPlaying (c. 1900)by Edwin H.

Lemare, who explained that the art of rubato `is so subtle and almost mystic that it is very

in difficult, andwell-nigh impossible writing, to give muchhelp to the student. As '58 his indicatedabove,Dussekabandoned attempts notatemetricalrubatosincehe felt to inherentsubtleties by that its numerous could not be sufficientlyconveyed notation.
Baillot warned that it could only be notated up to a point. And although Garcia's

informative,he himselfpointsout thatthey areapproximations are examples undoubtedly to actualpractice.

Other writers made it clear that ear witness experience was essentialfor the appreciation of the subtleties of metrical rubato. With reference to Garcia's examples in the Introduction to Le Tresor despianistes (1861), Aristide Farrenc (1794-1865) explains that:

his As for the examples I which accompany [Garcia's]precepts, would saythat they insufficient,for thereis in this devicethe executionof combinations nuances are and

57 Anon., `On Musical Colouring', The Harmonicon (1823), vol. 1, no. 11,162. 58E.H. Lemare, TheArt of Organ Playing, The Musical Educator, vol. 4, xiii-xiv.

301

it be notated; is only by hearinga greatvirtuosothat onegetsan of valuewhich cannot ideaof it.59

In 1874, Theophile Lemaitre offered a similar opinion in his translation of Tosi's Opinion!, stating that: The Italian singershave a manner of delaying the singing, or losing the precision of the time at will, while the orchestracontinues its prescribedmovement, which has a it is done with taste and when the singer knows how to regain his great effect, when balance. One cannot give an example of this effect in singing; it is necessary to 60 in performance. observeit In his publication Frederic Chopin (1852), Liszt opined that Chopin eventually

indicationof metricalrubatoin his music,after realizingthat the any relinquished verbal it: terminologysignifiedvery little to pianistswho did not alreadyappreciate He [Chopin]alwaysmadethe melodyundulatelike a skiff borneon the bosomof a he madeit movevaguelylike an aerialapparitionsuddenly sprung powerful wave;or in this tangibleandpalpableworld. In his writings he at first indicatedthis manner up to which gaveso individual an impress his virtuosity by the term temporubato:stolen, brokentime -a measure oncesupple,abrupt,andlanguid,vacillating like the flame at it, by underthe breathwhich agitates like the corn in a field swayed the soft pressure of a warm air, like the top of treesbeathither andthitherby a keenbreeze. But asthe term taughtnothingto him who knew,saidnothingto him who did not know, understand, feel, Chopinafterwards to to ceased addthis explanation his and it, beingpersuaded if oneunderstood it wasimpossible to divine this that music, not 61 irregularity. rule of

59Farrenc,Le Tresor despianistes, vol. 1,4. 'Quant aux examples qui accompagnentses je dirai qu'ils sont insuffisants, car il ya dnas cot artifice de 1'execution des precepts, des nuancesde valeur qui ve peuvent se noter; il n'y a quo I'audition d'un grand combinations et virtuose qui puisse en donner l'idee. ' 60T. Lemaitre, LArt du chant traduit de 1'Italien (Paris, 1884), 126; trans. R. Gatty `Tempo as Rubato', The Musical Times (1912), vol. 53,161.

61F. Liszt,FredericChopin,2nd edn.(1879), 115;trans.Niecks,Chopin as a Man andMusician (LondonandNew York, 1888),ii, 101.

302

Presumably, `rule of irregularity'would havebeendivinedby first-handexperience this based knowledge accepted Chopin'splayingor a highly developed artistic sense of on of
practice.

journal Le Pianiste(March, 1834)further found in the Parisian The following reference inherentin the notationof metricalrubato.Theanonymous highlightsthe weakness Chopin'sattempts notateexactlywhat he expected, to opposed vehemently reviewer that theseinspiredworkshadbeenruinedby: saying
to write the music almost as it should be played (we say a manner of affectation for completely is impossible) - to write this swaying, languid, groping style, almost, this style which no known arrangementof note values can well express;the Rubato 62 bogeymanof beginners. the terror of young women, the

Othertextswarnthat notationis imperfectin preserving subtleinflectionsof metrical the In 1886,Fauredescribed practiceof anticipationremarkingthat: the rubato. Onecould arguablywrite the anticipationsasonedoessyncopations, which they with but this would be giving it the form ratherthanthe spirit. offer someanalogy; Employedwith goodjudgement, anticipationsgive to the rhythma greater the freedomof movement give to the melody while preserving feelingof the the and 3 improvisatory character. metre,the arousing
This criticism is especially significant when one considersthe numerous compositions in

to a appear havebeenusedto represent certainrhythmic freedomin which syncopations the the the melodyline. Whetherin suchcases composer expected melodyto be played
intended the notation to convey its approximate position, exactly as written, or simply
62Le Pianisle (1834) vol. 1 no. 4,78; trans. Hudson, Stolen Time, 190. 63Faure,La voix et le chant, 182; ` la rigueur, on pourrait dcrire les anticipations comme on le fait pour les syncopes,avec lesquelleselles ofrent quelque analogie; mais ce serait en Bonnerla lettre et non 1'esprit. Employees avec discernement,les anticipations laissent au rhythme une plus libertd d'allure et communiquent au chant tout en lui conservantle sentimentde la mesure, grande le caractereentrainantde l'improvisation. '

303

for Certainly,the currentpenchant strict adherence musicaltexts to remainsconjecture. that resultsin a literal interpretation doesnot alwayssoundfree.

The abovereferences that by their nature,written textscouldnot meaningfully show for importantfeatures metricalrubato.This no doubtaccounts the of preserve lack it conspicuous of detail andinformationaboutit in written texts.Nevertheless, is a expression. clearthat metricalrubatowasconsidered primarymethodof enhancing

Written documentation that of abovehad reveals the practices metricalrubatodiscussed datingfrom asearlyasthe fourteenthcentury.Hudsonhascited historicalprecedents intabulations vocal music' from the Robertsbridge Fragment(c. 1320)in `instrumental of by line a moreelaborate is created the rhythmicalterationof the original notation. which Hudsonhasalsomentioned that and significantsixteenth- seventeenth-century sources in the Operaintitulata Fontegara(Venice, 1535)by includeembellished passages Sylvestrodi Ganassi (1492- mid 16''-century) an embellished and versionof the madrigalAnchor the col partire (Bovicelli, 1594)by Ciprianode Rore(1515/151664 1565). Of particularinterestis an examplein Benignede Bacilly's Remarques /'art de bien chanter,(Paris1668)in which the ornamentation a cadence curieuses sur of from onebar to the next (Fig. 4.88).The similarity between displacement causes point in earlypianorecordings clear. is this andpractices preserved

64Hudson, StolenTime, 13-14.

304 Fig. 4.88 65 Bacilly, embellishment of a cadencepoint.

a Wiittien

b Performed

b.c.
43

Several important eighteenth-centuryreferencesdescribe the underlying principles of

Tosi statedin 1723that: PierFrancesco metricalrubato.

Whoever does not know how to steal the time [rubare il tempo] in singing, knows not how to compose,nor to accompanyhimself, and is destitute of the best taste and knowledge. The stealing of time [il rubamento di tempo] in the pathetic is an greatest honourable theft in one that sings better than others, provided he makes a restitution ingenuity.66 with

however,leavesthe intendedauraleffect unclear. The general this statement, natureof JohnErnstGalliard appended footnoteto his 1742translationof Galliard,providinga a slightly moredetailedexplanation: Our author[Tosi] hasoften mentioned time, the regardto it, the strictness it, and of In how muchit is neglected unobserved. this placespeaking stealingthe time, it and of on particularlythe vocal,or the performance a singleinstrumentin the regards or tender;whenthe bassgoesan exactlyregularpace,the otherpart retardsor pathetic for in singularmanner, the sakeof expression, after that returnsto its but anticipates to be guidedby the bass.Experience tastemustteachit. A mechanical and exactness,

65Ibid., 21. 66P.F. Tosi, Opinioni de'cantori antichi e moderni (Bologna, 1723); trans. Galliard as Observations on the Florid Song (London, 1742); modern edn. ed. M. Pilkington (London, 1987), 70.

305 with the basswill easily distinguish the merit of the other method of going on 67 manner.

Galliardprovidedenlightening Elsewhere, examples a fascinating of vocal ornament

to metrical rubato, referred to by Tosi as the drag or strascino (Fig. 4.89). Tosi, related

how: describes
an even or regular movement of a bass,which proceedsslowly, a singer begins on high note, dragging it gently down to a low one, with the forte and piano, with a almost gradually, with inequality of motion, (that is to say, stopping a little more on in the middle, than those that begin or end the strascino or drag [sic]). some notes Every good musician takes it for grantedthat in the art of singing there is no invention apt to touch the heart than this, provided, however, it be superior or execution more 68 done with judgement and with putting forth of the voice in a just time on the bass. Fig. 4.89 Galliard, strascino or drag.69

lfi==Pzzg, -- ,- ror-P -vr ej

.

Sc

Scen

..,

de

how demonstrate a singerof the time may haveembellished The aboveexamples the highly variedrhythmically-inflected descending By musicwith notepatterns. qualifying Galliardrevealsaspects the improvisatory the written word with musicalexamples, of
Ibid., 84-5. 69Ibid., 84-5.

67 70-1. Ibid., 68

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havebeendeduced from andirregularnatureof thestrascinothat couldnot necessarily Without audibleevidence, auraleffect of thestrascino,its Tosi's explanation the alone.
subtle and varying qualities, and the frequency of its use, remains obscure.

Othertextsby Quantz, LeopoldMozartandC.P.E. Bachdocument survivalof the

metrical rubato during the eighteenthcentury, without making its featuresapparent.In

1756Mozart opinedthat:
true virtuoso who is worthy of the title is to be accompanied,then one must when a to be beguiled by the postponing or anticipating of the notes, which not allow oneself he knows how to shapeso adroitly and touchingly, into hesitating or hurrying, but continue to play throughout in the same manner; else the effect which the must 70 desired to build up would be demolished by the accompaniment. performer

`mustnot yield' to a soloist`for he would In a footnote,Mozart addsthat the accompanist

then spoil his tempo rubato'. He also statesthat this style is `more easily shown than

71 described'. This suggests metricalrubatowasmostconveniently successfully that and by transmitted auralexampleandhelpsto explainthe lack of detail in written texts.

Othereighteenth-century such pedagogues asTurk providedboth descriptions and illustrationsof metricalrubato,clearlyindicating that manytypesof rhythmic but alsovital for a musicallysophisticated modificationswerenot only appropriate Turk statedin 1789that: performance.

70L. Mozart, Versucheiner grndlichen Violinschule (Augsburg, 1756); trans. E. Knocker asA Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing, 2nd edn. (Oxford, 1951, repr. 1988), 224.

71 ibid., 244.

307

The so-called temporubatoor robato(actuallystolentime) I havespecified... the as third resource applicationshouldbe left to the sensitivityof the player.This whose Commonlyit is understood a kind of thanonemeaning. term appears as with more lengthening notes,or displacement (dislocation)of these.Thereis of shortening or takenaway(stolen)from the durationof a noteandfor this, another noteis something b giventhat muchmore,asin the following examples andc.
(a) (b) (c)

(d)

(e)

(f) -

At a are the basic notes, at b tempo rubato is put to use by meansof the anticipation and at c by means of the retardation. From this it can be seenthat through this kind of execution, the tempo, or even more, the meter as a whole is not displaced. Consequently,the customary but somewhatambiguousGerman term verrcktes Zeitmass [displaced tempo] is not very fitting, for the bassvoice goesits way according to the meter (without displacement), and only the notes of the melody are it were. For this reasonthe expression Versetzen Verziehen or moved out of place, as [changing the place of - or - dragging out] the notes or the beat divisions would be correct. Even when more notes are addedto the melody, as in examplese andf, more both voices must neverthelesscorrectly coincide each time at the beginning of the In this casethere results no actual displacementof the tempo.72 measure.

While apparently aboutthe useof anticipationanddelay,Turk's notation enlightening have that would undoubtedly of clearly could not showthe subtleties rhythmicnuance
Furthermore, he remarks that the preservation of the pulse graced an artistic performance.

duringelaborate produces effect similar to metrical rubato: an embellishments

In general, the counting must be maintained in the strictest manner, even for the most extensive ornaments.If some tones are played a little too soon or a little too late for the sake of the affect, the tempo must not be changedin the slightest degreeas a result. However, there is a certain type of musician for whom it has become fashionable to shift the beats around, that many believe it is not so necessaryto pay attention to the beat for these extempore elaborations, or that it is the sign of the greatnessof a 72 Trk, Schoolof Clavier Playing,363-4.

308

beatwhenvaryingetc.Truly great he doesnot maintaina steady virtuosowhen to evenin the mostelaborate masters singingandplayingadhere the measure of 73 ornaments. by This way of giving the illusion of metricalrubatowasmentioned C.P.E. Bachandas
above, was referred to in musical examplesby Franklin Taylor in the lateshown

century. nineteenth

half It is apparent in the second of the eighteenth that century,not all pianistsused is Mozart explained his fatherin 1777,`everyone For example, to metricalrubato. that I canalwayskeepstrict time. What thesepeoplecannotgraspis that in amazed
tempo rubato in an Adagio, the left hand should go on playing in strict time. With them the left hand always follows suit.'74With little doubt Mozart was criticizing keyboard who could not properly achieve independenceof the handsor who, in any case, players had become accustomedto tempo modification made in both hands simultaneously.

The abovereferences showthat metricalrubatowascertainlyintrinsic to keyboard in duringthe eighteenth andmusic-making general playing century.However,few describe subtleties the that musthavebeenthe hallmarkof trainedartists.Galliardand howeveron a rigid andunvariedstyle Turk illustratedsomeof thesetechniques, relying

fractional displacements. couldnotpreserve subtle of notation, whichby its nature

73 Ibid., 313. 74W.A. Mozart,`Letterfrom Augsburg, October23,1777', trans.anded. E. Anderson in Mozart's Letters(London, 1966)citedin MacClintock,Readings, 381.

309

document ongoing During the first half of the nineteenth the century,several references in tradition of metricalrubato.LouisAdamstates 1804that:
Without doubt expressionrequires that one slows down or hastenscertain melodybut theseretards [and accelerations]must not be continually throughout the notes, but only at some placeswhere the expressionof a sad melody or the passionof piece, slowing down or a hastening.In these casesit is the an agitated melody requires a is altered, and the bassmust be played strictly in time. 75 melody that

Adam, andlater Pollini, providedverbalandpictorial evidence the As notedabove, that displacement type of articulation,but alsoa continuous portatosignsignifiednot only a
between the melody and accompaniment.In this respect,their illustrations cited in

because practice,obviouslyrelatedto metrical Chapter2 areof particularinterest this it is now no longerassociated the portatosign.Nevertheless, is improbable with rubato, the that their notationcaptured subtletyof the intendedeffect.

In 1837,Henri Herz givesthe strongimpression that, at times,rhythmicalterations to He in of melodynotesin metricalrubatowereextreme. mentions, particular,the practices in JanDussekwhich wereapparently decline:
Sometimes...the double character of the accompanimentand the melody requires for hand a different rhythmic effect. Thus, whereasthe right hand seemsto lose its each in fantastic variations, the left, supporting the bassnotes in a counter rhythm, way follows it reluctantly and with syncopatednotes. This case,as in all those where the is complex, requires not only that the handsbe perfectly independentfrom expression but, so to speak, [with] a different soul in each of them. It is thus that each other, Dussek produced a hazy and melancholy tint on certain sequences letting the right by hand sing in a vague and nonchalant manner, whereasthe left executedthe

75Adam, Methode, 160; Sansdoute 1'expressionexige qu'on ralentisseou qu'on pressecertaines notes de chant, mais ces retards ne doivent pas We continuels pendanttout un morceau, mais dans quelquesendroits o 1'expressiond'un chant langoureux ou la passion d'un chant seulement agite exigent un retard ou un mouvement plus anime. Dans ce cas c'est le chant qu'il faut altcrer, et la bassedoit marquer strictement la mesure.

310

in time. I don't know why this mannerof phrasing so chordsrigorously arpeggiated 76 hasnow beenforgotten. a well promoted shorttime ago,
An anonymouscontemporaryreview in Le Pianiste (March, 1834) suggests that Dussek

frequentlyhaveusedmetricalrubato,but that he foundno successful of means must notatingit:

Dussek very much liked the Rubato, although never wrote the word in his music; Dussek tried to make it visible by meansof [notating] syncopation; but, when one faithfully executedthesesyncopations,one was far from rendering his suaveand delectable manner. He renouncedthis method, and contentedhimself with writing the 77 expressionespressivo.

In In this light, the implicationsfor the valueof otherillustrationscited aboveareserious. it is clearthat a strict adherence the letterof Dussek'sscores to a would produce any case Of is different from what he intended. particularimportance the fact result significantly that expressions and others,wereusedin Dussek'serato suchasespressivo, presumably indicatepractices areno longerin general this that use.Thereis a strongparallelbetween 3 Phillip Corri's advicecited in Chapter that certainmusicaltermsindicatedthe use and of frequentarpeggiation.

7Le Pianiste (1834), vol. 1, no. 5,78; `Dussek,qui aimant beaucouple Rubato, e quoiqu'il n'ait jamais ecrit ce mot dans sa musque;Dussek avait essayede le rendre visible au moyen des mais, lorsqu'on executefid6lement ces syncopes,on etait bien loin de rendre sa syncopes; delicieuse. 11 renoncalui-meme, et se contentad'dcrire espressivo. ' y maniere suaveet

de tant dansl'oubli. ' naguere, tombee est Fourquoicettemaniere phraser, prnee maintenant

76Herz, Methode complete, 20. `quelquefois...le double caracterede l'accompagnementet de la melodie exige de chaquemain un effet rhythmique different. Ainsi, tandis que la droite semble s'dgarer en de folles variations, la gauche,appuyant contre temps sur les basses,is suit pas pesantset pas notes syncopees.Ce cas, comme tous ceux o l'expression est complexe, exige non l'une de 1'autre,mais, si je puis le dire, une me seulementdes mains parfaitement independantes different dans chacuned'elles. C'est ainsi que Dussek rdpandait une teinte vaporeuseet mClancoliquesur certainesperiodes en laissantchanterla main droite d'une maniere vague et nonchalante,tandis que la gaucheexecutait des batteriesrigoureusementen mesure.J'ignore

311

Othernineteenth-century writersalsoconfirm that metricalrubatowasdifficult to notate implied In the successfully. 1834,PierreBaillot describes effect of a typeof syncopation by the expressions derobeor trouble.He says that it temporubatoor disturbato,or temps become fatiguingandinsupportable usedtoo is a greateffectbut will, by its nature, if often:
It tends to expresstrouble and agitation and few composershave notated or indicated it... The performer... must only make use of it in spite of himself, as it were, when, by the expression,it apparently forces him to lose all senseof pulse and carried away to be delivered by this meansfrom the trouble that besetshim... He must preservea that will keep him within the limits of the harmony of the passage sort of steadiness and make him return at the right moment to the exact pulse of the beat...

This disorder... an will become artistic effectif it resultsfrom effort andinspiration if the artist canuseit withoutbeingforcedto think of the means is employing. he and but it Up to a certainpoint this devicecanbe notated, like all impassioned accents, losemuchof its effect if it is performedcold bloodedly[according the book].78 to will from a fastmovement Baillot accompanied description this with two notatedexamples from Viotti's ConcertoNo.19showingapproximately how he alteredcertainmelody (Fig. 4.90). accompaniment notes,presumably againsta steady

78 Baillot, LArt du violon: nouvellemethode P. (Paris,1834);136;trans.Robin Stowellin Violin Technique Performance theLate Eighteenth Early Nineteenth in Centuries and (Cambridge, and 1985),274.

312

Fig. 4.90

derobein Viotti Concerto No. 19.79 Baillot, temps

L'E t' SDJ 01
)-

Miebto50 '

/-10;

.,

Paa e thi que l'aulcur Iss ntli , (19. Lnnrcrlo. dM'Ssntti,,; Plovrl ii. ', -J .

i
., ' Appeeu 'iltl !a maricrq, 4 rendre co'po++a6" .

.u

--,
TAI;,

--

imply that the rhythmicalterations somesoloistsduringthe first half Otherreferences of the nineteenth centurywereso extremethat the accompaniment could no longerbe of in in time. Regarding practices England,Cipriani Potterstatedin 1836 orchestral played that: It frequentlyoccursthat a concerto playerallowshimself manylicencesin time, and is a goodorchestra, unfortunately, too often obligedto submitto; but a great which himselfto theselicences, performerwho accustoms will neverbe a goodleader, he because is deficientin that importantrequisite-precision. Theselicenses the in " time areoften mistakenfor the "TempoRubato, which is a greatbeautyin the
" Baillot, L Art du violon: nouvelle methode, 136-7; 'll tend exprimer le trouble et l'agitation et peu de compositeur l'ont note ou indiquer; le caracteredu passage suffit dire, en faire usageque lui, lorsqu'entraine par 1'expression,eile l'oblige perdre, en apparence, toute mesureet malgre delivrer ainsi du trouble qui l'obsi de. Nous disons qu'il ne perd la mesure qu'en apparence, se c'est-a-dire, qu'il dolt conserverune sorte d'aplomb qui le retienne dans les limites de l'harmonie du passageet qui le fasserentrer A propos dansla mesureexacte des temps. C'est ici le cas d'appliquer cette observation.

Ce desordre donede nature plaire,memo titretrouvebeau;il deviendra eiet de 1'art sera un l'emploie sans obligede penser titre s'il estle resultatdu travail et de l'inspiration,et si 1'artiste dont il sesert. moyens aux On peutnoter,jusqu' un certainpoint cetartifice,mais,commetousles accens il passionnes, de beaucoup soneffet We execute sangfroid. de perdra

313

or execution a cantabilepassage, anAdagio; but the accompaniment shouldalways of in be executed strict time, leavingthe soloperformerto his own peculiardivision of from their abuse the "Tempo to the bar. It is impossible accompany somesingers, of becomes caricature the intentionof Rubato":hence, expression introduce they the a of 80 the author.
In respectof Potter's apparentpreferencefor judicious alterations that would allow the to continue unaltered, it is tantalizing that he did not further describe the accompaniment `peculiar' divisions of the bar that he consideredappropriate. Other referencesshow that soloists were more judicious and effected a very successfulmetrical rubato. The some

his conductorBernhardScholzdescribed experience with the baritoneJuliusStockhausen

in 1859, recounting that: It was a pleasure for me to accompanyhim with the orchestraor at the keyboard. At first I tried to follow every small inflection of his performance; then he requestedthat I in time even when he allowed himself small deviations remain peacefully and strictly here and there, for which he would later compensate.He moves himself with complete freedom, but on a firm rhythmic basis... Through him the characterof the `Tempo rubato' first becamecompletely clear to me: freedom of phrasing on a steadyrhythmic foundation.8'

The fact that Scholzhadto be instructed play andconductin time suggests variety to the that existedsideby side.Clearly,however,musicians of practices suchas Stockhausen it. to usemetricalrubatowhile othershadabandoned continued

In A Few Wordson PianofortePlaying (1855),CarolineReinaglediscusses varioustypes 82 of rhythmic alteration:

oC. Potter, `Companion to the Orchestra;or Hints on Instrumentation', The Musical World 1886), vol. 4, no. 41,4. 1Hudson, Stolen Time, 86. 82C. Reinagle,A Few Words on Pianoforte Playing, (London. 1855); repr. in TheMusical Times, (1862), vol. 10,242.

314

implies robbingonebar,or part of a bar,for the sakeof enriching Tempo rubato importance. noteshurriedoverareoften is considered greater The of anotherwhich In the following passage, bassmaybe playedsomewhat the mereaccompaniment. thanit is strictly wanted,andthe time thusgainedwill be bestowed the on sooner havethe most the smoothA. The little phrase mayperhaps melody,particularlyon bar; in the first it will be playedsimply; in the last it maybe in the second pressure a which expresses greatdealmorethanothersimilar terms. playedsmorzando, is Smorzando not merelyslackening, diminishing- it maybe neither- but it seems nor its height,andis indeedtoo intense to to showthat the feelinghasattained greatest vent itself with force: -

While the underlyingconceptof borrowingandrestoringtime is clear,Reinagle's

descriptive terminology is vague. In reality, the above seemsto describe a type of compensatorytempo modification affecting melody and accompanimentsimultaneously. Following this, however, Reinagle provided another explanation that appearsto 83Again, however, her intention is correspondwith metrical rubato. not entirely clear:

In the following bar,the time is not stolenfrom the accompaniment; the fourth but the to a lessdegree, third, seize,in right of their evidentlystronger groupof notes,and, of time notjustly belongingto them,of which the expression, a shortportion on remainder mustbe robbed.

Sonata Regarding aboveexamplefrom Beethoven's Op. 10No. 3, Reinagleadvises the that certainmelodynotesshouldbe lengthened while the accompaniment remains It is likely that shewasreferringto the chromaticallyalterednotesC sharpin constant.

13 Ibid., 242.

315 the third group, and G sharp and B flat in the fourth group, which ought to be lengthened becauseof their dissonanteffect. An indication of the alteration would have expressively the intended effect clearer, though perhaps,like many others,Reinagle felt that the made notation could not do justice to the subtletiesof the inflection.

The textspresented the abovedocument survivalof metricalrubatofor several centuries. language brevity impedea fuller appreciation however, In general, their descriptive and in the of of its actualauralimpression, frequency its useor the rangeof situations which
it was consideredappropriate.

Hidden meanings

Centralto an appreciation metricalrubatoarethe possible hiddenmeanings its in of descriptive terminology.It is frequentlystatedthat in metricalrubato,the accompaniment however,several mustremain`strictly' or `exactly' in time. In this respect, questions be considered. What did suchtermssignify in previouseras? they imply Did must despitethe strictness simply that the pulseoughtalwaysto be recognizable absolute or the melody?The latterwould permit a degree flexibility in the placement vacillation of of while maintaininga perception unvaryingpulse.To of notesof the accompaniment, of On truly artistic or indeedpossible? strictness what extentwasmetronomical considered this point Brown hasastutelyobserved `a degree deviationfrom absolutely that of beatis inevitablein a musicallyeffective to adherence a constant mechanical

316

piece,evenif the performer'sprimaryintention of extended performance any reasonably 84 initial tempo'. is to adhere strictly to the

harmonicor rhythmic The purpose metricalrubatowassurelyto createan expressive of tensionby playinga melodynotesooner later thanthe corresponding in the or note This canstill be achieved whenboth partsfluctuatebut do not coincide. accompaniment. `strictly in time' accompaniment havebeensimply a Thus,the commonlyprescribed may describing ensuring displacement between parts, the and and a convenient conciseway of but could alsoengender certaindegree flexibility. of a

During the first half of the nineteenth that century,it is apparent tempomodificationwas device.Czernycommented increasingly that: asa standard expressive employed we havealmostentirelyforgottenthe strict keepingof time, asthe temporubato (that is, the arbitraryretardation quickeningof the degree movement) now often is or of 85 employedevento caricature. he Elsewhere states that: thereoccursalmostin everyline somenotesor somepassages, wherea small and is to relaxationor acceleration the movement necessary, often almostimperceptible of 86 the expression increase interest. the embellish and Hummel,too, makesit clearthat metronomic strictness not alwaysnecessary, was nor truly artistic: imagine,that, in applyingthe metronome, Many persons erroneously still they are boundto follow its equalandundeviating the motion throughout whole piece,without
84Brown, Performing Practice, 375. 85Czerny, Pianoforte School, vol. 3,29. 86Ibid., vol. 3,31-2.

317

for latitudein the performance the displayof tasteor allowinthemselves any feeling.
An enlightening description about the difference between playing metronomically `in 'in time' is found in Maria L. Grimaldi's TheArt of Piano Playing time' and musically (c. 1895). She advisedthat the senseof pulse must prevail even during and Teaching modifications of the tempo:

in in time is mostessential important,ascarelessness this The practiceof playing and hurtsthe earsasa bad architectural structuredoesthe eye.To play with tasteand in doesnot imply too muchliberty in the rhythm,an indulgence expression in slow movements, affrettandowheremanynotesareto be played, or rallentando in a panicassomanypeoplein a frightenedcrowd.In the most everynoterunning drawingmustbe alwaysobserved and temporubatothe underlyinggeneral rubato of of felt. At the sametime I shouldadviseyoungpianistsnot to go to the otherexcess of the breath,one,two, three,four, whenplaying.Fancya sonata under counting, To be surethis is a goodpracticeto makean Beethoven with suchan accompaniment! 88 but accompanist, neveran artist.
framework of relative strictness,a certain degreeof The above texts reveal that within a desirable. Terminology such as 'strict' and `exact' tempo modification was considered be interpreted in this context. Thus, the underlying tempo in metrical should probably have been more flexible than is implied by a face-value interpretation of rubato may often its descriptive terminology. Apparently, certain early-twentieth-century musicians who that metrical rubato was a purely theoretical concept did not take such factors concluded into account. For example, in 1928 John McEwen published results basedon evidence Duo-Art piano rolls. By measuringthe distance between perforations (and preservedon therefore note lengths and positions) he sought to discover, among other things, whether `playing an independentaccompanimentto a rubato melody or phrase', the artists when
87J.N. Hummel, Ausfhrliche theoretisch practische Anweisung zum Piano-Forte-Spiel, (Vienna, 1828); trans. asA Complete Theoretical and Practical Course of Instructions, on the Art of Playing the Piano Forte (London, 1828), vol, 3,65.

88Grimaldi, TheArt of Piano Playing and Teaching, 22-3.

318

McEwenfoundthat pianistssuchasPachmann, kept strict time in the accompaniment. in BusoniandTeresa Carreflodid not do so;their accompaniments wavered tempo.He that theoriesof metricalrubatowith strict time in the therefore, concluded it, asRobertPhilip describes `inventions theoreticians, rather of accompaniment were, 89 thanreflectionsof actualpractice'. Two concepts be seen marr McEwen's to can First, he interpreted word `strict', very literally. Had he listenedto the the conclusions. he would undoubtedly havenoticedelements of piano, rolls playedon a reproducing despite fluctuationsof tempo.Secondly, the that the earrecognizes metricalrubato McEwenexamined ratherlimited cross-section rolls, not including,for instance, of a thoseof the earliestgeneration above. examined

Anotherempiricalstudybased pianorolls wasmadeby LeroyNinde Vernonin 1937. on like Focusing, McEwen,on a limited numberof rolls, he showed when`a clearly that definedandcontinuous in melodyhasan accompaniment chordscontrasted rhythm of from the melody,the two areseldomplayedtogether. However,he '90 andratherseparate the that because accompaniments werenot steadyin time, therewerefew if concluded of any examples the Chopinstyleof rubato.Again,the literal interpretation descriptive of terminology,without consideration historicalcontext,seems havecloudedthe issue. to of

Historical textscanbe easilymisinterpreted to whensubjected the boundaries differing of

become In to taste. general, have accustomed a styleof performance is very we now that
faithful to the score.Absoluteprecision,synchrony partsandvery subtlefluctuationsof of
$9Philip, Early Recordings, 46. 90Hudson, Stolen Time, 333.

319 Currently,the word `strict' means `veryexact' or tempoarerecognizable characteristics. it `literal'. However,for nineteenth- early-twentieth-century and musicians, undoubtedly
had a wider meaning. In the context of tempo and rhythm, it probably incorporated a

flexibility that wasstill perceived beingstrict. Certainly,in the examples as above, certain is clearlyevidentevenwhenthe accompaniment not are metricalrubatoalterations in metronomically time.

in A goodexampleof the hiddenmeaning written textsis seenin the comparison description metricalrubatoandhis own playing.In Le Courier betweenSaint-Saans's of (1910),he states that: musicale
In the true [tempo rubato], the accompanimentremains undisturbed while the melody floats capriciously, rushesor retards, sooner or later to find again the support of the accompaniment.This manner of playing is very difficult, requiring a complete 91 independenceof the two hands.

Saint-Saens's the strongimpression in employingmetricalrubato,his that advicegives left handwould alwayshavebeenexactlyin time. His pianorolls show,however, that in he repertoireby ChopinandBeethoven, waversbetween strict anda moreflexible a In tempoin the accompaniment. spiteof this, a sense pulseis alwaysevidentandthe of by to caused alterations melodicmaterialis alwaysclear.The fact that Saintasynchrony flexibility is not implied in his verbaldescriptionshowshow misleadingthe Saans's latter is for appreciating true features his metricalrubato.Saint-Sams the of very

91 Saint-Saens, `Quelques des C. de mots sur1'execution oeuvres Chopin',Le Courier musicale (1910),vol. 13,no. 10,386-7; `bansle vrai, l'accompagnement imperturbable, reste quela alors avance retarde, on mdlodieflotte capricieusement, pour retrouvertat ou tard sonsupport.Ce des ' genred'executionestfort difficile, demandant independance une complete deuxmains.

320

his playingto be strict,but this waswithin a wider boundary than is probablyconsidered currentlyacceptable.

impression Anotherexample the misleading givenby written textsis foundin Eduard of Hanslick's 1879reviewof AdelinaPatti.Hanslickstates shewas: that
Always rhythmically strict as regardsmeasures,shetreats the rhythm within each individual freedom - nothing is dragged,nothing is rushed,and yet measurewith down to the softest vibrations of tone.92 everything is animated right

Patti's treatment the rhythmwithin certainbarswith individual freedomis clearly of

in her 1906 recording of Bellini's Casta Diva. However, by modern standards, evident

her tempo,in this andotherworks,is not alwaysstrict. Often,shestretches contracts and in the tempowithin a bar or phrase; lengthens she particulartrilled notesat final cadences it seems showoff her agility; andshemakesnoticeable to ritardandiin the final order destroy overall pulseor renderthe barsof songs arias.None of thesepractices the and but shecertainlydoesnot sing strictly in tempo.Here,asin compositionunrecognizable, in 2 cases alreadymentioned Chapters and3, the written descriptiongivesa abundant different impression the audibleevidence. to

in Metrical rubatocontinued be a matterfor discussion the first half of the twentieth to In Some Reflections Piano Playing (Paris,c. 1900),Isidor Philipp encouraged on century. its usesayingthat: In expressive but pianoplayingthe Rubatoneeds consideration is often Rubatodoesnot meanplaying out of time. Any ritenutothat we may misunderstood.

92lianslick, `AdelinaPatti(1879)',Music Criticisms,179.

321 by be impelled to make, must be compensated a correspondingaccelerandoand also basskeeping exactly the time.93 the opposite, the

Sonata In an examplefrom the second No. 1 Op. 32, of movement Saint-Sadns's by is Philipp's metricalrubato,extraordinary modemstandards, clearlyaudible. While his cellist PaulBazelaireplaysthe walking bassline between bars6 and 10exactly displacements lengthening shortening by in time, Philipp makesexpressive particular and chordsin the melodyline (Fig. 4.91).Here,it is obviousthat for him, `ritenuto' and `accelerando' and or signifiedlengthening shortening anticipationanddelay.Without the this audibleevidence, typeof alterationwithin the contextof chamber musicmight never havebeenappreciated.

93 Philipp,Some Reflections Piano Playing (Paris,c. 1900),11. I. on

322
Fig. 4.91 Saint-SatinsSonataNo. 1 Op. 32, secondmovement, bars 7 to 11, Philipp and Bazelaire, electrical recording, 1935 (CD 3/66).

Philipp's version Piano

Cello

Otherearly-twentieth-century writers prescribed very limited useof metrical rubato.In a 1909,Hofmannimplied that it wasmoretheoreticalthanpracticalin natureandthat in in compositions would accommodate of suchindependence the any case,not manyplaces parts: I find an explanation temporubato which saysthat the handwhich playsthe of handmustkeep may movewith all possiblefreedom,while the accompanying melody time. How canthis be done? strict
The explanation you found, while not absolutely wrong, is very misleading, for it can find application in only a very few isolated cases;only inside of a short phraseand then hardly satisfactorily. Besides,the words you quote are not an explanation, but a mere assertion or, rather, allegation. Temporubato meansa wavering, a vacillating of time values, and the question whether this is to extend over both hands or only over be decided by the player's good taste; it also dependson whether the one must of the two hands can be thought of as separateand musically independent. occupation

323

I assume you areableto play eachhandalonewith perfectfreedom, I doubt that and that you can,with somepractice, retainthis freedomof eachhandwhenyou unite not to them,but I canseeonly very few cases which you could applysuchskill, andstill 9a lessdo I seethe advantage thereof. AlthoughHofmanndid not valuethe technique very highly, he wasnot entirelyopposed however, the to it. Suchexplanations, musthaveaccelerated demiseof a practicethat had little useof metricalrubato.His Hofmann'srecordings long beenin existence. preserve is markedlymoresynchronized pianistsnotedaboveandhis inflection of than playing is muchmoresubtleandboundto the notation.This is rhythms,while evident, from his 1912recordingof Chopin'sNocturne in the following excerpts exemplified Op. Warum? 12No. 3 (CD 3/67 and68). Op. 9 No. 1 and Schumann's

describes An appraisal Hofmann'splayingby the critic Harold Schonberg the of his differencebetween styleandthat of earliergenerations:
As a representativeof the nineteenth-centuryschool of piano playing, Hofmann was well aware of the romantic tradition. He himself was a bridge pianist, one who modified the romantic approachto the new philosophies of the twentieth century. His rhythms were straightforward whereasthe rhythms of the Liszt and Leschetizky pupils tended to be capricious. He played the notes as written, whereasthe Lisztianers and Leschetizkianerstook a remarkably free view toward the printed note. Indeed, Hofmann in early years was accused,often, of being a "cold" pianist, just as Toscanini the sametime was being accusedof being a "cold" conductor. Of course neither was at Both merely discarded some of the excessromanticism then in vogue.95 cold.

for The recommendation a literal interpretation musicalnotationduringthe earlyof twentiethcenturyis no clearerthan in PercyGrainger'sadvicein his article 'Grieg's

94Hofmann, Answered,100-2. Piano Questions

95H. C. Schonberg,`SleeveNotes', The CompleteJosef Hofmann: VolumeOne The Chopin Concertos (Vai Audio/International Piano Archive 1002,1992), unpaginated[2].

324

he "NorwegianBridal Procession"'(1920).On several the occasions, discusses needto in dottedrhythmsexactlyaswritten.For example, bar 5, he warnsthe playerto:96 play
Be scrupulousto preservethe exact rhythmic relationship between the dotted is sixteenth-notesand the thirty-second-notes.Too often this passage played with the sound of triplets, as shown in Example 4.
Ex. 4

by This tendency be corrected practicingthe passage indicatedin Example5. can as

Ex. 5 M. M. quaver - 108

Count

1234123412341234

Countfour to everyeighth-note, be surethat the thirty-second-notes not and are Inexperienced musicians apt to cut the durationof playedbefore"four" is counted. are by the dottednotestoo short in cases suchasthese.This error canalsobe corrected ticking four timesin eachmeasure, with a metronome and practisingthe passage like very quick gracenotes,asshownin Example6. the thirty-second playing notes
Ex. 6

96PercyGrainger, 'Grieg's "NorwegianBridal Procession" MasterLesson Percy by -A Grainger',TheEtude,(1920),vol. 38, no. 11,742.

325

for he Furthermore, advises bar 25:

What was remarked regarding the rhythm of measure5 applies with particular force to the continuous figure of dotted sixteenth-notesand thirty-second-notesthat are found throughout the following measures:25-59,62-72 74-76,78,80-89. Take care not to let this degenerateinto the triplet rhythm shown in Example 7.
Ex. 7
LLTI TI

Left Hand

In order to guard againstthis tendencythink of each (not to the preceding) dotted along the lines indicated in Examples 5 practise the passage sixteenth-note,and and 6.97

And for bars49,50 and51 he states the playermust: that in Play the thirty-second-notes the left handwell after the third noteof the right hand 51 triplet. In particularavoid the slovenlyperformance measure shownin of Example8.98
Ex. 8

Grainger's1925recordingof the work showsthat he did observe own advice,though his he in orderto achieverhythmicincisiveness, hadto play it at a suitablymoderate tempo crotchet= 69MM (CD 3/69).Grieg's 1903recordingof the work shows of approximately

97 Ibid., 742. 98 Ibid., 742.

326

his that he wasnot so strict andthat,in anycase, fastertempoof approximately crotchet 88MM, often precluded productionof the sharprhythmsin his notation(CD 3/70). the =

Gieseking demandeda much more literal interpretation of the musical text, advising that the composer's notation must be respectedunequivocally. He discussednatural interpretation stating that: The pianist very often believes he must alter the musical notation of a composition, He very often does so unconsciously,becausehe is not especially as regardsrhythm. becausehis playing is superficial, or becausehe thinks it capable of reading correctly, is more interesting and "expressive" to play, let us say, a successionof sixteenth notes unevenly and strongly rubato, although the composerhas written them all of equal 99 value. In criticizing the uneven rendition of passages equal-value notes, Gieseking may have of been referring to the survival of a technique remarkably similar to the practice of inequality discussedabove, of which in his youth he must have had direct experience. Elsewhere, he noted a strong dislike of alterations to triplets saying that:

I shouldlike to point out that triplets arerarely playedcorrectly.Theyvery often heardby trainedears.A rhythmicallyrendered falseimpression triplet is createa when In a thing unknownto manymusicians. oppositionto the intentionsof the composer, the triplet is very often not playedpreciselyon the beat.Moreover,it is generally takentoo fast andfinishedtoo soon.In order,therefore,somewhat balance the to the playergenerallylingersa while beforestriking the note following the rhythm, triplet. I thereforego minutelyinto this matterandinsist uponabsolute equalityin the executionof the threenotes.It is only by strictly following this rule that suchphrases they will alwaysappear canbe rendered with the right effect. Otherwise, and uneven jerky. This may seempedantic many,but it is a perfectlynaturalthing to a musical to help to technique ear.The correctrendering triplets is a greater than is generally of 100 supposed.

99Gieseking and Leimer, The Shortest Way to Pianistic Perfection, 43. 100 Ibid., 35.

327

Gieseking's Like HofmannandGrainger, to playingexhibitsa stricteradherence the An musicalnotationthanpianistsof an earliergeneration. examplehighlightingthe

difference between his style and that of Etelka Freund, who continued to make conspicuousrhythmic alterations as late as the 1950s,is seenin the comparisonof their of Brahms's Intermezzo Op. 117 No. 2. In her 1953 recording of the work, recordings Freund plays the adjacent semiquaversin the alto and tenor parts between bars 27 and 29 literally as in his 1939 recording of it, Gieseking plays the sequence unequally, whereas

notated(CD 3/71 and72).

In 1929,MauriceCauchiewashighly critical of thosewho employed rhythmicalteration: The greatest &c.) last caremustbe takenthat the variousvalues(crotchets, quavers, Thereare countless instrumentalists singers the timesthat are intended. and exactly replace who constantly
. by j

and (J'

by.

7
"

1-1 7

. "

Many evengo so far asto replace

r' 1rw by ,r".

They think that they are thus making their playing or their singing more expressive. What is it that they are really doing? They are substituting a work of their own for the one they imagine themselvesto be performing. '' composition

101 Cauchie,`Respect Rhythm', TheMusical Times(1929), For M. vol. 70,891.

328

As late as 1958,FrankMerrick, himselfa student Leschetizky, of metrical mentioned rubato: definition of rubatois "left handin time, right handfree", a phenomenon A so-called is often calledfor by the notationitself (Exx, 108,109and 110): which
Ex. 106. CbopinI Nocturne in F#

$s. 100. flummet: son at& to D, Op. 108

Ad,

(Tb, lst or fourteen s Ichar bars) Int

Ex. 110. CDoo ns Noolnrno in DI

The beauty with which Chopin treated such passages may be part of the reasonwhy "left hand strict, right hand free" has been so often advocatedas a solution of the The result of accepting this doctrine is usually similar to that rubato problem. 142 by an insensitive accompanistwho cannot keep together with the soloist. produced

Merrick wasopposed the notion of the left handnot It is clearthat, unlike his teacher, to
following the right. In spite of this and other warnings, remnants of metrical rubato style be heard in the playing of several important pianists during the mid-twentieth can In her 1953 recording, Etelka Freund makes alterations to great effect, century. 102 Merrick,PractisingthePiano, 73-4.

329

Op. movement Brahms'sSonata 5. Here, particularlyin the first sectionof the second of in the semiquavers the left handareplayedunequally,almostastriplets.Frombar 12,the are repeated semiquavers playedin a varietyof dottedrhythms(CD 3/73).And in the from bar 68, eachpair of semiquavers subverted form a is to sectioncommencing (CD tripletizedquaver/semiquaver 3/74).In the first movement, usesinequalityin the she bars27 and38 (CD 3/75).In Brahms's suchasbetween moreexpressive passages Op. 116No. 2, Freundassimilates pairsof quavers the right handto in Intermezzo the matchthe left-handtriplets (CD 3/76).

op. And in her 1951recordingof Brahms'sIntermezzo 117No. 1, Adelina de Lara forming the upbeatto mostbars(CD 3/77). tripletizespairsof semiquavers

Early recordings that aroundthe turn of the twentiethcentury,metrical reveal,therefore, devicein pianoplaying.Many pianists, indispensable expressive rubatowasan frequentlymaderhythmic particularly,but not exclusively,the oldestgeneration Yet alterationsof varyingcomplexityfor expressive purposes. this is not reflectedin latenineteenth-century which arescarce lacking in detail. With few references, and morethanthe underlyingprincipleof metrical written textsrarely describe exceptions, that would havebeenimpossible to revealmanyfeatures rubato.Thusthe recordings deducefrom written texts alone.

between alterations The closecorrespondence the in preserved early pianorecordings and thosedetailedby Garciaandothersprovidesstrongevidence that suchalterations were

330 not simply remnantsof an earlier style. There is, therefore, an historical basis for what can be heard in the recordings. In addition, certain similarities with earlier practices that many aspectsof metrical rubato in late-nineteenth-centurypiano playing had suggest been in existencefor severalcenturies.Thus, Hudson's claim that `During the later years of the 19th century the earlier meaning of rubato [metrical rubato] gradually disappeared, isolated elementsof the technique lingered on in the controversial concept of although `compensation' (meaning then that retard and acceleration should be exactly equal within

bar, phrase piece)andin the pianists'customof arpeggiating chordsor `breaking or a 103 in hands' cannotbejustified. His theorydoesnot accordwith evidence preserved Indeed, Hudons'ssuggestion arpeggiation that written textsor earlyrecordings. either In of anddislocationwereisolatedelements metricalrubatois misleading. early
these practices can be heard separatelyand alongside metrical rubato, and recordings, have been shown in Chapters2 and 3 to belong to firmly establishedtraditions of their own in a continuum dating back severalcenturies. It is apparentfrom early recordings that while some pianists employed metrical rubato more sparingly, Brahms, Saint-Saans, Reinecke, Leschetizky, Grieg and many other important pianists up until the 1950smade prolific use of it.

103 Hudson,`Rubato',NewGrove,2nd edn.,vol. 21,834.

331

Chapter 5 Tempo modification

The manner in which, and the situations where, tempo modification was employed is factor that distinguishesthe style of piano playing around the turn of the another twentieth century from the presentstyle. Tempo modification, now referred to as tempo

deceleration prolongation notesthat involvesthe acceleration, of and rubatoor rubato, few At distortionof the tempofor expressive reasons. present, specificrules a cause developan idiosyncraticstyleor emulate its applicationandin general, musicians govern tradition.In the 1980edition of TheNew GroveDictionary of Music and a so-called Musicians,RobertDoningtondefinesrubatoas: beyondthe time mathematically Of tempo,extended thus sloweddown, available; Tempo broadened. rubato ('stolen time') signifiesthe time thus `stolen' stretched or implies somedistortionof the strict (i. e. added)... currentusage In rubato
mathematical tempo applied to one or more notes, or entire phrases,without to time added as pausesor breaks in the continuity of the tempo, restoration; and also to mark the separationof phrasesmore conspicuously than merely by a silence of ' articulation within the tempo.

descriptionof the function anduseof Althoughthis maybe considered adequate an from Donington's today,it is impossible appreciate to tempomodificationfor musicians descriptionthe boundaries suchdistortionsof the tempoare considered within which in goodtaste. and appropriate

' R. Donington,`Rubato',New Grove,1stedn.,vol. 16,292.

332 Comparison of recordings made over the past century shows that although tempo intrinsic expressivedevice in modern piano playing, its usage modification remains an has changedradically. Early piano recordings preserve,in many cases,a degreeand style tempo modification that does not fall within current notions of good taste. Although to of temporal modem earsthis undoubtedly contributes to an impression of exaggerated it is evident that many important late-nineteenth-and early-twentiethwaywardness, century pianists consideredsuch a style to be highly expressive.In contrast, the majority faithfully to the notation; any modification tends to stay of modem pianists adheremore within close proximity of the prevailing tempo.

In orderto gain an appreciation the extentto which the criteria governing tempo of havechanged to overthe pasthundred years,it is enlightening examinea modification of of pianorecordings the samework. The tablebelow (Fig. 5.1) presents cross-section based the tempomodificationsmadeby variouspianistsbetween on certaincalculations bars 1 and9 of Chopin'sNocturneOp. 27 No. 2 (Fig. 5.2).Using an electronic bars the the time lapsebetween downbeats successive hasbeenmeasured. of stopwatch, have Wheresmallersections suchashalf barsare involved,measurements beentaken Because effect of increase decrease (acceleration/deceleration) the or accordingly. of in it tempois perceived relationto what haspreceded, is usefulto know the rateof change the lengthof a bar, from onebar to the next, or onehalf bar to the next half bar, of the first. This methodprovidesa quantitativeimpression of as expressed a percentage of to the the degree which individual pianistschange tempoduring an accelerando a or The higherthe value,the moreradical is the perceived ritardando. change.

333

has The figureshereincorporate very smallelementof erroroft 0.1 seconds a which beencalculated averaging by twentytimings of a particularbar,andnotingthe largest
discrepancyon either side of the average.This equatesto an error of approximately 2%,

by dividing the largesterrorby the average time andmultiplyingby 100.This calculated in of marginof error is not, however, anysignificance the present study.

Fig. 5.1

2 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, duration in seconds.

Leschetizky 1906 (CD 4/1 La Forge 1912 (CD 4/2 Godowski 1928 (CD 4/3 Powell
1929 (CD 4/4)

bar 1 5.85 5,22 4.63 5.22 3.99 5.37 4.28 5.87 4.27 5.00 5.06

bar 2 5.42 -0.43 4.56 -0.66 4.12 -0.51 4.54

-0.68

bar 3 4.63 -0.79 4.06 -0.50 3.69 -0.43 4.31

-0.23

bar 4 5.15 0.52 4.38 0.32 3.75 0.06 4.30

-0.01

bar 5 5.09 -0.06 4.37 0.01 4.00 0.25 4.78

0.48

bar 6 5.12 0.03 4.09 0.28 4.56 0.56 4.47

0.31

bar 7 4.44 -0.68 3.61 -0.48 4.40 -0.16 4.22

-0.25

bar 8 6.39 1.95 6.10 2.49 4.19 0.21 4.94

0.72

bar 9 5.69 0.70 5.31 -0.79 4.84 0.65 5.28

0.34

Rosenthal 1936 (CD 4/5 Solomon 1942 (CD 4/6 IIarasiewicz 1963 (CD 417 Weissenberg 1969 (CD 4/8) Barenboim 1982 (CD 4/9) Riv 1988 (CD 4/10 Stott 1992 (CD 4/11)

4.23 0.24 4.75 -0.62 3.75 -0.53 5.81 -0.06 4.51 0.24 4.59 -0.41 4.68 -0.38

3.34 -0.87 4.50 -0.25 3.34 -0.41 4.90 -0.91 4.28 -0.23 4.01 0.58 4.60 -0.08

3.71 0.37 4.50 0 3.84 0.50 6.00 1.1 4.59 -0.31 4.25 0.24 4.91 0.31

3.02 -0.69 4.75 0.25 3.65 -0.19 5.25 -0.75 4.12 -0.47 4.25 0 4.87 -0.04

3.45 0.43 4.64 -0.11 3.72 0.07 5.13 -0.12 4.40 0.28 4.32 0.07 5.19 0.32

2.84 -0.61 4.35 -0.29 3.56 -0.16 5.44 0.31 4.90 0.50 4.13 -0.19 4.85 -0.34

4.56 1.72 4.47 0.12 4.03 0.07 6.72 1.28 5.19 0.29 5.05 0.92 4.95 0.10

4.28 . 0.28 4.47 0 5.00 0.97 6.72 0 5.78 0.59 4.97 -0.08 5.47 0.52

2 N. B. although Pachmann'spercentage changefigures are presentedbelow, his recording at bar 26 of the work and cannot therefore be included in this table. commences

334

Fig. 5.2

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars I to 9.;

t ceto

sostenuto

O 77

+---77r7-

dolce
I. a I. . AL

IL

At

r.. *0+

ft

n1.

e1.

'.lr..

"vI*

ii

`.L'n1

0iAi1.1

In the table above (Fig. 5.1), the upper numeral representsthe times lapse in secondsfor bar. The numerals marked in bold indicate the amount of increase(positive value) or each decrease(negative value) in length of the bar in relation to the one that precedes.
.' Chopin, `Nocturnes', Urtext, 44.

335 From this evidence it is clear that, in the majority of cases,no two bars are the same length. In addition, the variation in bar lengths is significantly larger for pianists such as Leschetizky, La Forge and Rosenthal,and to a lesserextent, Godowski and Powell, than Rev, Barenboim and Stott. Solomon plays consistently more in time while Harasiewicz Weissenbergshow some localized large variation. Where tempo hasbeen and particularly the earlier pianists generally make larger and thus more noticeable changes modified, from bar to bar, while those of more recent times make consistently far less variation. It that by the mid-century, tempo modification was kept to a minimum, as seems in the figures for Solomon and Harasiewicz. This accordswith the general represented towards a stricter style as describedby twentieth-century writers, discussedbelow. move Weissenberg's figures may representa remnant of earlier practices or perhapsa move towards a slightly more flexible style. In this respect,it is evident that the figures for Rev, Barenboim and Stott are more varied than those of Solomon and Harasiewicz. These do not take into account the differences in overall tempo from one pianist to conclusions be the focus of another study. another, which must

Furthermore, of closerexamination the tempomodificationsin bar 8 reveals more half of this bar, the majority of pianistsunder trends.In the second significant broaden tempoin order,it seems, play moreexpressively to the the examination scaleculminatingin the poignantappoggiatura ascending melodynoteG naturalat the in beginningof bar 9. The increase the lengthof bar 8 expressed a percentage bar 7 as of 4 is listed in Figure5.3 below. From this it is clearthat Leschetizky, Forgeand La
4Thepercentage figuresbelowhavebeencalculated dividing theincrease decrease by change or by in bar lengths the first bar lengthandmultiplying by 100.

336

downto a muchgreaterextentthanHarasiewicz, Weissenberg Rosenthal and slowed Rev, andsignificantlymorethanBarenboim Stott,whoserecordings and weremademost recently.

Fig. 5.3

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 7 and 8, percentagechange.

bar 7 bar 8 6.39 6.10 4.94 4.56 4.47 4.03 6.72 5.19 5.05 4.95 percentage change 43.92 68.98 17.06 60.56 2.76 13.20 23.53 5.92 22.28 2.06

Leschetizky La Forge Powell Rosenthal Solomon Harasiewicz Weissenberg Barenboim Rev Stott

4.44 3.61 4.22 2.84 4.35 3.56 5.44 4.90 4.13 4.85

In orderto gain a clearerimpression the percentage that of changes aretypical of As individual pianists,it is necessary examinea cross-section excerpts. no two to of tempomodificationsin the sameplace,it is not the intention make pianistsnecessarily figures.The percentage for hereto providecomparative changes the mostnoticeable tempomodificationsof eachpianistarelisted in Figures5.4 to 5.14below.

Fig. 5.4
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 bar 7

figures. Leschetizky, change percentage

seconds percentage change

4.44

bar 8
bar 12 bar 13

6.39
4.50 6.65

43.92
47.78 79.72 32.92

bar 22
bar 25 bar 30 (1st half) bar 30 2nd half)

3.60
6.47 2.40 3.19

337
bar 44 bar 45 3.65 5.84

60 46.55 38.40

bar 51
bar 52 bar 60 bar 61

4.06
5.95 4.74 6.59

Fig. 5.5
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 bar 7 bar 8 bar 12 bar 13 bar 25 bar 36

La Forge, percentagechangefigures.
seconds percentage change

3.61 6.10 3.62 4.72 3.42 5.38

68.98 30.39 57.31 62.18 88.93 33.80

bar 36 (1sthalf)
bar 36 2nd hat

1.56
2.53

bar 42
bar 43 bar 62 bar 63

2.53
4.78 5.00 3.31

Fig. 5.6
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2

Powell, percentagechangefigures.
seconds percentage change

bar 12 bar 13 bar 17

bar 18 bar 24 bar 25

3.90 5.90 3.50

4.57 5.50 7.28

51.28
30.57 32.36 103.11

bar 44
bar 45 bar 72

2.25
4.57 8.85

bar 73

9.34

55.37

338

Fig. 5.7
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 bar 2 bar 3 bar 4 (1st half) bar 4 2nd hat

figures. Rosenthal, change percentage

seconds percentage change

4.25 3.35 1.87 1.84

28.18 1.60 18.87 51.45 27.69 3.06 160.72 35.16

bar 4
bar 5

3.71
3.07

bar 6 (1sthalf)
bar 6 2nd hat

1.38
2.09

bar 24
bar 25 bar 43 bar 44 bar 45 bar 60 bar 61

3.72
4.75 2.94 3.03 7.90 3.47 4.69

Fig. 5.8
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 bar 28

figures.s Pachmarm,percentagechange
seconds percentage change

4.06

bar 29 bar 44
bar 45

3.44 4.41
7.03

33.55
59.41

Fig. 5.9
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2

figures. Solomon, percentage change

seconds percentage change

bar 9
bar 10 bar 16 bar 17

4.72
3.82 3.97 3.69 19.07 7.52

bar 18
bar 19

3.21
4.19

15.44
30.52

SN.B. only two figuresarepresented Pachmann for because recordingcommences bar 26 his at of thework.

339
bar 20 bar 23 4.10 3.50 2.14

bar 24
bar 25 bar 27 bar 28 bar 33 bar 34 bar 36

4.22
5.31 4.84 5.50 4.97 3.59 4.09

20.57
25.82 13.64 27.77

bar 37
bar 38 bar 39 bar 41 bar 42 bar 44 bar 45 bar 71(1 st half)

3.37
3.04 3.97 2.94 2.40 2.41 3.59 2.47

17.60
9.79 30.59 18.37 48.96

bar 71 (2ndhalf)
bar 72 1sthat

2.94
3.53

19.03
20.07

Fig. 5.10
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 bar 12 bar 13

Harasiewicz, figures. percentage change

seconds percentage change

3.53 4.47

26.63

bar 24 bar 25 bar 44

bar 45 bar 57 bar 58

3.59 4.47 3.03

4.53 3.91 2.87

24.51
49.54 26.60

Fig. 5.11
Chopin

Weissenberg,percentagechange figures.
seconds percentage

Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 bar 12 bar 13

bar 18 bar 19 bar 24 bar 25

change 4.72 5.32

3.87 6.20 5.75 7.16

12.71
60.21 24.52 74.25

bar 44
bar 45

3.03
5.28

340

Fig. 5.12
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 bar 7 bar 8 bar 15 bar 16

Barenboim, figures. percentage change

seconds percentage change

4.85 5.13 4.50 5.97

5.77 32.67 27.83 6.17 17.20 57.32 31.03 18.62

bar 24
bar 25

4.06
5.19

bar 29
bar 30 bar 39 bar 40 bar 44 bar 45 bar 60 bar 61 bar 69 bar 70

4.28
5.40 4.40 3.78 3.28 5.16 5.06 6.63 5.37 6.38

Fig. 5.13
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27_No.2

Rev, percentagechangefigures.
seconds percentage change

bar 24
bar 25 bar 29 bar 30

4.34
5.19 4.05 3.97 19.58 1.98 0 43.73 9.35

bar 30 (1st half)

bar 30 2ndhal bar 44 bar 45 bar 67 bar 68

1.97
1.97 3.59 5.16 4.60 5.03

Fig. 5.14
Chopin Nocturne
Op. 27 No. 2

figures. Stott,percentage change

seconds 4.88
6.44 31.97 19.81

percentage change

bar 24
bar 25

bar 42 (1" half)

bar 42 2dhalf)

2.22
1.78

341 bar 44
bar 45 bar 59 bar 60

3.47
5.28 4.75 5.47 52.16 15.16

The figures above provide an overview of the extent to which the pianists under tempo in one particular work. This evidence revealsthat earlier examination modify Leschetizky, La Forge, Rosenthal, and Powell employ frequent tempo pianists such as

bar up to twice aslong asthe preceding The bar. changes, often makinga particular figuresfor Pachmann, accordwith this trend.In general, is moreradicalthan this too, Harasiewicz, Rdv,Barenboim Stott,whosetempo later pianistssuchasWeissenberg, and their extremecause particularbar to be aroundoneanda half timesthe a modificationsat bar. lengthof the preceding While thereareundoubtedly somemodernpianistswho it appears from this studythat in recenttimes,tempo makemoreradical modifications, hasbeenvariedwithin narrowerboundaries thanit wasduringthe first half of the twentiethcentury.

do But eventhe abovecalculations not conveycertainfeatures tempomodificationthat of Such to the improvisatory rhetoricalsoundof someearlypianorecordings. and contribute include,for example, that shortaccelerations createthe effect of erratic sudden practices be heardbetween bars9 and 12of Saint-Saans's forward surges suchascan pianoroll of Sonata 31 No. I (CD 4/12).And in the Op. the second movement Beethoven's of from bars 16to 26 of the samework, he makesfrequentagogiclengthenings sequence from bars 16to 24 of createerraticrhythmiceffects(CD 4/13).In the sequence which Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 2, he makesfrequentaccelerandos ritardandos do that and by He the proportioned today'sstandards. alsoanticipates entry of a new not sound

342

(CD 4/14).And in the Doppiomovimento in a mannerthat sounds section abrupt phrase from bars25 to 48, he makesa very noticeable erratic-sounding the same and work of
indicated by Chopin. In addition, his molto rallentando is more extreme accelerandonot than might have been expected(CD 4/15). Similar forward surgescan be heard in the left hand in bar 29 of Pachmann'srecording of Chopin's Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 (CD 4/16). Rosenthal producesa similar effect in the left hand at bar 5 (CD 4/17). And between bars 10 and 14 and in bar 38, he acceleratesparticular right-hand figures, creating a crushed

(CD 4/18 and 19).He alsorushes certainnotesin the left hand.La Forgecreates effect half of bar 15of the same Nocturne(CD 4/20), in bar 11andthe second abruptsurges Powell in bars20,32 and57 (CD 4/21,22and23). Suchseemingly erratic,whimsical and Many more areseldomheardin pianoplayingat present. modifications andexaggerated by havebeenpresented Robert from solo pianoto orchestral recordings ranging examples Philip, who concludes that:
A number of points emergefrom the recorded examples...The most obvious is that a tempo within movementswas generally used in the 1920sand 1930s greater range of than in modem performances.But the trend over the last 60 years has not been simply the acceptedtempo range.In pre-war performances,slowing down at a narrowing of of low tension and speedingup at points of high tension were both used points

Modernperformers frequently,andwith emphasis. still sometimes slow downat lyrical passages, at particularlyin worksof the Romanticperiod,but accelerations heardin The degree acceleration very restrained. of are passages generally energetic be considered would uncontrolledin modem recordings manypre-war decades in Overthe succeeding therehasbeena gradualchange performance... to tempo,andto flexibility of tempo,andthis hasbeenpart of a moregeneral attitude in change the rhetoricof musicalrhythm...moderntasteinsistson carefulcontrol, This goeswith a requirement everydetail shouldbe that particularlyof acceleration. earlytwentieth-century andclearly placed.By comparison, performance considered Theoreticalflexibility wasappliednotjust to overall tempo,but wasmorevolatile. to the shaping phrases the relationshipbetweenindividual notes. and of also

6Philip, Early Recordings, 35-6.

343

It is evident,however, that a greater rangeof tempowithin movements usedearlier was in the earliest thanthe 1920s Philip hasnot commented the practices on and preserved includingthe highly significantBrahmscylinderof 1889.Together, pianorecordings, that theseprovideirrefutableevidence a styleof tempomodification,no longer half tasteful,wasintrinsic to pianoplayingin the second of the nineteenth considered
As with dislocation, unnotatedarpeggiation and various types of rhythmic century.

between earlypianorecordings contemporaneous verbal alteration,the comparison and inconsistencies. Someof these abouttempomodificationrevealsseveral advice highlightedin the sectionthat follows. are anomalies

Early recordings and written texts

Brahmsprovidea suitablepoint of departure, written The practices Johannes as of to with his 1889recording references his styleof tempomodificationmaybe compared his HungarianDanceNo. 1. That flexibility of tempowasa featureof Brahms'sstyle of madeclearby the EnglishpianistFannyDavies,who heardhim on manyoccasions. was
She recounts that:

but Brahms'smannerof interpretation wasfree, very elasticandexpansive; the balancewasalwaysthere- onefelt the fundamental rhythmsunderlyingthe surface In wasnotablein lyric passages. thesea strictly metronomic rhythms.His phrasing Brahmsis asunthinkableasa fussyor hurriedBrahmsin passages which mustbe rhythm.? with adamantine presented

7 F. Davies,`SomePersonal Recollections BrahmsasPianistandInterpreter',Cobbett's of Cyclopedic Surveyof ChamberMusic, compiledanded. W. W. Cobbett,with supplementary materialed.C. Mason,2nd edn.(London,1963),vol. 1,182.

344

Brahms'spracticeof lengthening Daviesdescribes Furthermore, individualnotesaswell tempoto createa beautiful sacrificingan unvarying makinglarger-scale modifications, as effect:
The sign < >, as usedby Brahms, often occurs when he wishes to expressgreat sincerity and warmth, applied not only to tone but to rhythm also. He would linger not but on a whole idea, as if unable to tear himself away from its on one note alone, beauty. He would prefer to lengthen a bar or a phraserather than spoil it by making up into a metronomic bar.8 the time

Elsewhere, Davies explains that during the third movement of Brahms's Trio Op. 101: This was one of the occasionswhen Brahms would lengthen infinitesimally a whole bar, or even a whole phrase,rather than spoil its quietude by making it up into a strictly metronomic bar. This expansiveelasticity - in contradistinction to a real rubato (of course depending upon the musical idea) - was one of the chief characteristicsof Brahms's interpretation. This is a small example, but quite a useful one.9

in Davies'sdetaileddescription metronome of speeds the last movement the same of which sheverified with Joachim,is of particularvalueandshowsthe extentto work, which Brahmsmodified tempo:
The last movement about dotted crotchet = 120; at the much discussedmeno allegro about dotted crotchet = 88. Then the tempo broadenedgradually, until at the violin solo with semiquaveraccompanimentit had become about dotted crotchet = 72. The violin solo I marked `very much brought out', the cello the same-a real solo. Then came a very fine shadingtopp, a `taking off', but hardly to be called a ritardando. Tempo 1, then, of course (dotted crotchet = 120). The song in C major and the first four bars of the poco stringendo startedat about crotchet = 76 at first quietly, then going on in musical phrasesand becoming rather `wild', as marked in my copy through 100 and 108 to 120, as in the beginning... There is very much more to speak about, but what I have describedis thoroughly typical of the style in which Brahms both conceived and performed his works.'

a Ibid., 182. 9Ibid., 184. 10 Ibid., 184.

345

This importantinformationshowsa wide variationof tempothat would not havebeen it from the descriptive terminologyalone.For instance, might not havebeen evident that the termpoco stringendo would resultin a variationfrom 76MM to 120 expected MM, now considered extreme.

May, gavea similar impression Brahms'stempo AnotherEnglishpianist,Florence of modification,recollectingthat: by His interpretation Bachwasalwaysunconventional quite unfettered and of the traditionaltheory,andhe certainlydid not share opinion,which hadso many in distinguished that Bach'smusicshouldbe performed a simply flowing adherents, In the movements the suiteshe liked varietyof toneandtouch,aswell asa of style. " certainelasticityof tempo. is Henschel, And furthercorroboration foundin Brahms'sresponse George to who Op. the metronome markingsin the Requiem 45 wereto be strictly enquiredwhether that `theso-called`elastic'tempois moreover a new to. Brahmsadvised not adhered discrezione'shouldbe added this asto manyotherthings. 12 ' invention.`Con to

Thesewritten references point to the fact that tempoflexibility wasan indispensable `Brahmsian'style.However,the boundaries within which this flexibility existed aspectof do relativelyunclear;the references not conveyhow muchor how little remain This is alsotrue of anothersignificantsource of tempois appropriate. modification Brahmshimself.Thetextual annotations the violinist and with closelyconnected of Fritz Steinbach, of the MeiningenOrchestra, conductor provideinvaluableinformation
about the places in his orchestral works where Brahms welcomed tempo modification. 1May, TheLife of Johannes Brahms,16. Z `PlayingBrahms', 16. Pascall,

346

Max Kalbeck,attests absolute Brahms'sfriend andbiographer, his of approval Steinbach's interpretations. Steinbach's pupil, WalterBlume,published description of a
these annotations in Brahms in der Meininger Tradition: seine Sinfonien und Haydn Variationen in der Bezeichnungvon Fritz Steinbach (Stuttgart, 1933). During the Finale of the Symphony No. 3 Op. 90, Steinbachinstructed the orchestrato plays as follows: At H the strings play on the bridge until the forte entry on page 101 and following. In having already arrived at fortissimo before K, we crescendofurther one bar spite of before K in all instruments up to the climax... At the triplet episodebeginning on page 123 one calms the tempo down. The semiquaver-figuresin the strings at 0 on page 125 are played so that one dwells somewhaton the first semiquaver,quasi tenuto.13 Such description, however, does not preservethe extent of the variation in tempo caused by agogic and larger-scaletempo nuances.Other referencespurporting to preserve Brahmsian practices, suffer from a similar lack of precision. Reminiscing about his performance with Joachim and Rdel in Berlin in 1902, Donald Francis Tovey recounts that in the first movement of Brahms's SonataOp. 108:

FromJoachimI learntthat at the firstforte Brahmsmadea decidedanimatowhich he impliesthat the tempoof the might aswell havemarkedin the score;this, of course, be broad,though,of course,flowing.'4 outsetmust from Brahms'sTrio Op. 40, Tovey states And for the Scherzo that: In the quiet B major passage wherethe violin andhorn pull the themeout by holding everythird notefor an extrabar while the pianoforteinterpolates pianissimo customhaslong arisenof taking a slowertempo.This I cantestify, from arpeggios, a the aboveexperience be a mistake.Thoughthis way of `augmenting' theme(here to a devisedfor the first time) became characteristic Brahms'slater style,he hadnot a of yet cometo the point whenhis actionwasso rapid andhis textureso concentrated as " him to slackenhis tempo. to compel
13 Blume,Brahmsin der MeiningerTradition: seineSinfonien W. in und Haydn- Variationen der (Stuttgart,1933);trans.Pascall, Bezeichnung Fritz Steinbach `PlayingBrahms', 16. von
14D. F. Tovey, `Brahms's Chamber Music', Essaysand Lectures Music, on ed. H. J. Foss (London, 1949), 264.

is Ibid., 249.

347

The written evidence above strongly supportsthe use of tempo modification in Brahms's However, only a vagueand inconclusive impression of the featuresand the music. frequency of its employment can be gained.

Brahms's use of tempo modification as an expressivedevice in the extract from his Hungarian Dance No. 1 has been discussedby Will Crutchfield in `Brahms,by Those Who Knew Him' (1986), as well as in `Brahms at the Piano; an Analysis of Data from the Brahms Cylinder' (1994), co-authoredby JonathanBerger and CharlesNichols (CD 4/24,25,26,27,28, 29).16 The scientific analysis by Berger and Nichols shows that and

in order to delineate the structure of the composition, Brahms deliberately broadenedthe tempo during certain bars. By measuringthe time lapse between the successivefirst beats for most bars between bars 13 and 71 they explain that the graph in Figure 5.15: shows much longer durations for measures30,56,64 and 68, and much shorter durations for measures31 and 55. The elongation of measure30 occurs at the end of a six-bar phrase.The previous measure,29, is also lengthened,suggestinga ritardando at the end of a phrase.Measures56,64 and 68 are all at the end of four-bar phrases, and are also probably due to rubato or ritardando. The shorter durations, measures31 55, immediately follow or precedea lengthenedmeasure,suggestinga musical and for time gained or lost. '7 compensation

16Various versions of the recording as de-noisedby Berger and Nicols. The final version incorporatesa synthesisedoverlay of melody notes that can clearly be distinguished from the background noise.

17 BergerandNichols,`Brahms the Piano', 29. at

348

Fig. 5.15

Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, most bars between 13 and 71, time lapse between successive first beats, calculated and graphed by Berger and Nicols. 1A

1.20 1.OO

'-[V .. r I1 N CV N (Ij (":. J! iM f7ir. (") C') 9 It "1 V"t .. Iui)j . 11l tli t)3) t>. i.... li f-)-

Measures

The graph above clearly showsthe elongation of bars such as 30,56 and 68 that are Thesebars either form the end of a phraseor contain the structurally significant.
Hungarian dance rhythm (Figs. 5.16 and 5.17). characteristically emphatic

18Ibid., 29.

349 Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 29 and 30. "

Fig. 5.16

Fig. 5.17

Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 66 to 68.20

f
, 1. At .
t- 41 .--. t-9

id

W-----

-#

Furthermore, Berger and Nichols evaluate Brahms's tempo modifications by measuring the time lapse between the secondbeatsof various bars (Fig. 5.18), and plotting concluding that: Two outstanding second-beatIOIs (inter-onset intervals), in measures29 and 71, during arpeggiation in the penultimate measureof the phrase.The other longer occur beat 101, in measure60, is at the end of a 12-barphrase.Both casesare easily second interpreted as musically motivated elongation.'`1
1 Brahms, Ungarische TnzeNo. 1,1. `'
2" Ibid., 3.

21Berger and Nichols, `Brahms at the Piano,' 29-30.

350

Fig. 5.18

Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, severalbars between25 and 71, time lapse between successive secondbeats,calculated and graphedby Berger Nicols. 22 and

1.60 1.40 1.20 tn 1.00

o0.8

0.2( 0.00
ll Jl V. '. C"C1'711'. : III ii4l IJf)lir u)U)4l((47 Ll. U14. ]l. L -.., u.

Measures

The Berger and Nichols graphsclearly show that some bars are much longer than others. They also portray a continual variation of tempo uncharacteristicof the late-twentiethcentury style of piano playing.

In his less scientific but no less valuable analysis, Will Crutchfield describesthe extent of tempo variation during particular sections.According to Crutchfield, Brahms's performance `starts off at a tempo of about half-note = 83, but soon settlesto a basic of approximately 78.'23With referenceto the B section (Figure 5.19), he statesthat: pulse
The syncopations and sixteenth-note runs are of course highly typical of nineteenth"Gypsy music" for piano... so it is of some interest to hear how Brahms plays century them. The syncopations are done very emphatically, with an agogic accent and a loud punch. (This rinfor ando really comes on the syncopated chord; not until the fourth 22Ibid., 29. 23Crutchfield, `Brahms, by Those Who Knew Him', 14.

351

time the syncopation comes around does Brahms put special emphasison the first beat ) The runs are taken at a distinctly increasedtempo, in the high 80s on the as well. this, too, is a dashingeffect, and the best moment in the whole cylinder is metronome; the cadenceat the end of the example shown here, which is tossedoff with a fiery snap, faster yet than the tempo of the runs.
Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 49 to 60.24

Fig. 5.19

.IrF
1 x

:rlrfrr'rra
At At

At"

10

do. to-

All
r,

Though not mentioned by Crutchfield, there is also a noticeable increaseof tempo in bars 69 and 70, followed by a broadening from bar 71 to the end. The above information confirms that Brahms usedtempo modification apparently to enhancethe effect and character of the composition. It is evident, at least in the Hungarian Dunce No. I that the boundaries within which he makes tempo variations, and the frequency with which they are wider than might be acceptableat present. occur,

24Brahms, Ungarische TanzeNo. 1,2.

352 Brahms's playing contradicts the modem concept of an appropriate style for his music. Particularly striking is his flexibility of tempo, which might be seentoday as erratic or chaotic. By comparison, tempo modification now is generally much less obtrusive. It however, that Brahms intended the lengthening of single notes as well as the appears, broadening of particular bars to increasepoignancy and to delineatevarious phrase In addition, he seemedto feel that the speedingup of certain shapesand structures. to their excitement. In conjunction with written texts, the Brahms cylinder phrasesadded that he did practise what he preached,but in a style that could not be fully confirms by the written word. What can safely be extrapolatedfrom this evidence and encapsulated to a genre such as a sonatais food for further investigation. applied

Certain valuable conclusions may also be drawn from the comparison of Tovey's description of tempo modifications in the Scherzofrom Brahms's Trio Op. 40, cited above, with remnants of similar practices preservedin a recording of the work by Adolphe Busch, Aubrey Brain and Rudolf Serkin in 1933 (CD 4/30). In this performance,

dottedminim = 112MM(the the exposition(bars1 to 109)is playedat approximately from bar 49 is very slightly slower).Thereis a ritardandofrom bar 106in subject second
to the B major passage, a new tempo at bar 109 of approximately 104MM. A further reducesthe tempo to 100MM for the passagein ritardando during the solo piano passage (Fig. 5.20). From bar 199, a decided animato eventually re-establishesthe question tempo of 112MM. Similar modifications are made during the repeat of the original Scherzo.By present standards,this degreeof tempo changeis certainly striking and be consideredsomewhat overdone and in bad taste. Would Brahms have been might

353

The in by suchmodifications? written references the evidence his own and perturbed imply stronglythat he would havefully approved would probablyhave and recording expected more.

Fig. 5.20

Brahms's Trio Op. 40, bars 106 to 125, Busch, Brain and Serkin, electrical 1933,with annotationsof tempo modification. 25 recording,

112MM

104MM

III

The playingof Carl Reinecke, who wasnineyearsolder thanBrahms,exhibitssignificant Op. 12No. 2 Warum? tempomodification.In his 1905pianorolls of Schumann's useof in his arrangement the Larghettofrom Mozart's PianoConcerto 537,Reinecke K of and frequenttempomodificationfor the enhancement expression the of employs and
23 Brahms,`Trio Op. 40', Complete Piano Trios,ed.H. Gil (New York, Dover Publications, J. 1988),224.

354

Metronome for boundaries. delineation phrase markingsandcomments both worksare of in the tablesbelow(Figs.5.21and5.22). provided

Fig. 5.21

Schumann Warum?Op. 12 No. 3, sectionsA and B without repeat, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 4/31).

bars 1-4 bars 4-8 bars 8-9 bars 9-10 gar 12 bars 12-17 Bar 17 bars 17-26 bars 19 and 23 bars 23-42

60MM ritardando to between 54 and 56MM for climax accelerandoto 69MM somewhatbroadenedgiving poignancy to the falling melodic figures ritardando as marked by Schumann 60MM 66MM produceseffect of reanimation accelerandoto 80MM significantly increasingthe momentum agogic lengtheningsemphasizingthe rising bassfigures ritardando to 66MM and eventually 60 MM

hereis the wide variationof tempofrom 56MM to 80MM, The mostsignificantaspect work. within a shortsingle-movement

Fig. 5.22

Mozart Larghetto an. by Reinecke, bars 1 to 60, Reinecke, piano roll recording, 1905 (CD 4/32).

bars 1-8

respectively

66MM with slightbroadening approximately at endof eachfour-barphrase bars4 and8 increase approx.72 MM to sudden

bar 9 markedanimato
bar 14

accelerandoto approx 96MM for rising approx. 84MM

tempothensettles to semiquaver passages,

expressivebroadening for falling figure that follows

bar 16

duringrising figure and accelerando

355
bar 17 bar 19 marked un poco slentando bar 32 bar 36 marked as con espressione accelerandoduring embellishedrising fig tempo reducedto 66MM tempo reducedto 60MM to enhancethe effect of the interrupted cadence startsat approx. 60MM with slight accelerandofor the rising arpeggioat the end of bar 38 and again at the end of bar 43 the climax

bar 44 bar 46
bar 48 bar 50 bar 52 bar 53

the accelerando enhancing rich harmonies of 72MM

66MM with ritardando to end of bar 49 60MM for the etherealsection broadeningto between52 and 54MM for
poignant material

bar 60

suddenincreaseof tempo to 72MM followed by increaseto 80 MM for restlesstriplet section return to 72MM followed by sudden leading to the cadenzaat bar 62 similar tempo modifications

throughtheascending accelerando scale

recapitulation

for The metronome performance the Larghettoshowfrequent readings Reinecke's of

within wide limits ranging from crotchet = 54MM to 96MM. On first listening, variation

someof his modificationshavethe auraleffect of lurchinganderraticsurging.Certain haveto do with the roll reproduction, that aside,the close but fleetingnuances may the correlationbetween modificationsandthe expression gainedby the individual leavesno doubtthat they are,in the main,a faithful reflectionof Reinecke's characters, performance.

in Comparison the evidence Reinecke'srecordings of with his written advicebringsto inconsistencies. a letter of July 1895,he discusses useof In the fore several apparent the tempomodification.The impression the readernow is that subtletempo to unnotated while anythingthat wastoo noticeable wereacceptable, changes shouldbe avoided. Regarding Variationsfrom Beethoven's Sonata 26 he says: the Op.

356
That, for all that, I do not mean this movement to be played according to the vibrations of the pendulum, scarcelyneedsmention. Every intelligent player will let a slight here and there, and a not quite immediate succession the fourth of modification enter to the fifth variation will meet everyone's feeling. On this account I specially warned only against "perceptible" changesof tempo and "perceptible" pauses,of which one
design... 26 perceives the

he Elsewhere, remarks that:

If I recollect alright, I have already mentioned to you once before that a is mathematically uniform tempo throughout an entire Sonata-movement as inconceivable as unlovely. But there is a vast difference between the obtrusive changesof tempo which those masterscondemn, and an imperceptible introduction of faster or slower time, such as every sensitive artist will make a practice of, at the Carl Maria von Weber saysin his preface to "Euryanthe":- "Of the two proper place. the accelerando as well as the ritardando ought never to produce a feeling remaining, jerkiness or forcing, " and that is what I mean... 27 of

`an introductionof fasteror slowertime', By modemstandards, phrase imperceptible the that the strongimpression anychange shouldbe very slight.But Reinecke's own gives be described beingimperceptiblyintroduced. Indeed, they often tempochanges as cannot that to our earsis exaggerated, uncomfortable, abrupt. and producean effect

Reinecke Furthermore changes tempo,`a ritardando,or a avoidsrecommending of or the like' explainingthat: stringendo, Not once,but a hundredtimes,haveI observed directionsof the kind alwayslead that interpreter the sensitive to exaggeration, whilst will introducethosesmall if It might be desirable, nothingat all is prescribed. is, however, modificationswhich betterif the lesstalentedplayerentirelyomits suchnuances thanif he oversteps still 28. the mark.

26Reinecke, The BeethovenPiano Sonatas, 47. 27]bid., 74.

28 Ibid.,65.

357

Elsewhere, berates he thosewho introduce very exaggerated changes tempo,saying of

that:
So long as I have any breath left, I shall not tire of denouncingthe nuisancewhich is evermore gaining ground, of fluctuations of tempo in classical works, even if I were to be stoned for it! Already, nowadays,one no longer listens to a classical symphonyin to enjoy the work, but to observein it what licences this or that conductor order if it is now quite different from how one always heard it, then one hails it admits; and joy and cries, "He understandsit; one doesnot recognisethe work again at all. " with The object is attained, for the conductor has produced an effect; it does not, indeed, dependany more upon the work. And even the better class of critics seemnowadays to have become indifferent to such inartistic runnings after effect, or shrink from them. In the above-namedpamphlet, I mentioned that Beethoven's censuring Ritter Ignaz von Seyfried, related how the former preparedfor the contemporary, Vienna SchuppanzighString Quartet his works of that kind "extremely exactly (haarscharfgenau),as he wanted to have them thus and by no meansotherwise" Thus Beethoven would not hear of any choice on the part of the performers! practised. 29 And that quite rightly!

it Fromthesewritten references, seems Reinecke that that preferred performances were but did not straytoo far from the chosen tempo.He givesthe not entirelystrict impression he dislikedthe exaggerated that tempomodificationof others, overwhelming it to thoughwithout audibleevidence is impossible appreciate what he wascriticizing. frequentand,by today'sstandards, Clearly,however,Reinecke's pianorolls preserve to of tempothat do not appear accordwith his written very perceptiblemodifications advice.

Reinecke be seen contradicthimself, showingclearly that he admitted In any case, to can Beethoven be quite so dogmatic tempomodifications,andalsothat he did not consider to in changes tempo.Referringto a passage the AndanteEspressivo of about of movement Op. Sonata 81,Reinecke Beethoven's saysthat:
29 Ibid., 67.

358

in bars 17 and 33 a certain ritardando cannot be avoided in the tempo,especially in the secondhalf of the bar, if one does not want to do violence to the most natural emotion. Beethoven knew very well that every genuine musician will here do what is necessarywithout directions, and that a direction would drive the majority of players 30 to exaggeration. Here, according to Reinecke,the proliferation of notes required a broadeningof the tempo (Fig. 5.23).

Fig. 5.23

1 Op. 81 Andante Espressivomovement, bar 17.3 Beethoven Sonata

Elsewhere,Reinecke's advice suggests possibility of fulfilling the composer's wishes the though the performer might add certain tempo nuances.Regardingthe first even movement from Beethoven's SonataOp. 110, Reinecke explains that: The Development is an exceedingly short one, and made up of the constant repetition two bars taken from the principal Subject, which are heard in the highest part nine of times in succession.At the ninth, the return of the first part begins simultaneously, this time combined with the above-mentioneddemisemiquaverfigure in the bass.In order to obviate the threateneddanger of monotony, the rendering of just this Development must not only follow the author's directions very faithfully, but ought to be made the most of by a discreet accelerating of the tempo during the first 14 bars, while an

discreet ritardanuo has then, with the entry of the principal Subject, to lead equally into the original tempo. 32 again

;o Ibid., 92. '1 L. van Beethoven, `SonataOp. 81', Sonatasfvr the Pianoforte, ed. C. Halle (London, Chappell & Co., c. 1880), 422. 32Reinecke, The BeethovenPiano Sonatas, 130.

359 The apparentinconsistencyhere is obvious. In making even discreet modifications, how the player faithfully have followed the author's directions? In any case,it seemsfrom can Reinecke's playing that the term discreet, for him signified somethingwholly different from a modern understandingof it.

Reinecke's written referencesmake it clear that he consideredtempo modification an

As the following reference in indispensable concerning passage a performingpractice. Sonata 10l shows, Op. the first movement Beethoven's changes tempowereneeded of of to give relief to certainimportantstructures: The fourth bar of this movement requiresspecialattention,in orderthat the following A bar may standout from it satisfactorily. diminuendo an imperceptible and 33 slackening the pacewill servethe purpose. of
A face-value interpretation of the languagehere and in other places points to a very

However,suchdescriptions not do use andunobtrusive of suchtemponuance. subtle in of and as conveythe features frequency suchchanges arepreserved Reinecke's piano Therefore,a performance stylebased his written advicewould clearlyleadto a on rolls. quite different from his own playing style. result

TheodorLeschetizky's K pianoroll of Mozart's Fantasia 475 showsprolific useof tempo (Fig. 5.24).While everysubtlenuance purposes modification for expressive cannotbe described, following tablegivessomeindicationof the mostsignificantmodifications the for particularsections the work. of

33Ibid., 96.

360 Fig. 5.24 Mozart FantasiaK 475, bars 1 to 124, Leschetizky, piano roll recording, 1906 (CD 4/33).

bars 1-5 bars 6-18 bar 19

approximately quaver = 60-63MM suddenaccelerationto quaver = 80MM where there is more activity in the bass accelerandoto quaver = 100-104MM for the repeateddramatic bassfigurations

bar 22
bar 24 bar 25 bars 26-30 including repeat

broadening quaver 72MM for the to sudden = newidea

further broadeningto quaver = 56MM for the

notated calando
slightly faster quaver = 69MM averagetempo of about quaver= 76-80MM, in generalphraseendingsare broadened slower tempo quaver = 66-69MM, with

bars 30-36 including repeat

labouringof the figuresin bar 30 and31;

note that in bar 36 the final poignant figure is

bars 36-55

bars 56-72

in this Allegro section the tempo picks up through bar 36 to about crotchet = 152M; there are agogic lengtheningsparticularly in the rests at bars 44,53 and 54 the tempo is immediately slower for this

playedexaggeratedly slowerat aboutquaver = 46MM

lyrical section aboutcrotchet at = 120-126MM;at bar 62 thetemporecedes for

the presentationof the theme in the minor to crotchet = 112MM; after this there is a very noticeable accelerandothrough bars 64 to 68, re-establishingthe tempo of about crotchet = 152MM the prevailing tempo is about crotchet = 52

bars 86-101

bars 102-124

but within this variousfiguresareplayed noticeablyslower,suchasthe falling figures in bars88 and91, andparticularlythe in poignantmelodicsequence bar 99 but thetempocrotchet 52 MM is reasserted =
here again, various poignant melodic figures

suchasat bars 107and 116arebroadened

ve noticeably

361

in figuresfor someof Leschetizky's Althoughpercentage tempomodifications change

Chopin's Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2 are given in Figure 5.4 above,the following analysis by referring to metronome markings (Fig. 5.25). addsclarification

Fig. 5.25

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 45, Leschetizky, piano roll 1906 (CD 4/24). recording,
approximately 72MM; Leschetizkymakes

bars 1-8

secondhalf bars 8,11 and 13 bars 22-25

broadeningto expressivenote on the downbeat of bar 9,12 and 14. broadeningreducing there is an exaggerated

noteand agogiclengthenings thefirst bass of sometimes thebass also noteon the second half of thebar

thetempofrom aboutquaver 72MM to = 63MM andfinally to 48MM for the rising

semiquavermelody at the end of bar 25

bar 26
bars 37-45

the tempo increasesfrom about 72MM in bar 38 to 96MM in bar 42; this matchesand the greatly enhances momentum alreadybuilt into the music

downbeat approximately is doubledin length

bar 45

broadening bar 45, drawing in exaggerated the out andenhancing expressive

chromaticism

figuresaboveconfirm Leschetizky's of tempomodification The metronome use the to enhance expression individual phrases sections to distinguish of and and apparently is While broadening a frequentoccurrence, their boundaries. accelerations less are however,the effect is certainlynoticeable highly frequent.Whenthey do happen, and expressive.

Comparingthe abovemodificationswith Leschetizky's own edition of Chopin's NocturneOp. 27 No.2 revealsa few significantpoints.His broadening duringbar 8

362 his notated cantando (Fig. 5.26). In this case,it is evident that such correspondswith terminology may have implied the use of tempo modification during Leschetizky's era, though it would probably not now be interpreted in this way. Indeed, the a tempo indication in bar 9 implies that the tempo ought to have changed.

Fig. 5.26

34 Op. 27 No. 2, bars 8 to 9, ed. by Leschetizky. Chopin Nocturne

OAT.

a tempo
f9

bars22 and25 doesnot completelyaccord his Furthermore, tempomodificationbetween his notation.In bar 22 he notates poco accelerando he doesnot seem that to a with in his recording,thoughthe following markingsof calando, poco a poco rail. observe he This providesstrongproof that although did observed. andmolto riten. are steadfastly follow his own markings,someof the tempomodificationspreserved this on not always his notatedintention,thereforesupporting mediumas an this with pianoroll correspond bars37 and45, wherea very importantresearch tool. At otherplaces,suchasbetween in increase tempooccurs,Leschetizky givesno indicationotherthanpoco a noticeable

34 Op. 18. Chopin,`Nocturne 27 No. 2', ed.Leschetizky,

363

(Fig. 5.27,CD 4/34).As notedby manywritersduringthe nineteenth poco crescendo implied a corresponding dynamicreferences tempomodification. century,such

Fig. 5.27

35 Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 37 to 42, ed. by Leschetizky.

0-411

i' jai 55 ii

si

resc.

21

L =Pr .

I*-,

Ita

=r_* 00W

tempomodificationan indispensable Without doubt,Leschetizky considered expressive device.Noting a change attitudeby the middle of the twentiethcentury,Merrick, a of in 1958that: former Leschetizky student, reminisced frownedon Changing tempois quite anotheraffair. Nowdaysit is moreseverely the than in my childhood.Leschetizky wassometimes painsto advocate at subtle
" Ibid., 21.

364 in a gradedseries,that enabledone to achieve desired changes vacillations, perhaps as unperceived.I can for once masquerade a moderateman if I submit that about the 1900 there were too many tempo changesand in the 1950sthere are perhaps period of too few. Certainly if there is anyonewho advocatesan inflexible metronomic pace regardlessof other considerations,he may be regardedas an constancyof 36 extremist. Merrick's thoughts are supportedby the time lapse readingspresentedin Figure 5.1 those of Solomon, who made markedly less tempo variation than above, particularly pianists before him.

Leschetizky's teachingandstyledo Indeed,the written textspurportingto preserve indicatethat tempomodificationwasan importantfeatureof performances the era.For of Method(1903),Marie Prentner, of Leschetizky's in TheLeschetizky one example, discusses tempomodificationpractices, teachingassistants, makingit clear and students
that rhythmic stability was above all the chief requisite for artistic piano playing. She that: `a decided "holding back" at the last part of a bar, in order to prevent advises in reaching the first beat of the next, successfully counteractsthe disturbance precipitation in time which the constantly increasing haste,and the senseless scrambling, of some '37 creates. Here, it is not entirely certain which players were being criticized for players Elsewhere, she implies that this was characteristic of the majority `senseless scrambling'. of players, as well as mentioning where tempo modification might be useful:

hurryinginforte andslackening thepiano passages in indulgedin by The conventional of playerslacking a decidedsense rhythm,hasa particularlyamateurish sound;to give one'splayingbreadthandswing,the exactoppositeshouldbe the rule. Thereare

36Merrick, Practising the Piano, 74-75. 37M. Prentner,Die LeschetizkyMethode (London, 1903); trans. as The LeschefizkyMethod (London, 1903), 73.

365
however, exceptional casesin which an accelerandoaccompaniesaff, and a ritenuto a 38 PP. Such advice had historical precedents.Crelle statesin 1823 that although `an exact and strictly measuredtempo is an essentialaspectof music' certain changesare appropriate. He saysthat, among these,all `strengthened'notes should not hurry and that `as a rule, the beginning of a musical unit commencespowerfully and importantly, the middle carries on in in a measuredand regular manner and the end increasesin speedand decreases power.'39

disapproved the apparently Prentnergivesthe impression Leschetizky that customary of by expression way of combiningaccelerando and methodof conveying with crescendo diminuendo. And althoughsheencourages combination the of ritardandowith she accelerando with fortissimoandritenutowith pianissimo, fails to elucidatethe Also uncertainis whetherthis typeof requiringsuchtreatment. circumstances exceptional tempomodificationwasmadeleadingup to the dynamicextremes simply while these or describe boundaries the werein effect.Nor do her brief comments extremes within which in the modificationswereconsidered goodtaste.

Prettierimpliesthat Leschetizky Furthermore, tempomodification would havesupported long asit wasintroducedandquittedinconspicuously: as An accelerando a ritenutooccurringin oneor several barsmustbe broughtbackto or time in so artistic a mannerthat neitherthe onenor the otheris in any way
38 Ibid., 73, 39 L. Crelle,Einigesbermusikalischen Ausdruckund Vortrag(Berlin, 1823),61; cited in A. Brown, PerformingPractice,386.

366

demand Like notes,pauses equalcareandconsideration, areto be conspicuous. and 40 full value. giventheir
Confirmation and certain clarification of some of Prentner's views may be found in the documentation of another Leschetizky disciple, Malwine Bree. She provided more Leschetizky's style in The Groundwork of the LeschetizkyMethod (1902). evidence of

Brie is clearthat Leschetizky of approved tempomodification,makingthe analogythat

`as variety is the spice of life, charm of style, in like manner, flows from continual

in in the tempo,from contrasts the movement. Shealsocategorically '41 that changes states 42 is playedfrom startto finish in the sametempo. In addition,Brie gives no composition tempomodifications be made that to the impression Leschetizky would haveexpected 43 inconspicuously:
The changesin tempo must be so delicately graded that the hearer notices neither their beginning nor their end; otherwise the performance would sound "choppy". Thus, in a calculate the gradual diminution of speedexactly, so that the end may not ritardando, drag; and conversely in an accelerando, that one may not get going altogether too fast. In a ritenuto, moreover, many play the final tone a trifle faster, which abbreviatesthe and gives the hearera feeling of disappointment. Where an a tempo follows, it ritenuto be taken too literally at the very outset, but the former tempo should quite often not be led up to gradually; - beginning the reprise of the theme like an should improvisation, for instance.Thus, in the course of one or two measures,one would regain the original tempo; e.g.,
Pderawki,L ends.

tl

Tempor'..,.
I'J" Fa

ums'

40Prentner, The LeschetizkyMethod, 73. 41Brie, The Groundwork, 69. 42Ibid., 69. 43Ibid., 69.

367

it, However,wherethe character the composition of requires beginthea tempo immediatelyat the originalpace...
TempoL

doesnot clearly indicatewhat degree dragging Thoughuseful,this description or of

hastening was appropriate. It was simply meant to give an overall impression. Interpreting the languageof Bree and Prentner with a present-daymeaning, the impression is that tempo modification would occur so gradually that the hearerwould not the change.Their advice doesnot convey to the modern readerwhat can be perceive heard in Leschetizky's piano rolls. His tempo modifications are not always inconspicuous, in many instancesthe rate of ritardando, accelerandoor the time lapsethat occurs in and lengthening individual notes or eventsdoes not seem subtle or unnoticeable, though for a

from aroundthe turn of the twentiethcentury,they mayhaveappeared so. musician

how tempomodificationwasessential highlighting describe for Both BreeandPrentner Here,however, so often,verbal the particularcharacteristics dancemovements. of as descriptionleavesthe degree tempovariationopento conjecture. Breeadvises 44 that: of An abbreviation the first beatafter striking it is permittedin waltz rhythm,for of by instance, accenting basstone in the accompaniment rapidly carryingit over the and beat;the resulting- howeverslight - abbreviation the first beatmay to the second of herebe madegoodby throwingthe wrist upward;thenstrike the third beatsomewhat lightly, staccato,andin exacttime. By the wrist-movement givesthe more one "swing;" but guardagainstoverdoingit, otherwise rhythmiceffect the accompaniment becomes trivial.
44 Ibid., 70-1.

368

i.

rv., w; T: avgmg

In the 3-4 time of the Mazurka, the accent falls now on the first, now on the second, the third beat; e.g., and again on
Chopin, op. 7.

crest a

",:,

' Lrsrhrtizky, Mazurka.

Lestherizky

Mazurka.

2'

In a Polonaise-accompaniment, the otherhand,the basstonemustbe accented on and the then followed by a minuteretardation, lossof time beingmadegoodin the next The second third beatsareplayedin normaltime; e.g., two sixteenth and notes.
; ^ ;,r

"""'

Rrnam, nax

Prentnerstates that:
the various dancerhythms must also be considered;the waltz, polonaise, mazurka, ... gavotte, menuet, etc. The pianist should thoroughly investigate for himself their peculiarities, rendering them with the utmost exactness,retaining, if possible, the the period of time to which they belong.45 characteristics of race and

45Prentner, LeschetizkyMethod, The 73.

369

Her doesnot makethis point Whatwould Brie haveconsidered overdone? description Was And what did Prentner meanby `utmostexactness'? shereferringto a literal clear.
the composer's text? It seems,on the contrary, that a literal interpretation rendition of tempo nuance would not produce the individual peculiarities of the dances. without

Indeed,confirmationthat Leschetizky requiredthe variousnationaldance characteristics by to be clearly delineated the useof tempomodificationis found in the memoirsof Merrick, who notedthat:
On another occasion in 1899,I had played a Tarantella, one of Leschetizky's own he complained bitterly afterwards that it wasn't in the compositions, at a party and degreeItalian. As I was only thirteen it was hardly surprising that I had no slightest idea of what `being Italian' was. He was very consciousof nationality and usedto talk the slight rhythmical falsification with which a Polonaiseshould be played. He about that all the German pianists, except d'Albert, played their Polonaise said too strictly in time, whereasthey need a characteristic rubato for accompaniments (a quaver followed by two semiquavers).Of course, once you start repeatedchords the rhythm about it's very difficult not to go too far and do it bar after bar until pulling But Leschetizky was very critical of this also.46 it becomesan irritating mannerism.

That factor wasobviouslytoo difficult to describe How far wastoo far for Leschetizky? in words.

The aboveverbalreferences the impression Leschetizky that give mademodificationsin waysthat would not disturbthe flow of the music.To a listener andgraduated very subtle do however,Leschetizky's tempomodificationpractices sometimes appear as now, but not with the degree subtletythat the written references imply. At other of graduated, One times,they soundscrambled hurriedwith sudden feverishchanges. could not or and from the written references haveappreciated, alone,manyof the features tempo of in that are preserved Leschetizky's pianorolls. modification
46Merrick, `Memories Leschetizky',13. of

370 Another of the oldest generationto record, Edvard Grieg, demonstratedsome striking tempo modification. Written accountsof Grieg give the generalimpression examplesof that he was a refined musician and neat player who did not indulge in exaggerated expression,but who investedthe music with peculiar and idiosyncratic charm. The Times (London, May 1888) statesthat: Mr. Grieg played his own concerto in A minor after his own manner. The French de composileur; in the same sensethere is a composer's touch on the speakof a voix piano, which, when applied to the composer's own works, gives them a peculiar 4 charm of their own...

In the samemonth, TheMusical Times providesa slightly moredetailedreport: Nothing could be moreneat,clear,andintelligentthanhis rendering the solo...The of little piecesstyled`ElegiacMelodies' acquired significance a underhis directionsuch and previously, the performance triumph of delicacyand ashadnot beensuspected -a 4 desire. left absolutely nothingto refinementin And commenting uponGrieg'sperformance New York, theMusical Courier notesin January1897that:
What enhancedthe charm of his playing was that he wisely chosethose compositions for his programme which are well-known favourites, most of them from the `Lyrische Stcke,' Vol. III.; `In der Heimat'; `Schmetterling'; `Einsamer Wanderer' &c. All of these he played with the utmost delicacy and a rare sympathy of touch of softer, finer quality than has ever beenmy good fortune to hear. In contrast to this was the

in which he broughtout all that was`characteristic' each in remarkablystrongmanner knowssomuchbetterthan anyotherhandhow that which only the composer sectionbestto do. I noticedespecially easyclearness his left-handwork, particularlyin the of I haveneverheardanyone,for instance, in melody. play the left-handresponse the `Erotik' ashe did. It gavethe whole piecea character which it hadneverassumed 49 before.

47Cited in H.T. Finck,Grieg and His Music (New York andLondon, 1910),100. 48Ibid., 100-101. 49Ibid., 109-110.

371

is Elsewhere, impression thatGrieg'splayingwasenchantingly tenderandelegant, the individual.He did not fall preyto the excesses othervirtuosi that yet completely
apparently readily admitted-50

impression Griegasa While the abovewritten references a very favourable give of to they arenot detailedenough conveythe auralresultsof his performingmusician, his How did he imbuesignificance What distinguished peculiarcharm? musicianship. How neat,delicateandelegantdid his performances into his performance? soundby In what way did he stronglybring out the characteristics individual of modemstandards? sections?

Grieg's 1903 recordings show that his playing does, to some extent, accord with the descriptions. In particular, he used dislocation and arpeggiation far less frequently above than many other pianists of his generation.In this sense,his playing does sound neater It is evident, however, that the above descriptions do not and more synchronized. particular significant elements.In some of the works, Grieg employs tempo encapsulate freely, adding many more than appear in his notation. modification quite

A goodexampleof this canbe heardat the beginningof the `Alla Menuetto' from his Op. between PianoSonata 7, wherethe tempodramaticallyaccelerates bars I and8 (Fig. 5.28).Bar I commences approximately crotchet= 76MM. By bar 3 the tempohas at increased about84MM, bar 5 to 92MM, andby bar 8 to about 112MM (CD 4/35). to Grieg slightly prolongsthe last beatof bar 8 andproceeds with the repeatof the themeat
soIbid., 110.

372 96MM. This very dramatic and unexpectedincreaseof tempo matchesand approximately

by from pianoto fortissimo. the enhances build-up of tensionaccompanied the crescendo

It would, however, never have beenexpectedor extrapolated from the musical text alone, especially from the title `Alla Menuetto', which now suggestsa graceful and measured

dance.That Griegparticularlyintended effect is confirmedby the fact that wherethe this

is repeatedat bar 72, he makes a very similar accelerando. passage

Fig. 5.28

Op. Grieg Sonata 7 Alla Menuetto,bars1 to 14,Grieg,acoustic recording, 1903.

ION QMM. ALI M uuctto.anal p'copi lento

92MM
Y

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112 MM

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".,

'jai~"-rF

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Grieg's recordingof ToSpringOp. 43 No. 6 providesanotherexampleof his useof `Allegro appassionata' by tempomodification.Here,the designated markingis achieved fairly sudden exaggerated The first sectioncommences and temponuancing. and at
an averagetempo of approximately dotted minim = 112MM. Between bars 11 maintains

ritardando/accelerando the and 14,therearetwo noticeable patterns enhancing poignant bassarpeggiated chords(Fig. 5.29,CD 4/36).At bar 15the indicated`rr`t.molt' is

373 achieved less by a real tempo modification than by accentuationof the repeatedright hand chords. Between bars 16 and 18, there is what can only be describedas a frantic curiously, the notation indicates a tempo (Fig. 5.29). At this point, the accelerandowhere, But tempo increasesto about 126MM, giving the feeling of anxious restlessness. perhaps the most significant variation of tempo is evident in the section between bars 23 and 44 (Fig. 5.30). The music comes almost to a halt at the end of bar 22, after which there is an to approximately 108MM in the middle of bar 25, followed by a slight accelerando

in The following four-barphrase to accelerates a similar manner ritardando. 120MM.By bar 33, the tempohasincreased 132MM.Thus,the rateof to approximately 108MMto 132MMmight not, the variationfrom approximately and accelerando havebeendeduced from Grieg's indication`stretto to modernstandards, poco according bars37 and44, Griegvery in bar 27. Finally, in the sectionbetween apoco' the eachbar by extending notatedcrotchetreststo dottedminim elongates exaggeratedly rests.The resultingagitatedeffect could neverhavebeenappreciated without Grieg's from his notation. recording,or extrapolated

374

Fig. 5.29

Grieg ToSpringOp.43 No. 6, bars 10to 18,Grieg,acoustic recording, 1903.

10

12 MM;:- 9-, 6
A Ji' $; v f IF # tt- (

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375

Fig. 5.30

Grieg ToSpringOp.43 No. 6, bars23 to 44, Grieg,acoustic recording, 1903.

108 Mb(
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376 Op. 71 No. 7, Grieg modifies In the lyrical `Tempo di Valse' movementRemembrances the internal waltz rhythm so that, instead of three equal crotchet beats,there is a slightly longer first beat, a slightly shortenedsecondbeat and a regular third beat (CD 4/37). This is unlike the Viennese tradition reflected in Leschetizky's practice. Perhapsmore

however,arethe myriadtempochanges wereseemingly to that employed significant, During the first two phrases, individual phrases. delineate with their characteristic towardsthe minim at the heightof each tune,the tempois slightly increased syncopated half of the third phrase, is reduced towardsthe end.During the second phrase and identicalmaterialto the first half, the tempoincreases significantly very containing broadened in a sense rushing.As if to compensate, tempois subsequently the of resulting bar the stipulated`pocorit' comesinto actionin the penultimate noticeably,andsuddenly harmonypreceding the the section(bar 23). The effect is an emphasis the dissonant of of the occurscontinuallythroughout restof the movement. of the section.This process close Notably,eachnew dynamicmarkingis subtlyvariedin temposo that, for example, tendsto pushforward. tendsto be very slightly slower,while crescendo pianissimo by broadening However,the `cres.molto' at bar 45 is accompanied a very noticeable of the tempo.In generalthe tempomodificationsusedhereare subtlerthanin otherworks, because the simplicity andwaltz-like character the movement. of of perhaps

Op. In the very abridgedversionof the `Finale' to his PianoSonata 7, Griegappears to haveusedtempomodificationsolelyto delineatelarge-scale Thus,the bar structures. During each slightly beforethe tempois resumed, a new sectionis broadened preceding from bars82 to 85 and 86 to 89, thereis significanthastening towardsthe of the phrases

377 point of climax, enhancingthe senseof urgency already inherent in the harmonic figurations (CD 4/38). Tempo modification can particularly be heard in progressionsand the final thundering section of the movement from bars 313 to 334 (Fig. 5.31). Here, for the 'fffsempre grandioso' the prevailing tempo is broadenedfrom approximately dotted crotchet =116MM to 96MM and even more towards the final `Presto'. The only indication of a tempo changenotated by Grieg is the `ritard. ' at bar 333 which hardly conveys such an extreme tempo modification. At the `Presto' (bar 334), Grieg setsoff at a tempo of approximately dotted crotchet =120MM.

378 Fig. 5.31 Grieg SonataOp. 7 Finale, bars 299 to 343, Grieg, acoustic recording, 1903 (CD 4/39).

, 99

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11462

379 In other works such as Gangar Op. 54 No. 2, WeddingDay at Troldhaugen Op. 65 No. 6 and Bridal Procession Op. 19 No. 2, Grieg usesless tempo modification, adheringmore to his notation. It seemsthat he regardedtheseworks as requiring less variation, closely perhapsbecauseof their simple character.

in Grieg'suseof tempomodification? Broadening the Is therea discernable of pattern between to to be usedprimarily to delineate temposeems sections to effect a closure and dramatic bothapparently Broadening hastening to enhance were and used a composition. increases in an increase dynamiclevel. Hastening also effect, particularlyaccompanying the excitement the music,giving a precipitous tumblingeffect to the overall or of Hastening towardsa phrase climax andbroadening afterwards givesa character. Prolongation certainnotesandrestsproduces marked to of a shape the phrase. particular bringing thesenotesinto the foreground the texture. of emphasis,

The manner in which Grieg modifies tempo contrastsstrongly with present-daypractice. Moreover, comparison between Grieg's recordings and descriptions of his playing show that the written texts did not successfullypreserveor convey very important and intrinsic of his playing and are therefore limited in their value as performing practice elements tools. A Grieg-style performance basedon the written evidence alone would undoubtedly differ markedly from the style preservedin his recordings.

Certainrecordings RaoulPugnoafford direct comparison of with his verbaladvice.In Leslecons(1910),Pugnoprovidedperformance for annotations severalof Chopin's

380

includingsomethat he recorded. Looking,for example, his thoughts pianopieces, on at Chopin'sNocturneOp. 15No. 2, it is evidentthat he practised someof whathe preached.
However there are many significant features which are not mentioned and some which different from what might be expectedfrom a face-value interpretation of the sound quite (CD 4/40). In his opening statement,Pugno gives the impression that the written word

temposhouldremainfairly constant, certainlywithout agitation,explainingthat: and

All the first part is inIa mood of peacefulnessand resignation. It should be played with absolute tranquility.

Indeed, the first four bars in his performance remain at a constant tempo and achieve these effects. However, there is a considerablehurrying through the four semiquaversat the beginning of bar 5 (Fig. 5.32) and a compensatoryslowing towards the end, in such a that the overall length of the bar remains practically unaltered. This occurs in manner spite of his warning to: Never curtail these demisemiquavers[sic] [semiquavers],nor the fourth quaver in any bars. These two remarks apply to the whole piece.52

31Ibid., 66. 52Ibid., 66.

381 Fig. 5.32 53 Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bar 5, ed. by Pugno.

---..

Wpp,

but Thereis thereforea definite disturbance the original atmosphere not asmuchas of of at bar 11.Here,Pugnowasquite specificaboutthe manner playingthe graceoccurs figure in the right hand:54 note 8. Playthis figure with preciselythe division indicatedby the lines.To obtainall the fluidity essential its rendering, to play it smoothlywithout shading, with a slight and retardonly on the four or five concludingnotes.Prolongthe fourth quaverin the bass so asto let the right handplay the last twelve notesof the bar without hurry.
$t! 1_$4$, t! i$4-$4$1, x'it 44A. 54t$24

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Apart from the lengthening the fourth quaver,Pugno'sdescriptionandnotationgives of figure is to be altered.In reality, however, indicationthat the left-handaccompaniment no
33Ibid., 67. 54Ibid., 67.

382 he makes quite a dramatic alteration to the tempo. The first three quaversin the left hand the fourth quaver is lengthenedto make up the time are played almost as semiquaversand bar. The effect is a sudden,dramatic and unprepared mossofollowed by a pi of the An approximate notation of this is cited below (Fig. 5.33). Certainly, ritardando. have momentarily disappeared. `peacefulness and resignation'

Fig. 5.33

Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 10 and 11, Pugno, acoustic recording, 1905.

This indulgence in tempo modification is carried to an extreme in bars13 and 14, where the tempo is practically doubled without regard for compensationof the time gained. Here, Pugno advisesthe player to `develop the tone colour and warmth of thesetwo bars.'55

in increase tempoenhances poco crescendo the confora the Thoughthe sudden and In indication,it hasan effect entirelydifferent from that of a moderninterpretation. it is hardto seehow suchan effect could everhavebeenassociated with the addition, development tone colourandwarmth,which suggests something of moreakin to

55 Ibid., 67.

383 dynamic shading. In the return of the calm opening section, Pugno makesa very similar during bars 52 and 53, confirming that this was indeed an intended effect. acceleration leading to the This exaggeratedhasteningis heard as a reinforcement of the passage marking conforza.

Another curious practice in Pugno's performance is the elongation of trills. At bar 7 he instructs the player that the shakeshould (apparently for expressivereasons)be `rather long, and shadedthus: >'56 (Fig. 5.34). However his description gives no clues as to the time lapse involved. In reality, here and in other similar places,Pugno lengthenstrills by to an extent that, in the light of current practice, would hardly be a significant amount and In this place, the lengthening of the trill effectively addsa whole beat to the bar expected. five quaver beatsinstead of four. Furthermore, at bar 15, Pugno statesthat the making first'. 57On this occasion, he makes an extraordinary should be `prolonged as at shake lengthening that includes not only the trill but also the end of the bar forming the close of

the the first part of the A section.This prolongation seven extends bar to approximately beats;the trill andits terminationhavethreequaverbeats,andthe following quaver into The A-G is elongated a dottedquaverandsemiquaver melodicpattern respectively. in the tempomodificationis simply not conveyed Pugno'sverbaldescription. extentof

56 Ibid., 67. 57 Ibid., 68.

384

Fig. 5.34

58 ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bar 7, ed.by Pugno.

indicatedby In the following section,Pugno'sinstructions contradictthe nuances be Chopin,but in a mannerthat couldscarcely predictedfrom his own verbaladvice(Fig. 5.35).At the upbeatto bar 17,he states the playingshouldbe 'Clearerhere,but that duringbar 17he advises `thetwo first Es very much and expressive' unchangingly Keepthe third E (the crotchetin the following bar) waiting a little, andplay it stressed. very softly.'59

saIbid., 68. 59Ibid., 68.

385

Fig. 5.35
as

6 ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars15to 24, ed.by Pugno.

X00TURNE.
QQI

sU

ecJ ! i.

aEe

c5

chi Una CCrda. .

The shake prolonged as at first. waiting x

18. The two first Be very much stressed. Keep the third E (the crotchet in the following bar little, and play it -very softly. 14, The flourish in graceotes, after the chord in the left hand.

12. Clearer here, but unchangingly expressive.

x7

oco riten,

crest

41.

0 15, The eaxie remark.

'i`l .. rs`.

% X k

JtYing,

ns.

"0'

ei.

te-b.

e41b. 00

Pugnoslightly increases tempoat bar 17,imbuingthe phrase forward the with At momentum. facevalue,his instructionimplies that the two melodynotesE shouldbe in by the emphasized accented someway.In fact, he givesthememphasis broadening or decrescendo the third E, which is tempoconsiderably makinga corresponding to and dynamicallythe softest.After this, the overall tempois increased, the grace-note but are ritardandifor eachsuccessive roulades playedwith expressive phrase until bar 22, at
60Ibid., 68.

386

the sense conforza is clearly felt. Again,noneof these of of which point vital aspects directly from his written comments Pugno'sperformance couldhavebeenextrapolated or
notation.

Several other examples serveto demonstratethe ambiguity of Pugno's written texts. At bar 22, Pugno suggests`a passionaterubato movement'61,giving the impression to the

tempomodificationoughtto takeplace.This is that somevery noticeable modernreader duringbar 21, the increase passion Althoughthereis a slight accelerando the case. of not by Thesealterations also is effectivelycreated introducingmetricalrubatoalterations. are in bar 22, wherePugnoplayswith a fuller soundandslightly broadens tempo. the made

In the second the of the work marked`Doppiomovimento'Pugnoadvises player section to:

Double the pace. Begin by playing very smoothly the groups of semiquavers.Despite to the half-light, the undulation the imprecision of these first eight bars, it is necessary 6h make the melody stand out.

In his recording,Pugnodoesin fact bring out the melodynotesby accenting them. by However,what is not conveyed his adviceis the accelerando makesfrom the he beginningof the sectionat bar 25 until bar 42 (Fig. 5.36,CD 4/41).Havingcommenced the sectionat approximately crotchet= 80MM (doublethe speed the opening),the of to tempoaccelerates 108MMby the climax of the sectionat bar 39. The only reference Pugnomakesto an increase dramaduringthis sectionis at bar 33, wherehe advises of

61 Ibid.,68.
62Ibid.,68.

387

lastinguntil thefortissimo,which is the culminating thereshouldbe `a greatcrescendo 63 impassioned section. point of this very

Quite obviously, Pugno felt no needto mention the increaseof tempo, perhapsbecause

he took it for granted this wasimplied by the increase passion. that of

Fig. 5.36

64 ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars25 to 41, ed.by Pugno.

a. a

Doppio movimento.

sctto:

L'0e.

...

"" =-. . .

lop,

19 -.Double' the pae.. Begin by playingvery-embotUythe groups-of, eeniigi averr. Despite the halflight, the nndulation, tbeitnprecisiou of thesefirst eight bars, it is necessary to make the melody standout 2O.-. An"intentiofl'onthe A natural. w W1A7

(continued on next page)

63 Ibid.,

69.

"4Ibid., 68.

388

NOCTURNE.

69

21. Hero the rhythm

dNC:arey any! aerteatuateasiitself. More measured, louderardmore

assertive.

92, A great creacmxdo lamtit g until the J riiis$irna, which iy tht)cuttain it ing point or thia very impnmianed passage

: 77
r

cresc.

Oki

40

on

I sce'4o

28. Here begin arlacrasetKdo1astinguntil

t opausepreoed. iagthere-entraace. DunngallW4dc

give the impression of a sob exhaustingitself and dyiug awayinto re ignition.

389

Pugnoemployed In additionto accelerations decelerations, and agogic expressive lengthenings. This is particularlynoticeable the beginningof the work. Here,in at A the tempoof the first full bar,the anacrusis melodynotes, andB, comparison with followedby a demisemiquaver, asa dottedsemiquaver are originally notated like doubledin length,thussounding a dottedquaverfollowedby a approximately Pugnomakes mentionof this practicein his written advice.At the upbeat no semiquaver. Pugnomakesalmostexactlythe to bar 9, which is a decorated versionof the opening, lengthening the melodynoteA. At this point he advises playerto `Spread the out on same the chordvery broadlyfrom the first notein the bassto the A which beginsthe melody '65He doesnot, however, provideanyindicationof the lengthening the melody of again. noteA.
Quite clearly, Pugno's verbal advice doesnot convey many of the important tempo he employed in his recording of Chopin's Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2. The modifications featuresand the frequency with which these modifications occur could not have been deducedfrom his written texts alone. It is clear, however, that thesewere the expressive devices that gave a particular poignancy to his playing.

Like Pugno,the opinionsof the pianistPaderewski tempomodificationare concerning valuablesincethey afford direct comparison particularly with his own recordings. Paderewski's flexibility of textsgive the strongimpression he considered that written tempoan essential of artistic pianoplaying.His descriptions part providejustification for its useaswell asa certaindegree technicaladvice.On the otherhand,several of
6sIbid., 67.

390

between textsandthe recordings; formeroftenlack the detail discrepancies the the arise for a comprehensive appreciation his useof tempomodification. of necessary

For Paderewski,the term tempo rubato signified tempo modification of one sort or

in in In a chapterentitled`TempoRubato'published HenryT. Finck's Success another.

Music and How it is Won (1909), Paderewskinotes that `there are in musical expression

' thingswhich arevagueandconsequently cannotbe defined. He explainsthat certain in his `modern'meaning be givenfreedomand`discretional power', which playersmust 66 Paderewski the is synonymous temporubato. Furthermore, to describe attempts with the tempomodification,denouncing notionof metricalrubatoand means effecting of compensation:
The technical side of Tempo Rubato consists,as is generally admitted, of a more or less important slackening or quickening of the time or rate of movement. Some people, led by laudable principles of equity, while insisting upon the fact of stolen evidently time, pretend that what is stolen ought to be restored.We duly acknowledgethe highly this theory, but we humbly confessthat our ethics do not reach such a moral motives of high level. The making up of what has been lost is natural in the caseof playing with the orchestra,where, for the security of the whole, in spite of fractional alterations of the metric integrity should be rigorously preserved.With soloists it is quite movement, different. The value of notes diminished in one period through an accelerando, cannot be restored in another by a ritardando. What is lost is lost. For any lawlessness always 67 there is, after a certain term - proscription.

is for Here,Paderewski clearin statingthat alterations tempoare necessary musical of for suchchanges not alwayspossiblenor necessary. In are andcompensations expression in to the the latter point, he seems be cavilling against notion mentioned Dree'stext about within a bar. He fails, however,to providefurther detailsashow bestto compensation its the makeuseof tempomodification.Havingstressed importance, characteristics the of
" Paderewski, `Tempo Rubato', 27. 67Ibid., 30-1.

391

havebeenintended And while Paderewski remainunclear. very that might changes aboutthe importance tempomodificationandthe of opinions eloquentlyexpresses its For justification for its use,he doesnot describe intrinsic features. example, associating that it with oratory,he states it:
introducesvariety, infuses life into mechanical execution. It the emphasises expression, lines, blunts the structural angleswithout ruining them, of softensthe sharpness becauseits action is not destructive: it intensifies, subtilizes, idealisesthe rhythm... it It into capriciousness. into languor, crispnessinto elasticity, steadiness converts energy of already possessed the metric and rhythmic accents,a third accent, gives music, 68 individual. emotional,

imply the needfor that variousmusicalexpressions Paderewski Furthermore, attests however, is that exaggeration oneof the resultingevils. It is tempomodification,warning, indicationof what form these frustratingthat in the following extract,he givesno concrete might take: exaggerations In fact, everycomposer, whenusingsuchwordsasexpressivo, moltosentimento, con demands from the exponent, to teneramente, etc., according the term conpassione, Tempo indicated,a certainamountof emotion,andemotionexcludes regularity. but Rubatothenbecomes indispensable appears assistant, with it, unfortunately, an Realknowledge different styles,a culturedmusical dangerof exaggeration. of alsothe of sense vivid rhythmshouldguardthe interpreter against taste,anda well-balanced law.69 freedomis often morepernicious thanthe severityof the Excess of any abuse. that, for Paderewski, Here,it is apparent certainmusicaltermsgavethe playerlicenceto The similarity between andCorri's adviceaboutvarious this tempomodifications. make for implying the useof arpeggiation, example,is obvious.The abuses which of terms havetakenmanyformsbut, without further clarification of their Paderewski may speaks to details,it is impossible appreciate what he meant.As hasalreadybeenshown,the knowledgeof different styles,the culturedmusicaltastes, the sense rhythmwhich and of
68Ibid., 30. 69Ibid., 32.

392

to maybearlittle resemblance thoseof onehundred performances mouldpresent-day yearsago.

Thusfar, it seems Paderewski a staunch that was supporter tempomodificationasan of however, informationseems be contradictory device.Elsewhere, the to and expressive the issueis clouded.Around 1895,Padereswski makesratherstrongremarks aboutthe and of tempomodification,agogicnuance, rubatostatingthat.Their importance abuse hereeventhoughtheyhavealreadybeencited in Chapter 2: further examination warrants Only too manythink that theydisplaya vastdealof feelingif theymakefrequent on ritardandi andlong pauses singlenotes.I would call this over-sentimentalism the abuse rhythm.The only way to avoidthis is to keepstrictly aspossible of simply Nothing is to be gainedby suchaffectationbut distortion to the rhythmandthe tempo. ideas. Underthe sameheadcomes exaggeration the rubato, the the composer's of of deplorablyfrequentin the playingof Chopin.This springsfrom the samemistaken so The notion that it addsfeelingandcharacter. only remedyof the fault is to stick 70 closelyto both rhythmandtempo. is The abovereference usefulin providingsomeideaof the typesof abuses apparently Theseincludeprolific useof retardation of excessive disliked by Paderewski. and however,that manyotherpractices lingeringon particularnotes.It is probable, remained The curefor suchthings,in Paderewski's opinion,wasto maintainthe unmentioned. tempoandrhythmvery strictly. What remainsunclear,however,is the frequency of durationthat Paderewski andthe extentof pause retardation would haveconsidered an Thetext aboveseems put a strictureon the useof tempomodificationthat was to abuse. in the references previouslycited. Here,it is evidentthat the applicationof not conveyed

70 Paderewski, `TheBestWay to Studythe Piano', TheMusical Educator,vol. 2, vii.

393

In the advicein the variousreferences would produce quite divergent results. this case, Most significantly, the textshaveconfused issueandshowa lack of coherence. written boundaries tastefultempo the textsdo not adequately outlinethe acceptable of
They show that Paderewski acceptedand expectedit to be used in some modification. way, without giving a clear understandingof what was intended.

Paderewski's recordings madebetween 1911 and 1930 reveal that he used tempo both more frequently than indicated in the composer'stexts and much more modification than might be extrapolated from his own advice. According to current canonsof good taste, his tempo modifications often seemerratic and exaggerated,giving the impression that his playing was somewhatuncontrolled. However, further listening and analysis the pattern in thesemodifications; they were not simply aberrationsor moments of reveals fancy. Paderewski's tempo modifications occur in severaldifferent ways; often extreme they consist of no more than the lengthening of or lingering over a single note or moment in a phrase; at other times, they consist of a hasteningor slackening of the tempo as a the climax of a phraseor to mark its close; and at others, the subtle meansof emphasizing but noticeable modification of the tempo of an entire passageis used to emphasizeits expressiveeffect.

from Schumann's In his 1912recordingof threemovements Fantasiestcke 12, Op. Paderewski significanttempomodifications.In DesAbendsOp. 12No. 1, makesseveral he maintainsa relatively eventempoof approximately quaver= 60MM. In the first sectionfrom bars I to 16andduring its repeat,he noticeablylingersandtherefore

394

stretches the tempo at particular moments (Fig. 5.37) (CD 4/42). In bar 5 he lengthens the downbeat in order, it seems, to mark the repetition of the musical thought. Lingering affects both the upbeat to and the downbeat of bar 5. During the exposition and its repeat there is particularly noticeable lengthening of the upbeat and downbeat at bar 12, enhancing the expression at the culmination of the phrase. The tempo is immediately resumed at bar 13. To finish the section, Paderewski broadens the tempo very noticeably during bars 15 and 16.

Fig. 5.37

SchumannDes Abends Op. 12 No. 1, bars I to 20."

1')_7R. Mt. (MM. innig zu Sehr

, 1ie1rn. Cora molto $cratir_nculu.

All

Des Abends.
hui r.

F 'euing.

R. Sehnmann,up. t2. ('"$? )

*)P

1-

i 0" . i

' -:.
0 f
0

......,y_ ._.. _--

" R. Schumann,`Des Abends Op. 12 No. 1', ed. C. Schumann,80.

395 During the following section Paderewskiusestempo modification apparentlyto the effect of a poignant inner part in Schumann'stexture. He commencesbar emphasize 17 at a somewhatbrighter tempo of quaver = 60MM+ and, by making a ritardando at the end of bar 20, preparesa slower tempo of about quaver= 54-56MM for the section from bar 21 to bar 24 (Fig. 5.38). A similar pattern of tempo alteration occurs betweenbars 25 and 31 containing similar musical material, showing that Paderewski's tempo carefully planned. Following this, between bars 32 and 35 the tempo modifications were is acceleratedslightly as if to compensatefor the previous broadening. In bar 36 there is a

the tempoandthe link section(bars37 and38) is playedwith a significantretardingof freedomof tempo(CD 4/43).A furthersignificanttempoalterationoccursin certainof the the codasectionfrom bars77 to 88,heightening sentimental nostalgiceffect of and in the music(Fig. 5.39).Here,by makinga noticeable retardation the link passage bar at 76, the tempoof the coda,aboutquaver= 54MM, is well prepared. And within the coda, he makeslittle retardations the suchasat the endof bar 82 andbar 84, heightening expressiveness the section(CD 4/44).Thusit is evidentthat Paderewski of mademany tempomodificationsto Schumann's and unauthorized noticeable original text.

396

Fig. 5.38

SchumannDes AbendsOp. 12 No. 1, bars 14 to 38.72

s'

AP

ow

00

72Ibid., 80.

397

Fig. 5.39

SchumannDes Abends Op. 12 No. 1, bars 74 to 88 72 .

x t"
AIK' Jelin MM 1t FI I}". =ism
40

:;:.

ft ,I

.7

:.

do I1'

io mew

At

\,,O7n1

r
F IC= ARM7-74.116,

Ij

Paderewski's rendition of Schumann'sAufschwung Op. 12 No. 2 (CD 4/45) provides further fascinating examples of his use of tempo modification. Having been so critical of those who made use of `frequent ritardandi', he seemsto fall prey to the sametemptation.
In addition, he uses accelerando very frequently in order, it seems, to enhance the spirit of Keeping in mind that Schumann indicated ritardandi only four times particular passages. at bars 31,70,83, and 137, Paderewski adds approximately thirteen further large-scale

ritardandi and several smaller-scale lingerings, as well as many subtle inflections which almost impossible to notate. In addition, he often extends Schumann's ritardandos, are starting them earlier than notated. This is best exemplified between bars 67 and 70 (Fig. 5.40). Here, while the prevailing tempo associated with the stormy theme hovers at about dotted crotchet = 104MM, he makes several ritardandos. At other moments, ritardandos appear to mark the end of a phrase such as at bars 7,27,38 and similar places.

Sometimes, the ritardandos take an extreme form, bringing the music almost to a Ibid., 81.

3(. )R standstill. Between bars 50 and 52, a ritardando marks the division of one section from that is, it distinguishes between the stormy theme and a quieter, more lyrical another, (Fig. 5.40). Elsewhere, there is a seemingly dual purpose, both marking the end of episode the phrase and making a compensation for a previous acceleration. This is particularly evident between bars 53 and 64, where a pattern of accelerando followed by ritardando twice in succession (Fig. 5.40). occurs

Fig. 5.40

SchumannAufschwung Op. 12 No. 2, bars 49 to 74.74

41 --top.

77

AV

,.. _.

Op

1. If

4Y

lp

Apo

d h

r`

74Ibid., 83.

399

Large-scaletempo modification also appearsto enhancethe expressiveeffect of an entire in Paderewski's performanceof this movement. In general, lyrical episodesare section in a somewhatslower tempo, often with extra expressivelengtheningsat phrase played For example, the episodethat commenceshalfway through bar 16 is played at a climaxes. tempo and the highest points in the phraseare expressivelyprolonged. Elsewhere, slower tempo seemsto help to emphasizean inner voice, an example of which occurs a slower between bars 20 and 24 (Fig. 5.41).

Fig. 5.41

SchumannAufschwung Op. 12 No. 2, bars 18 to 25.75

1:21 111

ter,

$...

^
M

"t

fit.:.......

{`

ly

..

SY

,.

as

No less significant are Paderewski's numerous accelerandos.Sometimesthese act as a transition between sectionsof varying character and tempi. At other moments, The most noticeable of these accelerandoenhancesthe excitement of a particular passage. occur between bars 71 and 82, and bars 105 and 114. During the latter, the tempo varies between approximately dotted crotchet -- 104MM and 120MM; a large variation in tempo
75Ibid., 82.

400

by `modern' standards(Fig. 5.42, CD 4/46). From this evidence, it is abundantlyclear that Paderewskivaried the tempo frequently and widely.

Fig. 5.42

SchumannAufschwungOp. 12 No. 2, bars 100 to 120.76

h ___, _ ... - . _ -^
4z_r..

+--=1 :. # __

1 _ _.....

._...

-..

__.

_. __

"Zi

Lriir1

-`

'

E ,,

q'

It

rx

Paderewski's recording of Schumann's Warum? Op. 12 No. 3 provides other notable his tempo modification (Fig. 5.43) (CD 4/47). Here, there is little doubt that examples of large changesof tempo were usedto shadethe musical character. Paderewski certain 48MM; the tempo, however, is hardly ever constant, and starts at about crotchet = fluctuates in almost every bar. For example, there is a marked broadening towards the high F in bar 3, after which the tempo is further broadened.In bar 7, there is a very towards the highest note of the phrasethat, instead of being accented, suddenacceleration
"' Ibid., 84.

401 is played softly. This is coupled with an unexpecteddecreasein volume, creating an The sametechnique is noticeable for the climax in bar 12, unusually effective poignancy. after which Schumann'snotated ritenuto is observed.The secondsection commencesat 48MM and is followed by a dramatic accelerando,enhancingthe agitated approximately the music. By bar 21, Paderewskihas increasedthe tempo to approximately nature of 69MM and, during bar 26, there is a further increaseto 72MM. This constitutesa divergencefrom the initial tempo. Further impact is achievedby broadening considerable the tempo between bars 27 and 30 to the vicinity of the high 30s MM. Thus, though Schumannnotates a rit. at the end of bar 30, Paderewskicommencesit four bars early. The section from bar 31 to the end is played nostalgically at a tempo approaching38MM, markedly slower than the original tempo. And within this, there are fluctuations, particularly in the middle of bars 35 and 39, where the tempo increasesslightly towards the highest note. Paderewskifinishes the section with a broadeningthat brings the piece to a standstill, in spite of the fact that the repeatedB section is yet to come. almost

402

Fig. 5.43

SchumannWarum?Op. 12 No. 3.77

"ill"11in Poul'Qlloi? T,rtn tiara unr znf t. (1f. 1. _ ;, xl Why?
L 5224

hli

an

A-J

y--

Jt''

'IISl

'__i

AAAa

T1TTJ1

1; IT

4 J64
It il.

-x

tL

77Ibid., 86.

403

The examination a few of Paderewski's that recordings of reveals manytypesof tempo intrinsic to his expressive He pianotechnique. usedtempomodification modificationwere
in a manner that enhances phraseshapesand delineatesmusical structures.Most the

features the frequency his the importantly,the recordings preserve characteristic of and in tempomodificationsthat weresimply not conveyed his verbaladvice.

The hidden meanings in written texts

textsimply that tempomodificationof variousformswas Late-nineteenth-century written

consideredan essentialaspectof any musically satisfying performance; they also

document controversy unauthorized over so-called a changes tempo.ErnstPauer of

in 1877, that expressivemeanssuch as `to hurry or acceleratethe movement advised,

(accelerando stringendo), to lessen decrease movement (ritenutoor the or and or shouldnot be appliedarbitrarily, addingthat: rallentando)', from the heart,andcannotbe reduced mathematical Although feelingemanates to laws of interpretation thereare general which eventhe mostenthusiastic and rules, 78 mustrecognise obey. and person sympathetic he Furthermore, opinedthat subtletywasthe key to successful tempomodification, sayingthat:
The real beauty and effect of the crescendoand decrescendo,the accelerando and consists in their well-defined and carefully-weighed gradations, in their ritenuto,

79Pauer,Pianoforte Playing, 67.

404

decline,in their increasing animation,andalmostimperceptible growthand regulated 79 and returnto calmness quiet.
Here, the significance of verbal expressionssuch as `almost imperceptible' and `carefully-weighed gradations' to pianists of Pauer's era remains unclear. Indeed, it the contrary that what would now be regardedas very noticeable tempo seemson the hallmark of many late-nineteenth-centurypianists. modification was

led Otherlate-nineteenth-century that writerswerecritical of practices apparently to Referringto the lengthening individual noteswithin phrases, of and exaggeration. HugoRiemannwarnsin 1888,that: tempomodifications, capricious
The agogic accentuationof all such angular notes is more dangerous;one must always bear in mind the possibility of emphasisingmelodic angles by a gentle lengthening, but be extremely sparing in the use thereof. As such angles scarcely ever appearsave in the crescendo-partsof phrases,the natural nuance of stringendo on a crescendo is thereby disturbed, and we get the effect of coquetterie, which can indeed be passage but becomesdisagreeableif misusedor abused.But much worse than very charming, coquettish lingering in the crescendo-partof the phraseis the disdainful hurrying over the diminuendo-part, the careless,frivolous rushing over ground attained, conquered. Unhappily pianists and pianistes, who have much technique and little soul but are not a little conceited of their so-called "conception", i. e. their departure from everything enoughby such distortion of nature supply the most incredible conventional, often interpretations.80

It is evidentthat Riemannis heredecryingwell-established For Turk practices. example, hadalreadymentioned lengthening individual notesin the late-eighteenth the of century, sayingthat:
Becauseit is recognizedby everyone,I do not have to provide evidence for the lingering somewhat longer on a very important note than on one less possibility of important... As far as how long a note should be held is concerned, I would like to 79 Ibid., 67.

8oRiemann, Katechismus, 79.

405 the rule that it should at most not be lengthenedmore than half of its value. establish Usually the holding of a note should be only scarcelyperceptible...Holding a note for longer or shorter time dependsalso on the length of the note and its relationship to a the others, for it should be easyenough to understandthat one can linger longer on a 81 quarter note than on a sixteenth. And it is also apparentthat `incredible interpretations' of one sort or anotherhad already infiltrated piano playing earlier in the nineteenth century. In 1805,Louis Adam that certain pianists made it fashionable not to play in time and `to executeall complained like a fantasy,prelude or caprice'. 82In 1828,JohannNepomuk Hummel pieces of music describedthis supposedmalady as a capricious dragging or slackening of the time, introduced at every instant and to satiety.83Furthermore,in 1846, Carl (tempo rubato), Czemy statedthat the strict keeping of time had been 'almost entirely forgotten' and that `arbitrary retardation or quickening of the degreeof movement is now often employed to caricature.'84 even

in half of the nineteenth insistedthat In spiteof this, someauthors the second century tempomodificationwas indispensable, overridinguniformity of tempomust an although In 1861,AdolpheKullak poeticallyremarked that: prevail. For the sakeof exactness mustadd,that the enumeration suchphases life as we of of Czernygivesbut a few examples. canonly in tonescannotbe exhaustive. It mirrored be stated,in sum,that the symbolizingpowerof tonesuggests phases feeling and of permit andrenderdesirable, the onehand,a relaxingin which on actualevents, of rapidity, andon the otheran acceleration the same. But, asthe materialis not free from very considerable sensuous claims,the uniformityof rhythmmustnot, on the be subjected overmuch to the alteration.- Togetherwith all its poeticmeaning, whole, tone materialmustretainits rhythmicplasticity.In general, therefore,uniformity of underpresent mustobtain,andthe nuances consideration measure mustbe employed
81Trk, Klavierschule, 328. 82Adam, Methode, 160. "' Hummel, Art of Playing the Pianoforte, 40. 84Czerny, Supplement,29.

406 somewhatmore sparingly than those previously treated of. But this does not mean that they, in their narrower field, are not a feature essentialto the beauty of musical " expression.

imply that tempomodificationwaswell established vocal and in Otherreferences beginningto dominate during instrumental andwas orchestral performance, performance
the secondhalf of the century. Berating Wagner's influence on the latter, Eduard Hanslick alludes, in 1872,to the apparentexaggerationthat had already engulfed other genres:

his WereWagner'sprinciplesof conducting universallyadopted, tempochanges the doorto intolerablearbitrariness, we shouldsoonbe having and would open from Beethoven'insteadof `by Beethoven', `freelyadapted symphonies with a Tempo different physiognomy undereveryconductor. rubato,that musicalseaof sickness which so afflicts the performances manysingers instrumentalists, and and would sooninfect our orchestras, that would be the endof the last healthyelement 1ife.6 of our musical later,in 1884,Hanslickconfirmedthat metronomic if it But just over a decade strictness, Describinga performance the Meiningen outdated. everreally existed,hadbecome of he for Court Orchestra, showspositiveacceptance the tempomodificationsinspiredby
the direction of Hans von Billow:

Billow conducts orchestra if it werea little bell in his hand.The mostadmirable the as it disciplinehastransformed into an instrument uponwhich he playswith utter freedomandfrom which he produces nuances possible only with a disciplineto which largerorchestras would not ordinarily submit.Sincehe canachievethesenuances it that securely, is understandable he appliesthem at thoseplaceswherethey would to seemappropriate him if he wereplayingthe samepieceon the piano.It would be `liberties', sinceconscientious to unjustto call thesetempochanges adherence the is a primaryand inviablerule with Billow. It is hardto draw the line. Opinion score to will vary according individualtasteandthe character specificpassages. of Metronomicevenness tempohas,in any case,beendisavowed all modem by of 87 conductors.
asKullak, The Aesthetics,281.

86 Hanslick,`RichardWagner'sConcert(1872)',Music Criticisms,106. 87 Hanslick,'The MeiningenCourt Orchestra (1884)', Music Criticisms,234-5.

407

leaves doubtthat, in Hanslick'sview, Blow effectedartistically The abovereference no Thereare,however, here.For tempomodifications. someobviouscontradictions pleasing by instance, what is to be understood the ideathat Billow madecertainunauthorized
tempo changesand yet also conscientiously adheredto the score?Perhapsa latenineteenth-centuryinterpretation of the words `conscientiousadherence'incorporated a degreeof freedom that is not part of the modem understandingof this expression.And, if it was difficult for Hanslick to draw the line, how much more difficult is it to fully he meant, over one hundred years later? appreciatewhat

it have Indeed,from otherwritten evidence, appears Balow mustoccasionally that tempofor eachmovement, within which anymodificationscouldbe requiredan overall introduced. With reference a passage the first movement Beethoven's in to very subtly of in Sonata 81a,an annotation his 1891instructiveedition advises: Op. In general, fundamental tempo,onefundamental one moodshouldbe maintained Only it shouldneverrule with tyrannicalrigidity, but shouldgrantto throughout. its everypsychicaldelicacyof the composition rights;thus,therefore, elastically itself to the variousemotionalsensations, adapting aboutwhich, however,in the last instance, only the "undefinable"educated artistic taste,and,finally, alsothe individual 88 decides. temperament Thoughindefinable,it was,for Billow andhis circle, an educated late-nineteenth-century boundaries tempomodification.If he was tastethat dictatedthe acceptable artistic of have unableto definesuchthings,how canthe subtleties this indispensable of practice in beenpreserved his texts?Thereis someevidence his tempomodificationsmay not that havebeenassubtleashis advicesuggests. concertreview in TheMusical A always Times(1884)implies that he employed themtoo frequentlyandvery noticeably:
88 `Sonatas', Biilow, 45. Beethoven, ed.

408

Bennett'sSonata "The Maid of Orleans"wasassunshine After this bathos,Sterndale following mist andstorm,thoughthe work wasnot improvedby the player's 89 in the rubato-style. and expression an over-indulgence exaggerated herearesignificant;it is probable Billow's verbaladvicegivesan The contradictions that impression the modernreader that is markedlydifferentfrom his actualpractice. to

duringthe late-nineteenth The useof tempomodificationremained controversial century in somecirclesconservatism to appears havereigned.A review in TheMusical and Times(1885)of the pianistMdlle. Kleeburg,is almostpedanticin its insistence on to indicatedtemponuances: adherence
Her programme containedbut one important work, namely Weber's Sonatain A flat, in common with its companionsis not now heard so often as its merits deserve. which Its performance was therefore welcome, although the pianist's reading was open to question. It is necessaryto protest against the growing tendencyto distort the works of except the very highest. Beethoven is safe from such treatment for classical masters, of his music would be deemeda sacrilege, but poor Weber is made to any adornment terribly at the hand of editors and executants.Mdlle. Kleeburg made no suffer important alterations in the text of the A flat sonata,but she indulged in tricks of style, 90 for which no excusecould be pleaded. especially unauthorisedchangesof tempo,

Otherreferences the impression tempomodificationwasindispensable that to give below the the intendedeffect.Concerning passage the letter o in the example at enhance RondoCapricciosoOp. 14,the editor of theInstructive (Fig. 5.44)from Mendelssohn's Edition (1899)advised that: In casethe temposhouldhavebeenexcusably duringthe foregoing o) accelerated bars,the original speed the Prin. Subect of passionate mustbe reasserted abruptlyat 9 trifle moremoderate. this place,- possiblyevena
89 Anon., `Dr. HansVon Biilow's Recital', TheMusical Times(1884),vol. 25,337. 90 Recital', TheMusical Times(1885),vol. 26,402. Anon., 'Mdlle. Kleeburg'sSecond

91Mendelssohn,Rondo Capriccioso Op. 14, Instruktive Ausgabe Klassischer Klavierwerke, ed. P. Goetschius(Stuttgart, Verlag der J.G. Cotta'schen Buchhandlung Nachfolger, 1899), 83.

409

Fig. 5.44

Mendelssohn Rondo Capriccioso Op. 14, bars 97 to 105.92

5( ICU

dtz.

0)

{T

Other late-nineteenth-centurytexts strongly support the use of tempo modification. In

The Training of a Chorus; Some Practical Hints, cited in The Musical Times (1900),

Henry Coward explains: As to what can be done by proper phrasing, one has only to recall the brightening the accelerando with its subsequent effect of rullentundo to the normal tempo of the `I waited for the Lord', from bar 71 to the re-entry of the solo voices; the choral part of exquisite effect of the ritardando andpianissimo at the close of `0 pure in heart' ('Golden Legend'); the imposing dignity of the broadening out of the final of the Prologue and the overpowering majesty of the swell at the 13`h from the end of the bar Epilogue of the samework. Objection may be raised to these effects on the ground that they are not indicated in the score. The answerto this is, Composersat the time of writing do not always realise all the possibilities of their music, and after giving general directions, they leave their works to the tender mercies of the performers, and moreover, it may be assumedthat they reasonablyexpect conductors will `mix brains' with their methods of 9' preparation.

92Ibid., 83. `" H. Coward, The Training of a Chorus; Some Practical Hints', TheMusical Times(1900), vol. 41,450.

410
It is difficult to appreciatewhether this attitude was something new or unusual.Writers the samewords but imagine something completely different. may use almost exactly Certainly, earlier in the nineteenthcentury, Czerny had advocatedtempo modification in of piano playing for the enhancement certain emotional states.Opining that an experiencedplayer would immediately elucidate where these `may be conveniently expressed',he statedthat: Such general emotions or feelings may be: gentle persuasion;a slight degreeof doubt, or wavering hesitation; tender complaining; tranquil assent;transition from a state of excitement to a more tranquil one; refusal on reflection; sighing and grief; whispering taking leave, and innumerable other sentimentsof this sort in such cases,a a secret; ... holding back in the time (calando, smorzando,&c. ) may generally be slight introduced to advantage,since it would be contrary to good senseto employ in such or hurrying onward in the speedof the movement. casesany acceleration

Otherpassages, the contraryindicate:sudden hastyor curious on cheerfulness; incipientanger;fixed andpowerfulresolution;unwilling impatience; interrogations; pride andill temper;timid flight, transitionfrom a stateof tranquilityto one reproach; &c... In suchpassages hurryingonwards acceleration the the of excitement, of and &c.), andin its properplace.94 time is natural(accelerando, stringendo, half of the eighteenth And in the second tempomodification century,Tiirk recommended in to produceapparently that similar effects.He suggests in certainpassages sonatas, concertos, so on, `themoreimportantnotesmust...be playedslowerandlouder,and and the lessimportantnotesmorequickly andsofter', emulatinga goodsingeror orator.He the difficulty of describing with precisionthe practicalapplicationof such admits modifications,explainingthat: is In compositions whosecharacter vehemence, anger,rage,fury, andthe like, the forceful passages be playedwith a somewhat hastened (accelerando) can most in which arerepeated a moreintensifiedmanner motion.Also, certainthoughts be (generallyhigher)that the speed increased someextent.Sometimes, to whengentle by feelingsare interrupted a lively passage, latter canbe playedsomewhat the more
9aCzerny,PianoforteSchool,vol. 3,31-2.

411

A hastening the tempomay alsotakeplacein a passage of wherea vehement rapidly. is unexpectedly be aroused. to effect
in For extraordinarily tender, longing, or melancholy passages, which the emotion, as it were, is concentratedin one point, the effect can be very much intensified by an increasing hesitation (Anhalten, tardando). The tempo is also taken gradually slower for tones before certain fermatasas if their powers were gradually being exhausted. The passages towards the end of a composition (or part of a composition) which are marked diminuendo, diluendo, smorzando,and the like, can also be played in a 95 more lingering manner. somewhat

do Tiirk's, Czerny's,andCoward'sdescriptions not preserve extentto Nevertheless, the their meaning tempowasmodifiedin a way that makes cleartoday. absolutely which

Mathis Lussy'stextson musicalexpression werewidely hailedasoneof the most highly detailedperformingpracticecodificationsof the late-nineteenth century. significant is His opinionof the useof tempomodificationasan indispensable aspect expression of poeticallydefinedat the outset: The efforts which the musicalsentiment makesto cling to the original tonic and it to the resistance makes the new ones,andthe energyandforce requiredto rhythm, it submitto the change, combineto developa greaterstimulus,a crescendo all make of soundandaccelerando tempo,which againis naturallyfollowed by a gradual of decrease soundandslackening pace.Thesearethe agencies of of which act uponthe the performer,andthusthey influencehim. The morestronglythe performer soul of by feelsthe attractionexercised the tonic over the othernotes,the morehe cravesfor of of metreandsymmetry rhythm;while, on the otherhand,the morehe is regularity by disturbed the numberandpowerof the noteswhich destroyuniformity, regularity so muchthe moreintenseandexaltedwill be the expression and symmetry, with 96 he plays. which Lussyalsoconfirmsthe existence two diametricallyopposed of schoolsof playing.He
length of his abhorrenceof the first school, stating that even artists of the speaksat

95Tiirk, School of Clavier Playing, 360. 96Lussy, Musical Expression, 9-10.

412

highesttechnicalability mustbe sensible all the changes key,mode,metre,or to of rhythmin the piece:
One [school] demandsa uniform rate of time, without accelerandoor ritardando; the the contrary, is accustomedto quicken and slacken with every rhythm, every other, on The first regardsregular and mechanical precision as the height of perfection; change. the secondwill alter the time at every phrase,and not feel anything objectionable in irregularity. 97 the consequent Lussy's preceptswill be examined in more detail below. Towards the end of the some writers advocatedtempo modification for expressiveeffect but nineteenth century, against using it in too noticeably exaggerateda manner. In 1897,Franklin Taylor warned insisted that, in spite of necessary changes,the overall balance must be maintained: The employment of variation of tempo is by no meansrestricted to the places where it is definitely indicated by the composer.Both increaseand diminution of speedare as aids to expression,and much may be gained by their judicious always available introduction, but it must be borne in mind that they should never be employed in an or capricious manner, their proper function being to attract the attention of eccentric 99 listener to any particular phraseby emphasisingits legitimate expression. the

in degree modification,he givesthe Furthermore, attempting qualify the permissible to of impression any change that that oughtto be marginal.Referringto passages leadto the he advised that: principal subject, is The effect of ritardandoso employed to throw the principal subjectinto relief, and impressit on the attentionof the listener,andsimilar advantage be obtained so may leadsdirectly into the subject,by makinga slight silent pause, wherea passage which to the not be long enough seriouslydisturbthe rhythm,between last noteof the must Whenit is desired emphasise singlenote to andthe first noteof the subject... passage a in a phrase the giving it additionalstrength, effect maybe gainedby lingering without slightly uponit, carebeingtakenthat the slight pause madeis not sufficiently long to 99 distort the rhythm.

97 Ibid., 163.
98Taylor, Techniqueand Expression, 71. 99Ibid., 72.

413

however, Taylor's advicewasa reactionagainst It is possible, that muchmore But his description lacksthe necessary detail for a better exaggerated modifications. he might haveconsidered distortionor disturbance the rhythm. a of of appreciation what

The written evidence to abovehighlightssomething a schismthat seems have of between developed tempo conservatism artistic freedomconcerning and apparent century.Thoughit is clearthat tempomodification modificationin the late-nineteenth the asan intrinsic part of musicalperformance, written texts wasgenerallyestablished fail to conveywith enough the features frequency its use. precision and of

Detailed codifications

During the secondhalf of the nineteenth century, certain pedagogues produced detailed descriptions and notational symbols in an attempt to codify, amongst other things, tempo In Der Ausdruck in der Musik (1878), Hugo Riemann suggests that each bar modification. has one dynamic high point towards which there is a crescendoand after which or phrase there is a diminuendo. This dynamic high point may occur at either the beginning or first ('on-emphasised'), a middle note (`in-emphasised'), or the final note ('downnote 1Furthermore, he saysthat the increase dynamic towards the high of emphasised'). point, it may be, must be accompaniedby an increaseof liveliness (accelerando) and whichever

10 terms`anbetonte', `inbetonte',and`abbetonte' which therewereno previous The for by Riemann Der Ausdruck,51. in werecoined equivalents

414 decrease dynamicliveliness(ritardando). thejustification of sucha in In subsequent that: theory,he explained

We can add...the agogic nuances,which meansthe little temporary changesof tempo, the stringendo and ritardando, which show themselvesto the examination directly as diminished liveliness. Ascending pitches, crescendoand stringendo augmentedand increasing positive forms of development; descendingpitches, diminuendo and are diminutions, negative forms of development:so it is thoroughly natural, ritardando are that the first three as well as the last three (named) are neededfor the expressionof the samemotion of the soul, for the samefeeling, for the reinforced intensity of their interplay. '0'

Riemannalsodescribed of the importantplaceswheretempomodificationmight some be applied:

A slight increasing of the tempo is appropriate for the first developmentof a musical theme in the sameway as the increasing of the pitch and the crescendois of it; in reversea slight slowing down is appropriate for the final melody characteristic (phrase,tune), for the dying out of the theme, whilst (the slowing down) is often so that it can no longer be ignored in the musical text, but requires a real considerable [marked] in the notation; but equally as well for the end of the theme, is the ritardando A characteristic falling of the pitch and the decrescendo. final stretto-like ritardando at the beginnin of a tone-piece is a more rare exception and of course has expresslyto 02 be indicated.

102 Ibid., 47; `Ein geringesAntreiben des Tempos eignet der erstenEntwickelung eines musikalischen Themasebenso,wie ihr das Steigender Tonhhe und das Crescendo ist; umgekehrt eignet der Wendung zum Schluss,dem Ausleben des Themasein eigenthmlich geringesVerlangsamen,das oft genug so bedeutendist, dasses die Notenschrift nicht mehr ignoriert, sondernals wirkliches Ritardando fordert; gleichermassen aber auch das Fallen der ist Tonhhe und das Decrescendofr den Schlusscharakteristisch.Eine abschliessende Stretta oder ein Ritardando zu Anfang einesTonstcks sind seltenereAusnahmeflleund natrlich stets ausdrcklich zu verlangen.'

fallendeTonhhe, Diminuendo Ritardando Entwickelungsformen; und sindVerminderungen, Entwickelungsfonnen: ist daherdurchaus es negative natrlich,dassdie drei ersteren die drei wie Seelenbewegung, letzteren derselben Empfindung zum Ausdruckderselben werden gebraucht ' zusammenwirken. verstrkend und derenIntensitt

101 Ibid., 47; `Wir knnen gleich als drittes noch die agogischenSchattirungen,d.h. die kleinen Vernderungendes Tempos, das Stringendound Ritardando hinzunehmen, vorbergehenden sich der Wahrnehmungdirect als vermehrteund verminderte Lebendigkeit darstellen. welche SteigendeTonhhe, Crescendound Stringendo sind Steigerungen, positive

415

discussed Riemannappliesto localizedmoments in by The otherform of temponuance Accordingto Riemann, hadlong beenknownthat it that the phrase requirelengthening.
in order to make a performanceimpressive, `the dynamic main note of the phraseas well harmonically important tones (suspensiontones) have to be slightly as certain ' lengthened. As noted earlier, Trk mentioned similar practices in the late-eighteenth however, that the delineation of phrasesby localized Riemann suggests, century. lengthening was something less understoodor, apparently, used:

that the contrary,lessknown is something obviouslycontradictory, the endof each on bar motive demands very smalladditionto the time valueof the motivewhich a This additionis eithera small lengthening the of peremptory. enough often stands final noteor an addedshortrest.The overly (muchtoo) preciseentryof the starting the new motiveblursthe drawing;this is valid especially very slow tempi, at noteof the possibleadditionis alreadyat the mostdefinabletime value,while at faster where the structure/subdivision a rule by the bass,will be madeclearlyenough as at motion '03 voices. all the accompaniment he addsthat:'4 And in relationto suspensions, lengthening; strictness length] [of Sucha notealwaysdemands considerable a a bar appears an offenceagainst demands expressive the as of playingandis at within a is leastin the following cases be reprimanded, to wherecantabileor con espressione As the suspension cannotitself be the final note of the motive,sowe note marked. in suchcases two sometimes lengthened notesin succession. make (Seenext page)

104 Ibid., 55; `EinesolcheNote beansprucht eineerhebliche Verlngerung; streng stets ein Hinweggehen dieselbe ber die taktmssiges erscheint Verstoss als gegen Forderungen eines da Spielsund ist wenigstens immerzu rgen,wo cantabile ausdrucksvollen odercon espressione ist. Da die Vorhaltsnote des nicht selbstdie Schlussnote Motivs seinkann,so vorgeschrieben Fllengelegentlich Notennacheinander: ' zwei verlngerte wir erhalten in solchen

103 Ibid., 53; `weniger bekannt ist dagegenwohl, dassdas Endejedes Taktmotivs eine ganz Zugabe zum Zeitwerth des Motivs vertrgt und oft genug gebieterischfordert. Diese geringe Zugabe ist entwedereine geringe Verlngerung der Schlussnoteoder eine eingeschaltete kurze Pause.Der allzuprciseEinsassder Anfangsnote des neuenMotivs verwischt die scharfe Zeichnung; das gilt besondersbei sehr langsamenTempo, wo die mgliche Zugabe schon ein allenfalls definirbarer Zeitwerth ist, whrend bei schneller Bewegung die Gliederung in der Regel durch die Bsse,berhauptdie Begleitstimmen deutlich genug gemachtwerden wird. '

416

Again, it is evident that such advice had historical precedents.For example, in the eighteenth century, C.P.E. Bach recommendedthat in both fast and slow movements, and particularly in `affetuoso playing', expressiveprolongation of individual notes Regardingthe appendedexamples he explains that:105 and rests was necessary. Figure 178 contains severalexamplesin which certain notes and rests should be extended beyond their written length, for affective reasons.In places, I have written out thesebroadenedvalues; elsewherethey are indicated by a small cross.
C..... _.. ., o

UUI7

105 Bach, Versuch,part 1,160 and 162.

417
In another publication, Katechismusdes Klavierspiels (1888), translatedas Catechismof

PianofortePlaying (1892),Riemanndiscusses agogiclengthening notesin passages of in shortvalues,sayingthatthesehave: containingaccompaniments

importance not to be underratedfor the expressiverendering of a melody in cases an the "agogic" accenthas to be used to give clearnessto a feminine ending where (particularly the resolution of a suspension),as for example:

it Herethe semiquaver in the left handmustin fact be the mediumof the expression e is desired give to the trebled of the right hand;without a gentlelingeringon this e to in giving warmthto the execution. is preciselythe beginningof It no onewill succeed that the notewhich formsthe point of stress mustbe lengthened, this lengthening and ' distinct in the figurateaccompaniment. becomes especially of the beginning Furthermore, the time lapseduringsuch regarding crucial matterof the permissible he lengthenings, explainsthat: by How greattheselengthenings shouldbe cannotbe determined an invariablerule; that that everylengthening strikesus assuchis too great;it shouldmake onemay say 107 itself felt only asliving expression. implicationhereis that anynoticeable is The face-value prolongation an exaggeration. Giventhe recorded evidence presented above,however,it is likely that what Riemann barelynoticeable might strike a modernlistenerasextreme.It hasalready considered beenshownthat in the playingof somepianists,suchasPugnoandPaderewski,
localized lengthenings are exaggeratedby present-daystandards.
106 Riemann, Katechismusdes Klavierspiels (Leipzig, 1888), trans. as Catechism of Pianoforte Playing (London, 1892), 64-5.

107 Ibid., 65.

418

feelinga needto be asscientific aspossible, Riemannattempted quantifythe Perhaps to lengthening singlenotes.With reference the appended to of musical proportionof 108 description: he providedthe following mathematical example,

Heref is perhapslonger than g as the ratio 3:2, and the rest [demisemiquaverrest] is is likewise 3:2 as long as e, yet e itself is not as short asg (the whole passage This highly important means of explaining the rhythmical nature of a ritardando) motive (precisely through the "agogic" nuances)was formerly much too little considered.

b--. _'
Suchproportions a sense the type of hierarchythat in principlemayhave of provide In to the useof agogiclengthening. spiteof this, however,it is impossible governed know the intendedauraleffect.Riemannconcludes the `healthyfoundationof that lies of and statingthat: expression' in the employment rallentando accelerando,

it, Although gifted playerswill at all timeshaveknown andpractised yet how and alwaysremained moreor lessa matter whento employa rallentandoandaccelerando of instinct, andtheoryhadno rulesfor their use.Now we know that asfar as a phrase or extends, uniformdynamicand agogicnuance(be it a crescendo diminuendo, a or 109 followed by a diminuendo) to be employed. is usual-a crescendo is as AlthoughRiemannprovidedan unusuallevel of detail,his wordscould not preserve a indicationof the boundaries temporalchange; readeris no closerto the of clear how muchor how little wasconsidered tasteful.In addition,Riemannis understanding justified in sayingthat no rulesabouttempomodificationhadpreviously not entirely beenformulated.Earlier in the nineteenth century,Czernyhadsummarized someof the
ros Ibid., 65-6. 109 Ibid., 65-6.

419 instances innumerable requiringtempomodification,particularlyretardation. presumably Thesewereintended delineate to the musicalstructures, enhance expression and of melodicmaterial:
The Ritardando, according to the generally establishedRule, is much more frequently than the Accelerando, becausethe former is less likely to disfigure the employed the piece, than too frequent hurrying on in the speedof the movement. We character of may retard the time most advantageously. which contain the return to the principal subject. a. In those passages b. In those passages, which lead to some separatemember of a melody.

In thoselong andsustained noteswhich areto be struckwith particular c. and emphasis, afterwhich quickernotesareto follow. d. At the transitioninto another species time, or into another of movement, from that which preceded it. different in speed
e. Immediately after a pause.

h. Occasionally also, in the chief crescendoof a strongly marked sentence, leading to an important passage to the close. or

f. At the Diminuendoof a preceding very lively passage; alsoin brilliant as occursa trait of melodyto be playedpianoand whentheresuddenly passages, with muchdelicacy. consisting very manyquick notes,which we areunable of g. In embellishments, first chosen. to force into the degree movement of

i. In very humorous, in the capricious, fantasticpassages, orderto heighten and so character muchthe more. has k. Lastly, almostalwayswherethe Composer indicatedan espressivo; also as diminuendo. NB, It is of courseunderstood, here,the term Ritardando, meanto that we expressions, all which indicatea moreor lessmarked comprehend otherequivalent of of the original degree movement, for Example:rallent, ritenuto, slackening as &. c; asthey areonly distinguished from eachotherby the more calando, smorzando, 110 of or lessdegree Ritardando. Mathis Lussyremarked that, apartfrom Czerny,in no othertext hashe everfound `a on singlepracticalobservation the emotionalelement, nuances, changes time, or and of '" accents. While this is not entirelytrue, it is on the metrical,rhythmical,or expressive curiousthat, beforehis time, thesepractices somewhat werenot more substantially codified.For Lussy,this emotionalelement:
110 Czerny, Pianoforte School, vol. 3,33-4. 111 Lussy, Musical Expression, 164.

420

by the irregularities time, suchasthe accelerando of produced the embraces the of the artist in the effort of his passion; impulsegivenby a uniformly excitement descending or afterthe structure; the rallentando,resultingfrom fatigue,or exhaustion in a or of passion, from the presence a sudden unexpected of excitement and obstacle 112 structure. complicated like it Allegros,Galops Valses, is Lussystates that in quick movements Prestos, and
to keep a uniform rate of tempo, slackening it only occasionally. In slow natural pieces like Nocturnes, Rondos, Reveries,Andantes,Adagios, and Romances, expressive

it is naturalto modify the tempo,makingaccelerandos rallentandos to and according feelingandparticularlywhenthe 'expressive or of everychange of structure the phrases, them.He felt that the distinguishing their motion up or down', requires characteristics if the poetryof a work would be destroyed thesepiecesfull of rhythmical,harmonic and 113 in a uniform tempo. wereplayed changes, andexpressive

Lussyconcludes Presenting that: variousanalogies, Wemustaccelerate;1. Whereseveral expressive notesfollow oneanother lengthoccursat the beginningor or consecutively, wherea singlenote of exceptional in the middle of a rhythm; 2. Whereseveral notes,or groupsof similar notes,occurexceptionally after an descending progression; or ascending 3. In exceptional into the middle of an passages, which introduceagitationor passion Andanteor Adagio. Wemustslacken:1. Whereseveral consecutive expressive at notesappear suddenly the beginningof a rhythmwithout therebeingthe propertime to give themthe impetus; necessary 2. Wherethe force expended ascending descending on or seriesor progressions of fatigueandexhaustion; notesproduces 3. In exceptionalpassages, in the middle of an Allegro, wherea morecomplicated as to structureoccurswith a change calmness, or expressive gravity,or melancholy;

4. On expressivenotes or passages, reiterated notes, and higher auxiliary notes at the end of a phrase. 12 Ibid., 164. 113 Ibid., 164-6.

421
Before attempting to apply theseprinciples in detail we must rememberthat the rallentando and accelerando which expressivenotes are capableof producing, depend: 1. On their position. Thus when a note is by exception repeatedseveraltimes it is necessary make an accelerando at the beginning of the rhythm, to consecutively, and a rallentendo at the end. (The higher auxiliary note requires a rallentando both at the beginning and end of the rhythm); 2. On the general structure of the piece. It has been said that passages with exceptional require accelerandosand rallentandos; but if the or descendingsequences ascending the piece is of an ascendingor descendingnature there must be no general structure of rallentando or accelerando. Nevertheless,in a piece of an ascendingstructure, if the first rhythm has a more accompanimentat the repeat than it had the first time, it must be accelerated. animated 3. They dependon the number of voices or instruments employed in the composition. A solo player can allow himself modifications in the normal tempo which are not for an orchestra.In the orchestra,every performer must efface himself for permissible the sake of the general result, and must sacrifice any emotional element which may exist in his particular part.

4. In vocal musicthey depend the sense the words.Wordsexpressing or on sadness of joy, or mustbe sungmoreslowly thanthoseexpressing happiness, melancholy 11 triumph. Lussyelaborated theseprecepts with further detailsandmusicalillustrationsfrom on
He advised that accelerandosare indispensable: popular works. " on long notes occurring exceptionally on long or repeatednotes when they are presentedas syncopationsor when the is in ascendingor descendingmotion, but not if the accompaniment is stationary accompaniment higher auxiliary note at the beginning of a phrase on a repeated at the beginning or end of a phrase on modulations

"
"

timesat the beginningor middle of a phrase several noterepeated on a

" "

" " "

"
"

figuresof shortnotesparticularlywhen followed by a longer descending on in codettas shortnotes and/orhighernote;in straightforward for notesin ascending motion or descending sequences the beginningof a phrase, at on ascending usinga notewheremelodyand bassmovein contrarymotion at the pivotal stationary beginningof a phrase in wheresmall rhythmicalgroupsare repeated ascending descending motion or in ascending descending in or runsat the endof phrases fast tempos

for repeatedsmall groups of notes at the end of fast movements where the bassis stationary

"

114 Ibid., 166-7.

422

" " "

in playful passages shortor uniform groupsof notesin the middleof expressive of phrases by chordsstrucktogether in phrases accompanied succeeding phrase a with follow a regularprogression or whereharmonies chords spread brokenby rests,in passages syncopated in in syncopated passages structures, with "5 by ascending descending or accompanied arpeggios. phrases

For musicof slow or moderate tempowhereoneor two expressive notesoccurat the

beginning of a phrase,Lussy advisedthat rallentandosare required:

"
" " " "

the first note of a legato passageif it is by exception a high note or succeeds on have begun with low notes which passages following the first note of a figure particularly if it is a repeatedhigh on a rest by a wide ascendingskip, and followed by a lower note note reached the rest following the highest note of an ascendingprogressionfollowed by a on lower note the higher auxiliary note which begins a group of introductory notes on

follows the first note of a staccato figure,particularlyif it is the on a restwhich highestnotefollowedby the next notedirectlybelow of equalvalue

"
" " " "

high note forming the pivot to a low one on a a note replacing a higher or lower one thus changing the direction of the on following figuration the end of an ascendingor descendingprogressionparticularly if the design at changes of high notes, gradually rising, and suddenly interrupted by a low on a succession when the high note is precededby a rest or by exception is note, or especially repeated

the first notesof a figure markinga distantmodulation, or change character of on moodandso on

" " " " " "

" "

figuresimmediatelyfollowing ascending descending on ones a groupof low notesfollowing high ones on in expressive passages melodious wherelong notesandrich harmonies occur, in an Allegro composed shortnotes of especially introducedinto the middle of fastmovements in expressive dreamypassages or in passages in after beinggivenin the major arepresented the minor which, phrases at the endof soft andexpressive
long note preceding the final note, especially if it includes a trill on a on notes exceptionally repeatedseveral times

"

bar, especiallyif it is syncopated, the highestnoteat the endof the penultimate on prolongedor chromatic

"s Ibid., 168-77.

423

" "
"

the repetition of short figures in the penultimate bar, especially if it contains on higher auxiliary notes

bar; notes on the higherauxiliarynoteat the endof the penultimate on reiterated bar the endof the penultimate at the penultimate noteif the last oneis a reiterated note on

"

by exceptionin the penultimate on shortnotes bar; occurring on crotchets and or occurringby exception containingreiterated higherauxiliarynotesat the is exceptif the passage a florid onereplacinga long penultimate endof a phrase note
the last notes of a phraseproceeding in consecutivedescendingmotion and on following a high note

"

" "
" "

the end of a phrasewhich is, by exception, polyphonic and contrapuntal and at and so on contains complicated harmony, resolved discords, or suspensions on the last notes of a codetta containing a higher auxiliary note, reiterations and stationary notes

bar notesat the endof a penultimate on descending rhythm on the lastnotesof a suspended

"
"

syncopations, long notesat the endof an ornamental and group on pedal-points, in a cadenza libitum ad 116 by final chordsseparated rests. on
on rhythmical repetitions such as groups of notes repeatedseveraltimes consecutively at the end of expressivephrases

"

Clearly, Lussy endeavouredto be as detailed and comprehensiveas possible about the situations requiring tempo modification. However, his descriptions do not qualify what extremes of modification causedby ritardando and accelerandomight be achieved or Indeed, in a recent publication, `Mathis Lussy's Traue de 1'expressionmusicale expected. Window into PerformancePractice', Michael Green compared various performances as a of the opening song of Schumann'sFrauenliebe und-leben, `Seit ich ihn gesehen',with precepts laid down by Lussy. He concluded that:

Lussy'sthesisregarding uniformity of musical the corroborates althoughthis essay to whenit comes local detail, further analysis expression revealsthat thereis moreto a than simply knowingwhich surfaceeventsto respond Artists to. goodperformance "manifestidenticalexpressions" the differences and may amongtheseartistsmay from "their degree expressive of resultonly sensibilities technical and but accomplishment", thesedifferences concernthe degreeof expressive to response a
"b Ibid., 177-95.

424 Whether performerslowsminutelyor excessively an eventis of to a particularevent. integrates local detailswith their role in importance how a performance to critical "7 largermusicalstructure. the shaping
Thus, although Lussy's theories correspondwith the practices of many performers heard in recordings, they do not, in the end, successfullypreservefeaturessuch as the rate of the boundarieswithin which the modifications were considered changeof speedor tasteful in his time. appropriate or

To what extentlate-nineteenth-century the codificationspreserve actualfeatures of

practice remains unclear. Aware of the proliferation of such works, and contemporaneous of them in The Principles of Expression in Pianoforte Playing providing a summary (1885), Adolphe Christiani opined that they have:

the readeramplematerialfor becomingacquainted given with the leadingprinciples and will which governthe usesof accelerando ritardando.And it is hoped,the student be ableto selectfrom the manygivenrulesthosethat arepracticalandgenerally now fitting; andto take at whatthey areworth thosethat areonly casuallyfitting, or based 118 taste. on personal Christianihighlightsa significantdilemma,namely,that suchdetailedtextsmaynot all havepreserved entirelyrealisticandhonestview of currentpractices. an

117 D. Green, `Mathis Lussy's Traite de I'expression M. musicale as a Window into Performance Practice', Music Theory Spectrum: The Journal of the Societyfor Music Theory (1994), 216.

18 1 Christiani,ThePrinciplesof Expression, 296.

425 During the first half of the twentiethcentury,manyauthorsadvocated morejudicious a tempomodification.In 1909,JosefHofmann'sview wasthat anymodificationof useof temposhouldnot affect the overalllengthof the work:
The artistic principles ruling rubato playing are good taste and keeping within artistic bounds. The physical principle is balance. What you shortenof the time in one phrase you must add at the first opportunity to another in order that the or part of a phrase time "stolen" (rubato) in one place may be restituted in another. The aestheticlaw demandsthat the total time-value of a music piece shall not be affected by any rubato, hence, the rubato can only have sway within the limits of such time as would be if the piece were played in the strictest time. 119 consumed

in Hofmann'stext expresses ideal that combats an excesses tempomodification.In having for less to makecompensation anychange, is perhaps likely to deviatetoo far from one that suchadvicewasthe catalystfor the mid-century the prevailingtempo.It is probable in the playingof pianistssuchasSolomon,cited in Figures5.1 and5.9. styleexemplified

However,if Hofmann'sadvicegivesthe impression his tempomodificationwould that his balanced, playingshowsthat he retainedsometraits of the latehavesounded
century. In his 1912 recording of Schumann's Warum? Op. 12 No. 3 (CD nineteenth 4/48), there are modifications that do not sound proportioned by presentstandards.In his 1903 recording of Chopin's Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2 (CD 4/49) other examples such as there is frequent modification of tempo for expressiveeffect. While a senseof proportion balance is evident, this is not in a manner that might have been envisagedfrom his and description. Moreover, it is evident that there is some processof compensation;however, the principle is not applied strictly or pedantically.

9 11 Hofmann,Piano Questions Answered, 100.

426

the impression strict adherence the musicalnotationwas that In 1932,Gieseking to gave Tempomodificationwasto be appliedsubtly: importance. of primary

the most distinguished and most renowned musicians are very particular as to accuracy in their interpretations and reject all that is contrary to the intentions of the composer. Absolutely correct execution of a composition is the only foundation upon which a interpretation can be built. really excellent

to write down It would certainlygo too far andirritate the player,if the composer were intentions. Therearecertain fully the termsnecessary all his minor interpretative to andform, which the musicianmustknow andfeel. We rulesof rhythm,style aesthetic is know andfeel wherea slight accelerando ritardando permitted or mustaccordingly 120 or relevant.
In truth, however, many distinguished and renowned musicians of the era were far less or indeed adherenceto the score.Elsewhere, Gieseking adopted particular about accuracy to Riemann, implying that tempo modification before and after a a similar approach to be in proportion: phraseclimax ought It is a well-known fact that every phrasehas its climax, to reach which a slight hurrying of pace, or a slight increaseof sound is permitted, whilst the reverseshould take place from the climax to the end of the phrase.If these fine points, therefore, are in the right manner, that is to say, in natural proportion, they will doubtlessly executed serveto vitalize the phrase,will correspondto natural musical feeling, and will 21 increaseexpression.

he What is Furthermore, warnedthat suchmodificationsmustnot be exaggerated. hereis that the wordsareso similar to thoseof nineteenth- early-twentiethsignificant and but their meaningis so different: centurywriters
It need not be mentioned that care must be taken not to overdo these changesof tempo. The pupil must be trained to feel what is correct, and the teacher should indefatigably to him how to modify rhythmical tempo proportionally, and should not pass point out lightly anything in this respect... over
120 Gieseking and Leimer, Pianistic Perfection, 43. 121 Ibid., 43-4.

427

interpretations crescendo, Inaccurate disproportionate diminuendo, and of ritardando, declaimed, takeaway which Hansvon Billow sopassionately against accelerando, from the naturalness the interpretation gravelyinjure the pupil's musicaltaste. of and fail Theseinjuriesarefacts,which mostpedagogues to realize...22
Gieseking's remarks equatewith a stricter more text-faithful style of performance.His that he introduced tempo fluctuations within narrower limits than the recordings confirm In his 1939 recording of Brahms's Intermezzo Op. 117 preceding generation of pianists. No. 2, for example, it is evident that tempo modifications are made only where

(CD 4/50).By contrast, Freund's1953recording the work shows of specificallynotated in tempoandagogiclengthening, the stylesheundoubtedly in muchmorevariation from Brahmshimself(CD 4/51). Still, in somerecordings suchasBrahms's adopted is CapriccioOp. 76 No. 1, Gieseking lessstrict with tempo(CD 4/52).Freundis more in thanGieseking the samework andnotably,shemakes capricious agogic rhythmically Brahmsindicates in bars3,5 andotherplaces. lengthenings Accordingto <> where directly from FannyDavies,this type of lengthening, outlawedby Gieseking, emanated fails to makeanytemponuance thesemoments. Brahms.Gieseking at

The reactionagainst tempomodificationis particularlyevidentin the exaggerated of comments ErnestWalker.In `SomeQuestions Tempo' (1930),he avowsthat `no of level, eitherin time or worth anything,of anymusic,remainsmathematically performance tone,for morethan a very limited period...'. With little doubt,however,he washighly critical of the styleof tempomodificationinheritedfrom the late-nineteenth centuryand much in practiceat that time. He explainsthat: still very

'22Ibid., 44.

428 Rubato in its full senseis too huge a subject to be more than mentioned with a hint that much too lenient to eminent soloists whose musical palateshave most of us are very become too jaded to distinguish between what is reasonablyflexible and what is downright bad. But we may perhapsdwell for a moment or two on certain interactions tempo and tradition. The definition of musical tradition as carelessness perpetuated of by lazinessmay be rather over-sweeping;but how can we otherwise account for certain not otherwise authorized tempi that are still almost always with us - such as the ruinously pompous slowings-down at the end of any Handel air, and the train-catching hurries on the ends of the `Etudessymphoniques' or Chopin's A flat polonaise?And how often do we hear Chopin's D flat Valse as he wrote it, in unchangingdance-tempo and ending with twenty-four even grace-notes(no bar-lines in the right hand), and no 123 dreadful 9+9+6+molto rit. of some editions and most pianists? rit. at all - not the

Walker's attitudeto tempomodificationappears be very differentfrom that of even to thirty yearsearlier,wherenoticeable accelerations decelerations and wereusedto enhance the moodandcharacter the music.His wordsandthoseof manyothersheralded of a during towardsa limited modificationof tempothat cameto be generally accepted move half of the twentiethcenturyandwhich, by andlarge,hastakena stronghold the second today. on performance

device Written textsthereforeconfirm that tempomodificationwasusedasan expressive aroundthe turn of the twentiethcentury.Someof thesetexts,varyingin detail andscope, requiringmodification.In comparison of providea catalogue situations with early it is evidentthat thesetextsdid not preserve recordings, manyimportantfeatures requisite for a fuller understanding the useof tempomodification.In addition,a modem of language interpretation the descriptive of useddoesnot accordwith their apparent Thusit is difficult to assess from the texts alone,what was original significance. For to late-nineteenth-century musicians. this, the legacyof early sound acceptable is recordings essential.
123 EWalker, Free Thoughtand theMusician and OtherEssays (Oxford, 1946),138.

429

Conclusion

Early recordings demonstratethat dislocation, arpeggiation, metrical rubato and various forms of rhythmic alteration, as well as tempo modification were indispensable in late-nineteenthand early-twentieth-century piano playing. The performing practices here reveal that many important late-nineteenthabundanceof examplesexamined who followed, employed thesetechniquesin a mannerthat century pianists, and some does not accord with current notions of tasteful interpretation. Yet historical evidence basis for believing that the characteristicsand frequency of such provides strong the situations in which they were employed, derived from long-established practices, and traditions. Recordings also demonstratethe progressivedisappearance thesepractices of during the twentieth century.

between has The comparison written textsandearlyrecordings often produced striking in Many textsfail to discuss practices question, provideonly the or contradictions. they do not aboutthem.And wheremoredetaileddescriptions exist, cursoryremarks that canbe heardon the recordings. Sometimes the significantfeatures conveymany It to written adviceof particularpianistsappears conflict with their own recordings. is that suchadvicewaseitherintendedonly for a specifictime or place,or that the evident descriptivelanguage, had a assuming knowledge prevalentpractices, implicationsthat of be irretrievablylost. In addition,manynotationalsymbolsandmusicaltermsappear may to haveindicatedsomething wholly different to the meaningthat they now convey.

430

Early recordings the often providean audiblekey to understanding import of written descriptions clarify detailsthat would otherwise haveremained hidden. and

The implications of the relationship between written texts and early recordings are therefore manifold and complex. The recordings preservepractices intrinsic to the important late-nineteenth-centurypianists. However, in so many cases expressivestyle of

from a face-value this stylecouldnot havebeenenvisaged above, presented interpretation the written texts.In fact, a styleof performance based of solelyon the The informationin written documents the would seldomapproach styleof the recordings. between the and earlyrecordings written textsreveals gulf that exists comparison between theoryandpractice.It is thereforedangerous assume written textscanbe to that the that in previouseraswereconsidered relied uponto conveymeaningfully practices to essential artistic performance.

On the otherhand,written textsin conjunctionwith earlyrecordings may providevital stylesof pianistswho did not record.It is morethanlikely that cluesto the performance Reinecke'sunderstanding his music,would have Schumann, who greatlyappreciated of dislocations And Leschetizky's of his styleof playing Warum? approved whole-heartedly in alterations Chopin'smusicmay well reflect Chopin'sown practices andrhythmic Without recorded described his students. by thesefactorsmustremain evidence The implicationsare,however,that manyof the devicesemployed these by unresolved. them,will not be clearly pianists,andthe mannerin which they employed earlier discerniblefrom contemporaneous written texts.And if the musicaltraditionsof the late-

431 to us now, it is on seemsurprising pianistscaptured earlyrecordings nineteenth-century an the casethat earlierstyles,particularlyof hallowedpianists, would cause probably degree shockandconsternation. of evengreater

Although many of the practicespreservedon early piano recordings may seemalien today, it is clear that thesewere integral to late-nineteenth-centurypianism as in the playing of acknowledgedmastersof the period. Any attempt to exemplified what late-nineteenth-centurynotation meant to composersand performers of understand that period involves an acceptancethat the most admired musicians of the era approached the aestheticsof performance from a very different perspectivethan musicians of the day. Such knowledge may suggestthat an historically informed style of present for any repertoire, time or place, cannot be achieved simply by the adoption performance instruments or the application of only those practices that do not challenge of appropriate current notions of good taste.

432

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Leschetizky',TheNew GroveDictionary of Music and J. Methuen-Campbell, `Theodor 2nd edn.(London,2001),vol. 14,584-5. Musicians,ed. StanleySadie, 17 Mikuli, C., `Vorwort' to F. Chopin'sPianoforte-Werke, vols. (Leipzig, 1880);trans. for Notes' to Frederic ChopinComplete Works thePiano (New York, `Introductory as G. Schirmer,1895).
Moore, G., Am I Too Loud? (1962); this edn. (Middlesex, 1966; repr. 1968). Interludes in an Accompanist's Life (1983); repr. in Collected --------Furthermoore Memoires (Middlesex, 1986). Moscheles, I., Etudes ou lecons deperfectionnement, avec notes explicatives sur la de les Jtudier et de les executer,pour piano... Op. 70,3rd edn. (Paris, maniere for the Piano Forte Op. 70, Bk. 1 (London, S. Chappell and J.B. Cramer & --------Studies Beale, 1827).

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for thePianoforteOp. 70 (London,CramerAddison& Beale,1844). --------Studies for thePianoforteOp. 70, rev. E. Pauer(London,Augener& Co. 1886). --------Studies (London,A. Hammond,1899). Op. 70, ed.G. Saunders --------Studies Warum? Op. 12No. 3 (London,Augener& Moskowski,M., `Notes'to R. Schumann, Co., 1882).SeeR. Schumann. 3rd Mozart,L., Versuch einergrndlichenViolinschule, edn.(Augsburg,1787);trans.E. KnockerasA Treatiseon theFundamental Principlesof Violin Playing, 2nd edn., in (Oxford, 1951,repr. 1988):incl. the additionsandchanges the 1787edn.aswell as the whole of the original text.
Mozart, W.A., An Entirely Honourable and Complete Edition of the Pianoforte Works without Accompts. of this Celebrated Composer,ed. C. Potter (London, J.A. with and Novello, c. 1857).

440 demKrnungs Concerte dur No. 20)fr Pianofortesolozum (D ------Larghettoaus (Leipzig,Breitkopf & Hrtel, 1874). Concertvortrage, C. Reinecke arr.

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Nettheim, N., `Vlademir de Pachmann', TheNew Grove Dictionary ofMusic and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie,2nd edn. (London, 2001), vol. 18,857. Niecks, F., Chopin as a Man and Musician, 2 vols., (London & New York, 1888). Paderewski, I.J., `The Best Way to Study the Piano', The Strand Musical Magazine (London, c. 1895); repub. in TheMusical Educator, ed. J. Grieg (London, c. 1900), vol. 2, v-xiii. Rubato', a Chapter in H. T. Finck, Successin Music and How it is Won --------`Tempo (New York, 1909). Pascall, R., `Playing Brahms -a Study in 19th-centuryPerformancePractice', Papers in Musicology No. i (Nottingham, 1991), 3-23. Pauer, E., TheArt of Pianoforte Playing (London, 1877). Petrak, A. M., `Carl Reinecke', TheReproducing Piano Roll Foundation, http://www. rprf. org!index.html, March 8,2001.

(Paris,1680);fats. repr. (Geneve, Minkoff, 1982). Perrine,Piecesde luth en musique

Peter, P.H., `Cipriani Potter', TheNew Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie, Ist edn. (London, 1980), vol. 15,159-60. Petri, E., `Notes' to J.S. Bach, French Suites arr. F. Busoni, ed. E. Petri (London, British & Continental Music Agencies, 1941).

---

(ed. SeeJ.S. Bach. )

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441 Methode(London,1903);trans.as TheLeschetizky Method M., Prentner, Die Leschetizky (London,1903). Leschetizky',TheNew GroveDictionary of Musicand Przybylski,T., `Theodor Musicians,ed. S. Sadie,l st edn.(London,1980),vol. 10,689.
Pugno, R., Les lecons dcrites de Raoul Pugno: Chopin (Paris, 1910); trans. E. Colbum Mayne as TheLessonsof Raoul Pugno (London, 1911). Quantz, J.J., Versucheiner Anweisung die Flte traversiere zu spielen (Berlin, 1752); trans. E.R, Reilly as On Playing the Flute (1966), 2nd edn., (London, 1985). Rameau,J.P., Pieces de clavecin (Paris, 1724 and 1731); modern edn., ed. E.R. Jacobi, (Kassel, Brenreiter-Verlag, 1958). Reinagle, C., A Few Wordson Pianoforte Playing, with Rulesfor Fingering Some PassagesofFrequent Occurrence,Addressedto her Pupils (London, 1855), repr. in The Musical Times(1862), vol. 10,242.

Clavier-Sonaten: Briefe an eineFreundin(Leipzig, C., Reinecke, Die Beethovenschen Dawsonas TheBeethoven Lettersto PianoforteSonatas: 1895);trans.E.M. Trevenen Lady (London,1898). a
(arr.) SeeW.A. Mozart. (ed.) SeeL. van Beethoven.

Riemann, H., `Der Ausdruck in der Musik', Sammlungmusicalische Vortrge, i, no. 50 (Leipzig, 1883). des Klavierspiels (Leipzig, 1888), trans. as Catechismof Pianoforte --------Katechismus Playing (London, 1892).

(Harvard,1995);this edn.(London,1996). Rosen,C., TheRomanticGeneration

Rosenblum, S.P., `The Uses of Rubato in Music, Eighteenth to Twentieth Centuries', Performance Practice Review (1994), vol. 7, no. 1,33-53. Sackville-West, E., `Rosenthal', Recorded Sound: TheJournal of the British Institute of Recorded Sound (1962), vol. 1, no. 7,214-20.

C., `PaulineViardot', t, cole Buissonnicre: Saint-Saans, Noteset Souvenirs, (1909),this (Paris,1913);trans.E.G. Rich in Musical Memories(Boston,1919). edn. des de mots sur1'exdcution oeuvres Chopin', Le Courier musical --------`Quelques (1910),vol. 13no. 10. d'AuvergneOp.73 (Paris,DurandSchoenewerke Cie., c. 1890). et --------Rhapsodie The J., Samson, `IgnacyJanPaderewski, New GroveDictionary of Music and Musicians, S. Sadie,2nd edn.(London,2001),vol. 18,870-3. ed.

442

M., Saunders, `FairyRevels',Magazineof Music: Pictorial PianoforteTutor(1891), 213. H. Schonberg, C., TheGreatPianists,(London,1964). JosefHofman: Volume OneTheChopinConcertos Notes', TheComplete `Sleeve -------PianoArchive 1002,1992). (Vai Audio/International ), C. Schumann, (ed. SeeR. Schumann.
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School,ed.M. Moskowski(London, `Warum? Op. 12No. 3', TheRomantic -------Augener& Co., 1886).
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Stowell, R., Violin Techniqueand Performance in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (Cambridge, 1985).

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And Expression In Pianoforte Playing (London, 1897). --------Technique

443
Thalberg S., L'Art du chant applique au piano, Op. 70,1st series(Paris, 1853). Thalberg's and Vieuxtemps'Grand Concert Book, containing Thalberg and --------

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444

Discography

All recordings CDsunless otherwise stated. are

Bach, J.S., `Chaconnefrom Suite for solo violin', arr. F. Busoni, Aeolian Company piano by F. Busoni (1925), Ferruccio Busoni, Nimbus, NI 8810 (1997). roll

Op. 58', recorded S.Lubin andTheAcademyof by L. Beethoven, van, `PianoConcerto The The Ancient Music directedby C. Hogwood,Beethoven: Five Piano Concertos, (1988). DeccaRecordCompany
`Piano SonataOp. 27 No. 2': 1st movement, electrical recording by I.J. -------Paderewski (1936), TheArt of Paderewski Volume 1, GEMM 9499 (1991). SonataOp. 31 No. 1': 2nd movement (Adagio), Welte-Mignon piano roll ---'Piano by C. Saint-Satins(1905), The ClosestApproach to 19th-Century Piano Interpretation, ARCHIPHON-106 (1992). Bellini, V., `CastsDiva', acoustic recording by A. Patti and A. Barili (1906), Adelina Patti, GEMM12,1988.

`CapriccioOp. 76 No. 1', electricalrecordingby E. Freund(1953, Brahms,Johannes, EtelkaFreund,GEMM 9193CD 2 (1996). Remington), A (1956),Gieseking: `CapriccioOp. 76 No. 1', live recordingby W. Gieseking -------Retrospective Volume1, GEMM 9930(1992). `HornTrio Op. 40', electricalrecordingby A. Brain, A. BuschandR. Serkin -------SBT 1001(1990). (1933),Brahms:Horn Trio & Clarinet Quintet,Testament, DanceNo. 1', acousticrecordingby Brahms(1889),unpublished `Hungarian -------by denoised versions J. BergerandC. Nicols (1999). Op. `Intermezzo 116No. 2', electricalrecordingby E. Freund(1953,Remington), -------EtelkaFreund,GEMM 9193CD 1(1996). Op. `Intermezzo 117No. 2', electricalrecordingby E. Freund(1953,Remington), -------EtelkaFreund,GEMM 9193CD 1(1996).
Op. 117 No. 2', electrical recording by W. Gieseking (1939-40), --'Intermezzo Gieseking: A Retrospective- Volume 1, GEMM. 9930 (1992).

Op. Etelka `Sonata 5', electricalrecordingby E. Freund(1953,Remington), -------Freund,GEMM 9193CD 1 (1996).

Chopin, F., `Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2', acoustic recording by J. Hofmann (1912, COLUMBIA), Josef Hofmann: The Legendary Pianist, Fono Enterprise, AB 78 924 (1999). `Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2', acoustic recording by V. de Pachmann (1915, -------COLUMBIA), Vlademir de Packmann: Complete Recordings Volume 3 Chopin-List, Dante Productions, HPCO65(1997).

445 by Op. 9 No. 2', electricalrecording I.J. Paderewski (1930),IgnacyJan ---'Nocturne 456 PhilipsClassics, 920-2,CD 1 (1998). Paderewski, by Op. OlgaSamaroff, `Nocturne 9 No. 2', acoustic recording 0. Samaroff, -------OPAL 9860(1986). by Op. 15No. 2', electricalrecording E. d'Albert (1916),Eugene `Nocturne ------1911-1930, FonoLibrary,PL 250 (1997). d'Albert: Recordings
`Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, acoustic recording by I.J. Paderewski(1917), Ignacy ------Jan Paderewski, Philips Classics,456 920-2, CD 1 (1998). `Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, acoustic recording by R. Pugno (1903), Raoul Pugno: -------His completepublished piano solos, OPAL 9836 (1989). (1905), The `Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2', Welte-Mignon piano roll by C. Saint-Saans -------ClosestApproach to 19th-Century Piano Interpretation, ARCHIPHON-106 (1992). `Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2', recorded by D. Barenboim (1982), Music of the Night, -------DG Records 457 821-2, CD 2 (1998).

`Nocturne Op. 27 No. piano roll by J. Powell (1929), A -Historic Piano Recordings, provided by D. Hall (2000). `Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, Welte-Mignon piano roll by T. Leschetizky (1906), The ------ClosestApproach to 19th-Century Piano Interpretation, ARCHIPHON-106 (1992). `Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, acoustic recording by V. de Pachmann(1916, -------Columbia), Vlademir de Pachmann: Complete Recordings Volume3 Chopin-Liszt, Dante Productions, HPC065 (1997). `Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2', recorded by L. Rev (1988), Chopin Nocturnes, Hyperion -----Records, D22013 (1998).

Op. `Nocturne 27 No. 2', pianoroll by F. La Forge(1936,COLUMBIA),Pupils -------OPAL 9839(1988). Of Leschetizky, (1928, `NocturneOp. 27 No. 2', electricalrecordingby L. Godowsky The COLUMBIA), Godowsky: Pianists' Pianist,APR 7010,Disc 2 (1988). by Chopin:The21 Nocturnes `NocturneOp. 27 No. 2', recorded A. Harasiewicz, -------Philips442 267-2,Disc 1(1964). The26 Preludes, 2', Duo-Art Selection Of

`NocturneOp. 27 No. 2', unpublished electricalrecordingby M. Rosenthal -------The HMV recordings1934-37, APR 7002,CD 2 (1936),Moriz Rosenthal: complete (1992). by Solomon:TheComplete `NocturneOp. 27 No. 2', recorded Solomon, SBT 1030(1993). Recordings Chopin,Testament, of

`Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2', recorded by K. Stott, Chopin: The Nocturnes, Fantasie -------Impromptu and Barcarolle, Unicorn-Kanchana, DKP 9147 (1994).

by Op. 27 No. 2', recorded A. Weissenberg, Chopin:Nocturnes, -'Nocturne EMI Classics 738302, CD 1 (1969). 5 Mazurkas,Waltzes, Op. `Prelude 28 No. 7', acousticrecordingby F. Busoni(1922,COLUMBIA), -------Recordings, GEMM 9347(1989). Busoni: Complete Op. `Prelude 28 No. 7', Aeolian Company pianoroll by F. Busoni(1923), -------Ferruccio Busoni,Nimbus,NI 8810(1997). `ValseOp. 34 No. 1', acousticrecordingby R. Pugno(1903),RaoulPugno:His -------publishedpiano solos,OPAL 9836(1989). complete

446
Grieg, E., `Bridal ProcessionOp. 19 No. 2', electrical recording by P. Grainger (1925), Edvard Grieg: ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1 (1992). `Bridal ProcessionOp. 19 No. 2', acoustic recording by E. Grieg (1903), Edvard -------Grieg: ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809CD 1 (1992). `Bridal ProcessionOp. 19 No. 2', Welte-Mignon piano roll recording by E. Grieg -------(1906), Edvard Grieg: ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1(1992). `Bridal ProcessionOp. 19 No. 2', acoustic recording by L. Ronald (1900, -------Berliner), Edvard Grieg: ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1(1992). `Butterfly Op. 43 No. 1', acoustic recording by E. Grieg (1903), Edvard Grieg: --The Piano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1 (1992). `Dance Caprice Op. 28 No. 3, acoustic recording by L. Ronald (1900), ThePiano -------G& Ts: Recordingsfrom the Gramophoneand Typewriter era (1900-1907),APR 5531 (1995). `GangarOp. 54 No. 2', acoustic recording by E. Grieg (1903), Edvard Grieg: The Piano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1 (1992). `HumoresqueOp. 6 No. 2', acoustic recording by E. Grieg (1903), Edvard Grieg: -------ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1(1992). `Piano SonataOp. 7: 3rd movement (Alla Menuetto)', acoustic recording by E. -------Grieg (1903), Edvard Grieg: ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1 (1992). `Piano SonataOp. 7: 4th movement (Finale)', acoustic recording by E. Grieg -------(1903), Edvard Grieg: ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1(1992). Op. 71 No. 7', acoustic recording by E. Grieg (1903), Edvard `Remembrances -------Grieg. ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD I (1992). `To Spring Op. 43 No. 1', acoustic recording by E. Grieg (1903), Edvard Grieg: -------ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1 (1992). `To Spring Op. 43 No. 1', acoustic recording by P. Grainger (1921), Edvard -------Grieg: ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809 CD 1 (1992).

`WeddingDay at Troldhaugen 65 No. 7, acousticrecordingby E. Grieg Op. -------(1903),Edvard Grieg: ThePiano Music in Historic Interpretations, SIMAX PSC 1809CD 1(1992). in Joachim,J., `Romance C', acousticrecordingby J. Joachim(1903,G& T), Joseph Joachim: TheComplete Recordings, OPAL 9851(1992). Mendelssohn-Barthold, `Andante RondoCapriccioso',live recordingby W. F., and (1956),Gieseking: Retrospective Volume1, GEMM 9930(1992). Gieseking A Mozart,W.A., `Fantasy 475', Welte-Mignonpianoroll by T. Leschetizky K (1906),The Closest Approachto 19th-Century Piano Interpretation,ARCHIPHON-106 (1992).

447
Concerto K 537: 2nd movement (Larghetto)', arr. C. Reinecke, Welte--'Piano Mignon piano roll by C. Reinecke (1905), The ClosestApproach to 19th-Century Piano Interpretation, ARCHIPHON- 106 (1992). `Voi the sapete', acoustic recording by A. Patti and L. Ronald (1905), Adelina -------Patti, GEMM 9312 (1988). C., Saint-Saans, `Rhapsodied'Auvergne', Welte-Mignon piano roll by C. Saint-Saans (1905), The ClosestApproach to 19th-Century Piano Interpretation, ARCHIPHON106 (1992). `Sonatafor cello and piano Op. 32: 2nd movement (Andante tranquillo sostenuto), -------by I. Philipp and P. Bazelaire (1935, Path6),Isidor Philipp, electrical recording GEMM 9174 (1995). (1919), Camille Saint`Valse mignonne', acoustic recording by C. Saint-Saans -------Saens,SYMPOSIUM 1031, copy from The British Library National SoundArchive. `Valse mignonne', Welte-Mignon piano roll by C. Saint-Sams (1905), The --------

Piano Interpretation,ARCHIPHON- (1992). 106 Approachto 19th-Century Closest

Op. by R., Schumann, `Fantasiestcke 12Nos. 1-3', acousticrecording I.J. Paderewski (1912),ThePiano Library, PL 182(1995). `Frauenliebe -lebenOp. 42', BBC live recordingby K. FerrierandB. Walter und -------Schumann Brahms, Decca,Mono from the 1949EdinburghFestival,Schubert, and 6BB197-8(1975).
`RomanceOp. 32 No. 3', electrical recording by F. Plantb (1928), Ricardo Vines -------Francis Plante: A Selection of their f nest recordings, OPAL 9857 (1994). and `Trumerei Op. 15 No. 7', acoustic recording by A. Grnfeld (1913), Alfred -------Grnfeld, OPAL 9850 (1993). `Warum ? Op. 12 No. 3', electrical recording by 0. Gabrilowitsch (1924), Ossip -------Gabrilowitsch: His issuedand unissuedrecordings, VAI Audio, IPA 1018 (1992). Op. 12 No. 3', Welte-Mignon piano roll by C. Reinecke (1905), The -------`Warum ClosestApproach to 19th-Century Piano Interpretation, ARCHIPHON-106 (1992).

448

CD Track references

Chapter 2, CD 1
1. Beethoven Concerto Op. 48, first movement, bars 1 to 5, StevenLubin and the Academy of Ancient Music. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Leschetizky. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, La Forge.

2. 3.

4. 5. 6.
7. 8.

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Powell. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars26 to 31, Pachmann. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Rosenthal.
Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 13 to 72, Brahms. Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 13 to 72, Brahms, denoisedversion 1 by Berger and Nicols. Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 13 to 72, Brahms, denoisedversion 2 by Berger and Nicols.

9.

10.
11.

3 by BrahmsHungarianDanceNo. 1, bars 13to 72, Brahms,denoised version BergerandNicols.

Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 13 to 72, Brahms, denoisedversion 4 by Berger and Nicols.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 1 to 8, Saint-Saans. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 1 to 8, D'Albert. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars I to 8, Pugno. ChopinValseOp. 34 No. 1, bars272 to 275, Pugno. Op. 12No. 3, bars 1 to 12,Reinecke. Warum? Schumann Op. 12No. 3, bars 1to 12,Gabrilowitsch. Warum? Schumann bars I to 4, Reinecke. Mozart Larghettoarr. by Reinecke,

449

19. 20.
21. 22. 23. 24.

bars9 to 12,Reinecke. MozartLarghetto by Reinecke, arr. Op. Warum? 12No. 3, Paderewski. Schumann
Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bars 1 to 4, Paderewski. Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bars I to 4, Pachmann. Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bars 1 to 4, Samaroff. BeethovenMoonlight Sonata Op. 27 No. 2, first movement,Paderewski.

25.

bars1 to 9, MoonlightSonataOp. 27 No. 2, first movement, Beethoven Friedman. ChopinPreludeOp. 28 No. 7, Busoni.
Op. 71 No. 7, bars 23 to 25, Grieg. Grieg Remembrances

26.
27.

28.
29. 30. 31.

Op. Grieg Sonata 7, Finale,bars74 to 76, Grieg.

Grieg Bridal Procession Op. 19 No. 2, bars 43 to 45, Ronald. Grieg Dance caprice Op. 28 No. 3, Ronald. Mozart ' Voi the sapete', piano introduction, Ronald.

32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

Op. 15No. 7, Grnfeld. Trumerei Schumann ChopinEtudeOp. 25 No. 2, bar 1, Plant. K MozartFantasie 475,bar 1, Leschetizky. Op. Warum? 12No. 3, bars5 and6, Hofmann. Schumann ChopinValseOp. 64 No. 2, bars 1 to 5, Hofmann. Concerto 37, second Op. bars 1 to 12,Hambourg. Beethoven movement, bars 1 to 9, Gieseking. AndanteandRondoCapriccioso, Mendelssohn Op. BrahmsIntermezzo 119No. 2, bars 1 to 4, Eibenschtz. BrahmsWaltz Op. 39 No. 15,Eibenschtz. BrahmsWaltz Op. 39 No. 15,Eibenschtz.

450 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. Brahms RhapsodyOp. 79 No. 2, bars 1 to 8, de Lara. Brahms Intermezzo Op. 117No. 1, bars 1 to 6, de Lara. Schumann Warum?Op. 12 No. 3, bars 1 to 16, de Lara. SchumannKinderszenenOp. 15, first movement, Davies. SchumannConcerto Op. 54, first movement, bars 1 to 19, Davies Brahms SonataOp. 7, first movement, bars 1 to 16, Freund.

48. 49.

Op. bars 1 to 10,Freund. BrahmsSonata 7, second movement, Op. bars 1 to 20, Moiseiwitsch. ChopinSonata 58, third movement,

451

CD Track references

Chapter 3, CD 2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Mozart Fantasie,bars 15 to 18, Leschetizky. Mozart Fantasie,bars 21 to 22, Leschetizky. Mozart Fantasie,bar 25, Leschetizky. Mozart Fantasie,bar 26, Leschetizky. Mozart Fantasie,bar 33, Leschetizky. Mozart Fantasie,bars 83 and 84, Leschetizky. Mozart Fantasie,bar 95, Leschetizky.

8.
9. 10.

bars86 to 93, Leschetizky. MozartFantasie,

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 10, Leschetizky. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 13, Leschetizky.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars32 and33, Leschetizky. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 37, Leschetizky. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars71 to 74, Leschetizky. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars 11 to 13,Powell. half of bar 32 andfirst half of bar 33, ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, second Powell. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars71 to 74, Powell. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars55 and56, La Forge. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 61, La Forge. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars71 to 74, La Forge.

452
20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bars 2 to 4, Pachmann Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, bars 1 to 12, Paderewski. Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 1, bars 1 and 2, Paderewski. Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 6 to 9, Pugno. Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 12 and 13, Pugno. Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 20 and 21, Pugno.

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

ChopinValseOp. 34 No. 1 bars 17to 21, Pugno. bars I to 10,Reinecke. MozartLarghettoarr. by Reinecke, bars 15to 19,Reinecke. MozartLarghettoarr. by Reinecke, bars29 to 30, Reinecke. MozartLarghettoarr.by Reinecke, Op. Warum? 12No. 3, bar 20, Reinecke. Schumann Op. 12No. 3, bars34 to 42, Reinecke. Warum? Schumann Op. 12No. 3, bars 1 to 4, Reinecke. Warum? Schumann Op. 12No. 3, bars 10to 12,Paderewski. Warum? Schumann Op. 12No. 3, bars27 to 29, Paderewski. Warum? Schumann Op. 12No. 3, bars35 to 40, Paderewski. Warum? Schumann D'AuvergneOp. 73, bars 18 and 19, Saint-Saans. Saint-Sams Rhapsodie D'AuvergneOp. 73, bars40 and44, Saint-Safts. Rhapsodie Saint-Saens ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars6 and 7, Saint-Saans. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 17to 19,Saint-Saans. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 17to 21, Busoni. BrahmsBalladeOp. 118No. 3, bar 10,Eibenschtz. BrahmsBalladeOp. 118No. 3, bar 21, Eibenschtz.

453

43. 44.

BrahmsBalladeOp. 118No. 3, bars33 to 35, Eibenschtz. Op. BrahmsIntermezzo 117No. 1, bars 1 to 26, deLara.

454

CD Track references

Chapter 4, CD 3
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 39 and 40, Brahms. Joachim Romancein C, bars 154 and 155,Joachim. Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1, secondmovement, bar 7, Saint-Saens. Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1, secondmovement, bar 71, Saint-Satins. Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1 secondmovement, bar 70, Saint-Satns. Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1 secondmovement, bar 53, Saint-Satns.

7. 8.
9. 10. 11. 12.

Op. bars91 and92, Saint-Satns. Sonata 31 No. 1 second Beethoven movement, Op. bar Sonata 31 No. I second Beethoven movement, 27, Saint-Sates.
Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1 secondmovement, bar 65, Saint-Sates. Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars i to 5, Saint-Sates. Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 10 to 12, Saint-Sates. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 31, Leschetizky.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 36, Leschetizky. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 57, Leschetizky. in JoachimRomance C, bars40 and41, Joachim. JoachimRomance C, bars 116to 120,Joachim. in Bellini CastaDiva, bars44 to 47, Patti. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars39 to 43, Leschetizky. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 50, Leschetizly. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 14,Powell.

455

21.
22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 40, Powell.

Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 58 and 59, Powell. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 53 and 54, Powell. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 11, Powell. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bar 36, Powell. Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1, secondmovement, bar 15, Saint"Saans. Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1, secondmovement, bar 37, Saint-Satins.

28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.

bar Op. Sonata 31 No. 1, second Beethoven movement, 78, Saint-Satins. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bar 12,Saint-Satins. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars23 and24, Saint-Saans. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 1 and2, Pugno. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bar 13,Pugno. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 20, La Forge. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 10,Rosenthal. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bar 26, Rosenthal. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 18to 21, Saint-Saans. bars 17to 21, Grieg. Op. Grieg Sonata 7, third movement, Op. GriegHumoresque 6 No. 2, bars21 to 26, Grieg. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 1, bars 1 to 8, Paderewski. Op. Sonata 31 No. 1, second bars26 to 29, Saint-Saens. Beethoven movement, Bellini CastaDiva, bar 32, Patti. bars 14to 17,Reinecke. Mozart Larghettoarr. by Reinecke, bars30 to 33, Reinecke. MozartLarghettoarr, by Reinecke,

456

44. 45.
46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

bar MozartLarghetto by Reinecke, 46, Reinecke. arr. Op. Romanze 32 No. 3, bars33 to 62, Plante. Schumann
Beethoven SonataOp. 31 No. 1, secondmovement, bars 1 to 3, Saint-Saans. Bellini Cast Diva, bars 20 and 21, Patti. Bellini Cast Diva, bar 41, Patti. Bellini Cast Diva, bars 43 to 45, Patti. Joachim Romancein C, bars 66 to 68, Joachim.

51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66.

JoachimRomance C, bars133and 134,Joachim, in in JoachimRomance C, bars19to 24, Joachim. Joachim Romance C, bars41 to 43, Joachim. in JoachimRomance C, bars52 and53, Joachim. in Op. Sonata 31 No. 1, second bar Beethoven movement, 13,Saint-Saans. Op. Sonata 31 No. 1, second bars77 and78, Saint-Satins. Beethoven movement, ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars6 to 9, Leschetizky. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No, 2, bars27 to 31, Pachmann. Op. Sonata 31 No. 1, second bars65 to 68, Saint-Saens. Beethoven movement, Op. bars71 and72, Saint-Saans. Sonata 31 No. 1, second Beethoven movement, Op. Sonata 31 No. 1, second Beethoven bars93 and94, Saint-Saans. movement, ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 18 to 24, Saint-Saens. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars51 to 53, Leschetizky. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars20 to 22, Powell. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars28 to 30, Powell. Sonata No. I Op. 32, second Saint"Saans bars7 to 11,Philipp and movement, Bazelaire.

457

67. 68. 69.

70. 71. 72. 73. 74.

ChopinNocturneOp. 9 No. 1, bars 1 to 4, Hofmann. Op. Warum? 12No. 3, bars 1 to 8, Hofmann. Schumann Op. Grieg,Bridal Procession 19No. 2, bars 1 to 12,Grainger.
Grieg, Bridal ProcessionOp. 19 No. 2, bars 1 to 12, Grieg. Brahms Intermezzo Op. 117No. 2, bars 26 to 29, Freund. Brahms Intermezzo Op. 117No. 2, bars 26 to 29, Gieseking. Brahms SonataOp. 5, secondmovement, bars 1 to 24 including repeat,Freund. Brahms SonataOp. 5, secondmovement, bars 66 to 76, Freund.

75. 76. 77.

bars26 to 38, Freund. Op. BrahmsSonata 5, first movement, Op. BrahmsIntermezzo 116No. 2, bars 1 to 18,Freund. Op. BrahmsIntermezzo 117No. 1,bars 1 to 20, de Lara.

458

CD Track references

Chapter 5, CD 4
1. 2 3. 4. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Leschetizky. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, La Forge. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Godowski. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Powell.

5. 6. 7. 8.
9. 10.

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Rosenthal. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Solomon. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Harasiewicz. ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars I to 9, Weissenberg.
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars I to 9, Barenboim. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Rev.

11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

ChopinNocturneOp. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 9, Stott. Op. Sonata 31 No. 1, second bars9 to 12,Saint-Satins. Beethoven movement, Op. bars 16to 26, Saint-Saans. Sonata 31 No. 1, second Beethoven movement, ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 16 to 24, Saint-Saans,
Chopin Nocturne Op. 15 No. 2, bars 25 to 48, Saint-Saans. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 27 to 29, Pachmann. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 4 and 5, Rosenthal. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 10 to 14, Rosenthal. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 36 to 39, Rosenthal. Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 10 to 16, La Forge.

459

21. 22.
23. 24. 25. 26.

ChopinNocturneOp.27 No. 2, bars 18to 21, Powell. ChopinNocturneOp.27 No. 2, bars31 to 33, Powell.
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 55 to 57, Powell. Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 13 to 72, Brahms. Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 13 to 72, Brahms, denoisedversion. Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 13 to 72, Brahms, denoisedversion.

27.
28.

BrahmsHungarianDanceNo. 1, bars 13to 72, Brahms,denoised version.

Brahms Hungarian Dance No. 1, bars 13 to 72, Brahms, denoisedversion.

29.

BrahmsHungarianDanceNo. 1, bars 13to 72, Brahms,denoised versionwith electronicoverlay. BrahmsTrio Op. 40, bars 1 to 171,Busch,Brain andSerkin. Op. 12No. 3, entiremovement, Warum? Reinecke. Schumann bars 1 to 64, Reinecke. by MozartLarghettoarr. Reinecke, K MozartFantasie 475,bars 1 to 124,Leschetizky.
Chopin Nocturne Op. 27 No. 2, bars 1 to 46, Leschetizky.

30. 31. 32. 33.

34.

35.
36.

Op. bars 1 to 8, Grieg. GriegPianoSonata 7, third movement,

Grieg To Spring Op. 43 No. 6, entire movement, Grieg.

37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

Op. Grieg. GriegRemembrances 71 No. 7, entiremovement, bars81 to 89, Grieg. GriegPiano SonataOp. 7, fourth movement, bars307to 343,Grieg. GriegPiano SonataOp. 7, fourth movement, ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars 1 to 26, Pugno. ChopinNocturneOp. 15No. 2, bars25 to 48, Pugno. Des Schumann AbendsOp. 12No. 1, bars 1 to 16 with repeat,Paderewski.

460

43. 44. 45
46. 47. 48. 49.

Op. 12No. 1, bars 17to 38 with repeat, Paderewski. Des Schumann Abends Op. 12No. 1, bars74 to 88 with repeat, Paderewski. Des Schumann Abends Op. Aufschwung 12No. 2, bars 1 to 70, Paderewski. Schumann
SchumannAufschwung Op. 12 No. 2, bars 71 to 114,Paderewski. Schumann Warum?Op. 12 No. 3, entire movement, Paderewski. SchumannWarum? Op. 12 No. 3, entire work, Hofmann. Chopin Nocturne Op. 9 No. 1, bars I to 16, Hofmann.

50. 51. 52. 53.

Op. BrahmsIntermezzo 117No. 2, bars I to 30, Gieseking. Op. BrahmsIntermezzo 117No. 2, bars 1 to 30, Freund. BrahmsCapriccioOp. 76 No. 1,bars 1 to 26, Gieseking. BrahmsCapriccioOp. 76 No. 1, bars 1 to 26, Freund.

461

Appendix A
Cited in The Reproducing Piano Roll Foundation website http://www. rprf. org/index.htmi

CARL REINECKE
TRIP.HONOLA 50018 BEETHOVEN-REINECKE - Ecossaisen(Scottish Dances)Eb 50198 HAYDN - Piano Sonata,Eb 3rd mvt. 50206 HILLER - Marcia Giocosa (Playful March) Op. 55, No. 1

K. 50318MOZART - PianoSonata, 331,A 2nd mvt.

50319 MOZART - Piano Sonata,K. 332, F 2nd mvt.

50349REINECKE- Ballade,Op. 20 50351REINECKE- Nutcrackerandthe MouseKing, Op. 46: Overture(w/Margarete Reinecke) No. 23, K. 488,A 2nd mvt. 50632MOZART-REINECKE- PianoConcerto K. 50634MOZART - PianoSonata, 332,F 1stmvt.
50774 MOZART - Piano Concerto No. 26, K. 537, D 2nd mvt. (Also: AMPICO 6639)

Op. 16,No. 6 51247SCHUMANN- Kreisleriana, 51587MOZART-REINECKE- Minuet, Bb 51831FIELD - NocturneNo. 4, A Op. 52128REINECKE- Blumenlieder(FlowerSongs) 276,No. 10 Op. 52403BEETHOVEN- PianoSonata, 28, D "Pastoral" 2nd mvt.

462 K. 53916MOZART - Fantasia, 475,c & Ballet(w/Margarete 55584REINECKE- Nutcracker the MouseKing, Op. 46: Schafer Reinecke)
55585 REINECKE - Nutcracker & the Mouse King, Op. 46: ChristmasEve (w/Margarete Reinecke) 55587 REINECKE - Nocturne, Op. 157, No. 1 55588 REINECKE - Traumfriedel, Op. 278 WELTE

Op. ) 168SCHUMANN- "Fantasiestcke", 12,No. 3: Warum?(Why? K. 181MOZART - PianoSonata, 333,Bb 2nd mvt. K. 182MOZART - PianoSonata, 331,A 3rd mvt. "Rondo6 la Turque" (ScottishDances) WoO 86 Eb 184BEETHOVEN- Ecossaisen Op. 204 REINECKE- Gondoliera, 86,No. 3 (Also: ART-ECHO2105) to 219 REINECKE- Prelude Act V of the Opera"King Manfred" No. 237 MOZART - PianoConcerto 26, K. 537,D 2nd mvt.

463

Appendix B

Fig. IA

Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bars 47 and 48. '

47

pi mosso

rL2

IL

, .

Fig. 1B

Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bars 47 and 48, ed. Klindworth. `

..--..

'Itl.

1Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 86. 2 Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. I', ed. Klindworth, 58.

464

Fig 2.A

Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bar 52.' Chopin

Fig. 2B

Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bar 52, ed. Klindworth. 4

r-' 4

3 Chopin, `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 86. 4 Chopin, `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, 58.

465

Fig. 3A

Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bar 56.5

56

Fig. 3B

Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bar 56, ed. Klindworth. "

_ 1'

5 Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 87. 6 Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, 58.

466 Fig. 4A Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bars 57 and 58 .'

-5
`i.

*.

**0

Fig. 4B

Op. 55 No. 1, bars 57 and 58, ed. Klindworth. K Chopin Nocturne

7 Chopin `NocturnesOp. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 87. "Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. I', ed. Klindworth, 59.

467

Fig. 5A

Op. 55 No. 1, bars 59 and 63.' Chopin Nocturne

t:

ra

`iJ.

7i.

eJ. `,

*1

`' Chopin `NocturnesOp. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 87. N. B. the asterix above the first chord in the hand refers to an alternative version in the first French edition that indicates an arpeggio right indicated in the autograph.This arpeggio sign applies to both bar 59 and bar 63. sign not

"'

SOMME

468

Fig. 5B

Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bars 59 and 63, ed. Klindworth. "'

Nei.

-, -*-

To.

Fig. 6A

Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bar 69. "

Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 87.

59.

469

Fig. 6B

Chopin Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1, bar 69, ed. Klindworth. 12

(5 cJ.

R:

Fig. 7A

Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', bar 87.'3

87

'u.

12Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. F, ed. Klindworth, 59. Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 89.

470

Fig. 7B

Op. 55 No. 1', bar 87, ed. Klindworth. 14 Chopin `Nocturne

Fig. 8A

5 `Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1', bar 10.1 Chopin

10

Tempo

14Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, 60. 15 Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', cd. Csalog, 112.

471

Fig. 8B

Op. 72 No. 1', bar 10, ed. Klindworth. 16 Chopin `Nocturne

Fig. 9A

Chopin `Nocturne Op. 72 No. V, bar 12.17

Fig. 9B

Op. 72 No. 1', bar 12, ed. Klindworth. "' Chopin `Nocturne

Tt.

:#

'il.

l" Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, 73. 1' Chopin `Nocturnes Op. 72 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 112. 18 Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, 73.

472

Fig. 10A
-L

Chopin Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1, bar 14.19

tn, rv. R"

Fig. 10B

Chopin Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1, bar 14, ed. Klindworth. "'

l9 Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 112. 20Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, 73.

473

Fig. 11A

Chopin `Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1', bar 26.21

y,. i.

Fig. II B

Chopin `Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1', bar 26, ed. Klindworth. 22

__

__. _

.s

_;
y.

......... _... _..

_.. - --.. _. _.. _.... _T .. -_.

_ _.. _. __.

`'"'

``

21Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 113. 22Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, 74.

474

Fig. 12A

Chopin Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1, bar 41.23

Fig. 12B

Op. 72 No. 1, bar 41, ed, Klindworth. 24 Chopin Nocturne

1f

'>

_' cD.ate

23Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 114. 24Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. F, ed. Klindworth, 75.

475

Fig. 13A

Chopin Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1, bar 46.25

-ja 15
f

Fig. 13B

Chopin Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1, bar 46, ed. Klindworth. 26

. 44- ..

r3 9--

-.

--.

1 .. _._ _...

:c

20Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth,

25Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Csalog, 115.

75.

476

Fig. 14A

Chopin Nocturne Op. 72 No. 1, bar 57.27

Fig. 14B

Op. 72 No. 1, bar 57, ed. Klindworth. 28 Chopin Nocturne

A.

2' Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1' ed. Csalog, 114. 28Chopin `Nocturne Op. 55 No. 1', ed. Klindworth, 75.

477

Appendix C

Fig. 1A

K bars 16and 17.1 Mozart Sonata 310,first movement,

Fig. 1B

Mozart SonataK 310, first movement, bars 16 and 17, ed. Potter.2

Z-; 1:,

-eg

1Mozart `Piano Sonatas', Urtext of the New Mozart Edition, ed. Wolfgang Rehm (Kassel, Basel, London and New York, Brenreiter, 1986) vol. 1,122. 2 Mozart Sonata K 310, ed. Potter, 107.

478

Fig. 2A

K bars57 to 66. MozartSonata 310, first movement,

3Mozart `PianoSonatas', WolfgangRehm,vol. 1,124. cd.

479 Fig. 2B Mozart SonataK 310, first movement, bars 57 to 68, ed. Potter.4

"

, .

4MozartSonataK 310, ed. Potter,110.

480

Fig. 3A

bars 118and 119.5 K Mozart Sonata 310, first movement,

Fig. 3B

6 Mozart SonataK 310, first movement, bars 118 to 119, ed. Potter.

.a ,,-}

Cresc. "' L'`-"^'-----

.--

s Mozart, 'Piano Sonatas',ed. Wolfgang Rehm, vol. 1,127. 6 Mozart Sonata K 310, ed. Potter, 113.

481 Fig. 4A K MozartSonata 310, first movement, bars 126and 127.7

127

Fig. 4B

8 K Mozart Sonata 310,first movement, bars 126and 127,ed.Potter.

r : I? tii .. 'S'oej}s". . q f. C(', 1'Vil^'r}r *''"ii, . F, i.

7 Mozart `Piano Sonatas', ed. Wolfgang Rehm, vol. 1,127. 8 Mozart Sonata K 310, ed. Potter, 113.

482 Fig. 5A bars2 and3.9 K Mozart Sonata 310, second movement,

Fig. 5B

10 Mozart SonataK 310, secondmovement, bars 2 and 3, ed. Potter,

9 Mozart, `Piano Sonatas', ed. Wolfgang Rehm, vol. 1,128. 1Mozart, Sonata K 310, ed. Potter, 114.

483 Fig. 6A 1 bar 27.1 K 310, second MozartSonata movement,

Fig. 6B

12 Mozart SonataK 310, secondmovement, bar 27, ed. Potter.

.:.

11 Mozart `Piano Sonatas', ed. Wolfgang Rehm, vol. 1,129. 12Mozart Sonata K 310, cd. Potter, 115.

484

Fig. 7A

K MozartSonata 310, second bars39 to 42.13 movement,

Fig. 7B

Mozart SonataK 310, secondmovement, bars 39 to 42, ed. Potter.14

ZO. --

13 Mozart 'PianoSonatas', WolfgangRehm,vol. 1,130. ed. 14 MozartSonataK 310, ed.Potter,116.

485

Fig. 7A

K Mozart Sonata 310,second bars39 to 42.15 movement,

Fig. 7B

Mozart SonataK 310, secondmovement, bars 39 to 42, ed. Potter.16

ma. --,

'5 Mozart `Piano Sonatas', ed. Wolfgang Rehm, vol. 1,130. 16Mozart Sonata K 310, ed. Potter, 116.

486

Appendix D

Fig. 1A

SonataPathetique Op. 13, first movement,bars I and 11 Beethoven

Grave

+w

1 Ludwig van Beethoven `Sonata Pathetique Op. 13', Urtext, ed. Istvi n MArit ssy and Tams Zszkaliczky (Budapest, Knemann Music, 1994), 156.

487 Beethoven Sonata Pathetique Op. 13, first movement, bars 1 and 3, ed. Potter. 2

Fig. IB

=60.

2 BeethovenSonata Yathetique Op. 13, ed. Cipriani Potter (London, R. Mills, 1854), 1.

488

Fig. 2A

BeethovenSonata Puthetique Op. 13, first movement,bar 133.3

L1

Tempo I

f
III iN

J)

4_

Fig. 2B

4 BeethovenSonata Puthetique Op. 13, first movement, bar 133,ed. Potter.

i =6O_CRAVE.

Fig. 3A

BeethovenSonata Pathitique Op. 13, secondmovement, bar 9.5

Beethoven `SonataPathetiqueOp. 13', ed. Mrissy and Zszkaliczky, 160. 4 BeethovenSonata Pathetique Op. 13, ed. Cipriani Potter, 4.

489

Fig. 3B

BeethovenSonataPuihelique Op. 13, secondmovement,bar 9, ed. Potter.6

cantando.

Fig. 4A

' BeethovenSonata Puthetique Op. 13, secondmovement, bar 16.

s Beethoven, `Sonata Pathetique Op. 13', ed. Mdrissy and Zszkaliczky, 166. 6 Beethoven Sonata Pathelique Op. 13, ed. Cipriani Potter, 9.

Beethoven `SonataPathetique' Op. 13, ed. Mrissy and Zszkaliczky, 166.

490

Fig. 4B

Sonata Pathetique Op. 13, second movement, bar 16, ed. Beethoven 8 Potter.

Fig. 5A

bar 29.`' Op. 13, secondmovement, BeethovenSonata Puthclique

SBeethovenSonata Pathetique Op. 13, ed. Cipriani Potter, 9.

491

Fig. SB

BeethovenSonata Pathetique Op. 13, secondmovement, bar 29, ed. 10 Potter.

Fig. 6A

BeethovenSonata Puthetique Op. 13, secondmovement, bars 51 and 52.11

' Beethoven `Sonata Pathetique' Op. 13, ed. Mrissy and Zszkaliczky, 167. 10Beethoven Sonata Patheiique Op. 13, ed. Cipriani Potter, 9.

k _'. r; N:

492

ci

Fig. 6B

BeethovenSonata I'athetique Op. 13, secondmovement, bar 52, ed. '2 Potter.

Fig. 7A

BeethovenSonata Palhetique Op. 13, secondmovement, bar 59.11

11Beethoven `SonataPathetiqueOp. 13', ed. Mrissy and Zszkaliczky, 168. 12BeethovenSonata l'athctique Op. /3, ed. Cipriani Potter, 11.

493

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Fig. 7B

BeethovenSonata Pathetique Op. 13, secondmovement, bar 59, ed. 14

Potter.

Fig. 8A

Beethoven Sonata Puthetique Op. 13, third movement, bars 15 to 27.5

1' Beethoven `SonataPathetique' Op. 13, ed. Mrissy and Zszkaliczky, 169. 14BeethovenSonata I athctique Op. 13, ed. Cipriani Potter, 11.

494

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17 #4

Fig. 8B

BeethovenSonata Pathetique Op. 13, third movement, bars 15 to 27, ed. Potter.' 6
II

Fig. 9A

Beethoven Sonata 1'uthetique Op. 13, third movement, bar 75.17

15 Beethoven `SonataPathetiqueOp. 13', ed. MArissyand Zszkaliczky, 170. 16 BeethovenSonata I'athetique Op. 13, ed. Cipriani Potter, 12.

495

Fig. 9B

SonataPathetique Op. 13, third movement, bar 75, ed. Potter.18 Beethoven

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. ..

17 Beethoven `SonataPathBtiqueOp. 13, ed. Mrissy and Zaszkaliczky, 172. 18BeethovenSonata Pathetique Op. 13, ed. Cipriani Potter, 14.

496

Appendix E

Fig. IA

BeethovenMoonlight Sonata Op. 27 No. 1, first movement, bars 6 and 7.

Ia

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Fig. IB

BeethovenMoonlight Sonata Op. 27 No. 1, first movement, bars 6 and 7, 2 ed. Potter.

' Beethoven `Moonlight SonataOp. 27 No. 1', Sonatas for The Piano/nrte, ed. Charles Halle (London, Chappell & Co., c. 1880), 199. 2 BeethovenMoonlight Sonata Op. 27 No. 1, ed. Cipriani Potter (London, R. Mills, 1854), 2.

497

Fig. 2A

BeethovenMoonlight Sonata Op.27 No. 1, first movement,bars 52 to 54.'

Fig. 2B

BeethovenMoonlight Sonata Op.27 No. 1, first movement, bars 52 to 54, Potter.4 ed.

3 Beethoven, `Moonlight SonataOp. 27 No 1', ed. Halle, 201. . ' BeethovenMoonlight Sonala Op. 27 No. 1, ed. Cipriani Potter (London, R. Mills, 1854), 4.

498

Appendix F

Fig. IA

Beethoven Sonata Op. 2 No. 1, first movement, bars 47 and 48.1

4a

Fig. 1B

Beethoven SonataOp. 2 No. 1, first movement, bars 47 and 48, ed. 2 Dorrell.

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`

1Beethoven `SonataOp. 2 No. I', ed. Mrissy and Zszkaliczky, 7. 2 Beethoven `SonataOp. 2 No. 1', ed. Dowell, 1.

4')9 Beethoven Sonata Op. 2 No. 1, first movement, bars 146 to 148.'

Fig. 2A

6
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.T

Fig. 2B

BeethovenSonataOp. 2 No. 1, first movement, bars 146 to bar 148, ed. 4 Dorrell.

ff

ff

500

Fig. 3A

BeethovenSonataOp. 22, secondmovement,bar 13.5

tr

Fig. 3B

Op. 22, secondmovement, bar 13, ed. Dorrell. 6 BeethovenSonata

5 Beethoven, `SonataOp. 22', ed. Mrissy and Zdszkaliczky, 220. 6 Beethoven, `SonataOp. 22', ed. Dowell, 139.

501

Fig. 4A

BeethovenSonataOp. 22, secondmovement,bar 58 .'

Ir

Fig. 4B

BeethovenSonataOp. 22, secondmovement, bar 58, ed. Dorrell. 8

KD.

7 Beethoven `Sonata Op. 22', ed. Mnssy and Zszkaliczky, 223. Beethoven `Sonata Op. 22', ed. Dorrell, 141.

502

Appendix G
Germer, Tempo ruba#o! 37 Ititardando

VL Wenn sich jedoch suit de:u ein l)inuinuendeverbindet, wie gleichzeitig dies bei berleitenden Stellen fters der Fall ist, so hte man sich vor Uebertreibung, lasse derselben nicht zu frh erfolgen und entferne sich nicht zu wert vom den Eintritt Tempo. Denn sonst liegt die Gefahr nahe, dass du Spiel nicht mehr interessirt" und die 1 Zuhrer der Langeweile verfallent -VII. S. Bach und F. Hndel werden zur Verzgerung des Tempos sehr selten Gelegenheit darbieten, Mozart und Beethoven schon mehr, besonders in Ihren lyrischen Sitzen, am meisten aber F. Chopin, R. Schumann und F. Schubert.

zehntel" meist auch =Grunde, die melodisch wichtigste, vielleicht auch die hchste Note der Figur zu verlngern. a + ^'* ^12 .iis a4w Tmlrthi11ft.
----3--%--. 0-*A 18tlvilf18PT QA-

II. Zuweilen werden kleinere Notengruppen rhythmischverndert. Drei Noten, die z. B. als Triolenachtel notirt sind, werdenals oder umgeund 2 Sechszehntel" Achtel 1 ehrt ausgefhrt;oder Quintolenachtel werden als 2 Sechszehntel, Achtel und 2 SechsInterpretirt. Solchen freien Vernderungen liegt der Gedanke

Bezeichnung nur sehr entfernt und unvollkommen an; Uebersetzung:. oder raubendes Zeitmaass" wird uns kaum die Sachedeutlicher geraubtes ist Das eigentlich dabei selten betheiligt, sondern mehr der Takt und der machen. Tempo" der taktischen und rhythmischen Eintheilung erlaubt sich der Rhythmus; denn: innerhalb Spieler dabei Aenderangen. Note Im Takte verlingert I. Oefters wird nur eine, die melodisch bedeutsamste ausgehalten. Da die begleitendeHand, - wie dies z. B. von Mozart als bewundertesCharak. teristikum erzhlt wird, - streng im Takte fortapielt, so muss den nachfolgenden Noten soviel von ihrem Werthe geraubt" werden, als der verlngerten zugelegt wurde, d. h. sie gespielt werden. Diese Art von Rabatoll stellt sich bei mssenum soviel beschleunigter dem Vortrage von blelodieen wie Passagensehr hufig ein: da ja eine accentnirte Note bei Verlngerung sich wegen der Obertne dem Ohre eher und besser als die gleichzeitiger wichtigste prsentirt, als wenn sie nur durch den Accent hervorgehobenwird.

Chopin berichtenuns Ihre Zeitgenossen, dass Von Mozart, Beethoven und besonders bei ihren Klaviervortrgeneinen oft frappirendenGebrauchvon dem Tempo rubato'"gesie ' machthaben. Worin bestehtdas Eigenthmliche solcherSpielmanier? denn die deutet Die die Sache

c. Vom Tempo rubato,

1Heinrich Germer, Wie spielt man klavier? Op. 30,36.